Sustainable Aboriginal Housing in Canada A Case Study Report

Johann Kyser, Student Housing Intern

For the HSC-CPNet@Western Housing Intern and Scholar Programme*

December 2011

*The Housing Internship and Scholar Programme is organized and run by CPNet’s Associate Executive Director Professor Michael Buzzelli. Foundational funding is provided by the Housing Services Corporation. The programme’s overall aim is to develop Canada’s housing research and policy capacity by attracting and retaining the best and the brightest in the housing sector. The programme is an intensive policy research training experience that results in the publication of original housing research. For more information on HSC research, go to www.hscorp.ca The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Housing Services Corporation or CPNet. CPNet CPNet is a not-for-profit, independent think-tank affiliated with the University of Western Ontario. www.cp-net.ca

Housing Services Corporation (HSC) Housing Services Corporation (HSC) is an independent, self-sustaining organization that delivers programs and services to Ontario’s social housing sector in energy management, investments, insurance, bulk purchasing, asset management, social innovation, training and research. With its research, policy and networks unit, its investments in research and its housing internship and scholar program, it is one of the biggest contributors to social housing research in Canada. http://www.hscorp.ca

Table of Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................. 1

Executive Summary ............................................................................................. 2

Glossary ................................................................................................................ 3

Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6

Methodology and Research Design ................................................................... 9

Literature Review ............................................................................................... 11

Seabird Island First Nation: Case Study ......................................................... 21

Saugeen First Nation: Case Study .................................................................. 35

Treaty 7 First Nations: Case Study ................................................................. 44

Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................... 64

Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Design .......................................... 68

Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Policy ........................................... 69

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... 71

1

Abstract

This report presents strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal

housing design and related policy in Canada. Research adopts a systems

thinking approach, drawing not only on current housing conditions and policies,

but also on broader technological, cultural and historical contexts as important

considerations for design at the project level. Of particular interest is the potential

of green building methods and clean technologies to address key issues

prevalent in contemporary Aboriginal communities. As emerging sectors, green

building and clean technologies present new challenges and opportunities.

Understanding how these may be further influenced by implementation in

Aboriginal contexts is central to the research objectives. Cultural design

considerations are also explored for their potential to address key issues and

improve current conditions, bridging gaps that have emerged between traditional

and contemporary housing knowledge and practices. Specific attention is

directed to appropriateness as a means of fostering identity, sense of ownership,

and responsibility for the home. Findings are based on a literature review,

exploratory case studies of pilot projects, and applied research in sustainable

Aboriginal housing. Data collected through key informant interviews, document

review and observation is subjected to stakeholder and SWOT (strengths,

weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analyses, providing the basis for assessment

and strategic recommendations.

--

Important notes: this report contributes to an area of study that is undergoing

continuous development. For example, conditions in the communities studied

and outcomes specific to their pilot projects may also have evolved since the

initial data was collected. CMHC also recently released material on sustainable

housing that could not be integrated into the original literature review.

Lastly, while all of the case studies herein were conducted with First Nations,

literature and observation indicate similar issues, challenges and opportunities

related to housing in other Aboriginal (Métis and Inuit) communities. The report’s

exploration of green building methods, clean technologies, and cultural design

considerations may therefore also prove relevant in these contexts. For

inclusiveness, the term ‘Aboriginal’ has been applied throughout the text.

2

Executive Summary

This report presents strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal

housing design and related policy in Canada. Findings are based on three

exploratory case studies of sustainable housing pilot projects in Aboriginal

communities, selected for their use of emerging green building methods and

clean technologies. The cases confirm the potential of these strategies to

address key issues and problematic conditions in this context, including provision

of occupant health and safety, durability, and reduced operating, maintenance

and replacement. The cases also highlight challenges and opportunities to

implementing such strategies, including those specifically faced by Aboriginal

communities. Inadequate design, insufficient economic resources and capacity,

and barriers in law and policy are notable challenges. Unfamiliarity with emerging

methods and technologies is also problematic, and may lead to increased costs

and/or failure to realize benefits. Project success relies upon strong

communication between stakeholders, careful alignment of strategies with

community resources and capacity, and follow-up to determine efficacy and

establish best practices. Incremental implementation may help communities to

conserve resources and mitigate risk. Self-construction and education initiatives

provide important means to foster awareness, responsibility, and capacity. The

cases also offer important insight into cultural design considerations as a means

to increase appropriateness of Aboriginal housing design. This may help to

bridge gaps that have emerged between traditional and contemporary housing

knowledge and practices, with potential to foster sense of identity in, and

subsequent ownership and responsibility for the home.

3

Glossary

Aboriginal – is an umbrella term that includes First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples. There are over 600 distinct Aboriginal groups in Canada, for whom distinct cultural heritage is an integral part of their identity. These represent approximately 1.2 million people, or 3.8% of Canada’s total population (Census Canada 2006).

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) – formerly Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), AANDC is the official federal body that governs relationships between Aboriginal groups and the government of Canada.

Adequacy – one of three indicators used by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) to measure core housing need (CHN), adequacy measures whether a residential unit is in need of significant repair, according to the tenant. INAC’s website (AINC-IANC.gc.ca) provides the formula: Adequate = Total Units - Replacement Required - Major Renovations Required.

Affordability – one of three indicators used by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) to measure core housing need (CHN), based on whether the rental or purchase of a given residential unit is less than 30% of an individual’s or household’s income.

Affordable housing – the definition of affordable housing follows that of CMHC identified above. Affordable housing is distinct from social housing, the former being a measure of cost, the latter being subsidized (Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia 2007).

Affordable Housing Initiative - under the Affordable Housing Initiative (AHI), the federal government, through Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, provides contributions to increase the supply of off- reserve affordable housing, in partnership with provinces and territories. See: http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/inpr/afhoce/fias/fias_005.cfm

Appropriateness –this concept surfaced in the context of Aboriginal housing in literature, case study interviews and observation. Despite this frequency, the term remains ambiguous. This is due in part to the diversity of Aboriginal contexts, which result in equally diverse definitions. One of the objectives of this study is to explore principles that may guide the concept of appropriateness, and its potential to contribute to improved housing. This discussion is related to that surrounding ‘suitability’, as described below.

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) – Canada’s national housing agency.

Certificates of Possession (CPs) – are documents issued under the Indian Act and administered by Band Councils which permit individuals to occupy and use on-reserve land.

Clean technology(-ies) – methods for essential service provision (such as electricity, heat, potable water, and waste water treatment) that offer reduced environmental impact relative to conventional methods.

4

Core Housing Need (CHN) – employed by CMHC, core housing need is a model that accounts for housing conditions in Canada. A household is said to be in core housing need if it falls below one or more standards of adequacy, affordability, or suitability (CMHC 2002).

First Nations – Aboriginal peoples who are of non-mixed Aboriginal heritage (non-Métis), and not Inuit.

Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) – monetary compensation for excess energy that is generated by alternative sources and fed onto an existing energy grid.

Green building – describes methods which prioritize reduces environmental impact and/or occupant health and safety.

Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) – the former title for what is now Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AAND), INAC/AAND is the official federal body that governs relationships between Aboriginal groups and the government of Canada.

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) – is used to describe the quality of indoor environments relative to human health, based on factors such as humidity, off-gassing and other particulates.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) – is a comprehensive tool that examines all stages of a project’s, in order to assess its environmental impact. LCA can be applied to a variety of projects, from consumer products to skyscrapers. In the context of the built environment, LCA includes examination of relationships between material production, transportation, implementation, and decommissioning, environmental impact, and human health.’

First Nations Market Housing Fund – a $300 million dollar fund established by the federal government in 2007, intended to support financing arrangements for housing developments on reserve and settlement lands.

Maximum Unit Price (MUP) – is a policy employed by CMHC which limits the amount of capital that can be spent per unit in a given geographic region.

Ministerial Loan Guarantee (MLG) – provided by AANDC, a ministerial loan guarantee allows individuals and communities to secure housing loans despite the fact that they cannot give a lender the rights to the property.

National Building Code – is the federal document which outlines requirements for design and construction of new buildings and renovations of existing buildings. Specific requirements pertain to safety, health, accessibility, and fire and structural protection.

Ontario First Nations Technical Services Corporation - a corporation responsible for providing technical advice and services to 134 First Nations in Ontario.

R2000 – a voluntary technical performance standard for residential construction, administered by Natural Resources Canada, delivered through service organizations across the country. The aim of R2000 is to promote the use of cost-effective energy-efficient building practices and technologies.

Section 95 – CMHC’s program for on-reserve non-profit housing provision.

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Social housing – subsidized housing developments. Many on-reserve homes will fall under this category. Some communities have rent-to-own programs in place, which may or may not be subsidized. Social housing is distinct from affordable housing, the former denoting subsidization, the latter being a measure of cost (Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia 2007).

Suitability – one of three indicators used by CMHC to measure core housing need (CHN – see affordability, adequacy), suitability indicates whether a unit has a sufficient number of bedrooms relative to occupancy and gender, based on the National Occupancy Standard of Canada. This research is seeking a more comprehensive definition of suitability or appropriateness, and explores how cultural considerations may contribute to this end.

Sustainability – in this context, sustainability is applied to human activity. In March of 1987, the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations defined sustainable development as that which “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations 1987).” Contemporary discussion surrounding sustainability also includes a triple-bottom-line approach (TBL) – that is, the inclusion of environmental, economic, and social spheres. Aboriginal concepts of sustainability experienced in this research center on a similar theme, including ‘seven generations’ as the temporal basis in which our current actions ought to be grounded.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) – are found in various human-made products, including finishes and paints used in interior decoration. These compromise indoor air quality (IAQ) with negative outcomes for occupant health.

6

Introduction

This report presents strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal housing

design and related policy. Green building methods and clean technologies present

opportunity to address key issues in this context by prioritizing occupant health and

safety, reducing costs of operations and maintenance (O&M), and reducing

environmental impact. Simultaneously, as emerging sectors these methods and

technologies present new challenges. Understanding how challenges and

opportunities may be influenced by implementation in Aboriginal contexts is central

to the research objectives. Absence of cultural design considerations in

contemporary Aboriginal housing has also been identified as a potential cause of

housing failures, undermining sense of ownership and subsequent responsibility for

the home. Such considerations are thus explored for their potential to impact

current conditions, by increasing appropriateness and bridging gaps between

traditional and contemporary knowledge and practice.

Recommendations are derived from a literature review, applied research and

multiple exploratory case studies of pilot projects in sustainable Aboriginal housing.

Case studies were selected based on their implementation of green building

methods and clean technologies, in order to:

Confirm and compare key issues and direct causes in specific contexts;

Identify methods and technologies that were chosen to address these;

Determine whether these methods and technologies proved effective;

Identify what factors influenced success, including but not limited to those

that emerge as a result of Aboriginal contexts.

Data from the applied research and case studies is subjected to stakeholder and

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analyses, providing the

basis for strategic design and policy recommendations.

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Rationale and Significance

Despite Canada’s status as a developed nation, many Aboriginal peoples in this

country experience significant socioeconomic disadvantage that has persisted for

decades. Sub-standard housing conditions are pervasive in Aboriginal communities

across the country, within and beyond reserve lands, in rural and urban settings.

The high social, environmental and economic costs of the status quo are

unsustainable. Mould, fire, and crowding are national epidemics, driving negative

outcomes in terms of individual and community health and well-being (INAC 2004,

CREA/IHC 2006); short building life spans lead to waste of valuable community

resources; and communities are unable to meet housing needs, despite significant

funding from the federal government. Where housing is recognized as a stabilizer

and facilitator for individual and community development (CMHC 2010), improved

frameworks for Aboriginal housing are thus of real value and significance.

Research in this area is also timely, as the federal government seeks to download

responsibility for Aboriginal and other social housing initiatives to the provinces.

While research supports a regional approach to determining issues and strategies,

historic absence and ambiguity of responsibility for Aboriginal housing may also be

perpetuated or worsened. Responsibility and accountability for Aboriginal housing

are urgently needed, in order to address the severe socioeconomic disadvantage

that continues to challenge individuals and communities.

Research Questions

How can emerging green building methods, clean technologies and cultural design

considerations contribute to more sustainable Aboriginal housing in Canada? What

challenges and opportunities accompany these methods and technologies, and

how might they be further affected in this context? What design strategies and

related policies can support positive change?

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Objectives

Provide a systems-oriented account of the drivers influencing Aboriginal

housing, including historical background, policies and key issues;

Identify existing challenges and opportunities to implementing green

building and clean technologies;

Conduct case studies of pilot projects in sustainable Aboriginal housing, to

explore the influence of Aboriginal contexts on these methods and

technologies;

Contribute to the dialog on cultural appropriateness of Aboriginal housing

design; and

Provide strategic recommendations and identify areas for future research.

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Methodology and Research Design

Aboriginal housing in Canada is an extremely complex phenomenon involving

multiple stakeholders, and relationships occurring across different scales in both

space and time. This report employs methods based in contemporary design

thinking, systems thinking, case study methodology and strategic analysis. The

intent is to account for this complexity – identifying the drivers that influence

Aboriginal housing, as well as potential means to react to these at the project level.

A comprehensive literature review identifies key issues, relationships, root and

direct causes; existing challenges to implementing green building methods and

clean technologies; and additional considerations that may emerge in Aboriginal

contexts. The review includes a variety of sources to account for different

perspectives. Findings are further triangulated through preliminary expert

interviews.

Pilot projects of sustainable Aboriginal housing are the subject of qualitative

exploratory case studies. The cases include multi-family developments in Seabird

Island and Saugeen First Nations. Data for the cases is gathered through

observation, review of project related documentation, multiple key informant

interviews. Key informants were selected for their professional experience related

to Aboriginal housing, including but not limited to the firsthand knowledge of the

cases themselves. Interviews are used to confirm findings from the literature

review; determine capacity within the case communities; identify current conditions

and subsequent issues; explore how the pilot projects sought to address these;

and determine whether specific approaches were successful relative to project

objectives. Variables examined include sources of funding, project costs, building

methods and technologies deployed, and project outcomes. Document review and

observations are used to triangulate data from the interviews.

A third case is also considered, based on applied research in the design-build of a

1000ft2 single-family solar-powered home, developed in collaboration with Treaty 7

First Nations. Data from this case was collected through interviews, and direct

participation in the project through one year of project management and one year

of Aboriginal relations management.

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Data from the case studies and applied research is subjected to stakeholder and

SWOT analyses (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats), elucidating

the challenges and opportunities experienced when implementing green building

methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal contexts. The literature review,

preliminary interviews, and analyses of cases and applied research are combined

to derive strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal housing design and

related policy.

This methodology has its limitations. For example, it does not provide a

comprehensive audit of the cases, wherein all costs and outcomes are analyzed.

Such an audit falls beyond the scope of research, particularly where formal post-

occupancy review is outstanding in all of the cases. Here, Aboriginal methodology

literature suggests that such review may be best conducted from within the

community due to sensitivities surrounding research activity, as well as potential

obstacles that might emerge through differing interpretations of language and

meaning.1 It is also important to note that performance outcomes often represent

moving targets – costs and standards are continually changing, and so must be

evaluated by the most recent data available. With these limitations in mind, the

research does offer value through a qualitative approach to the problem, identifying

issues, causes, challenges, opportunities, and important strategic considerations.

1 Smith,1999. Simultaneously, conducting this type of assessment from within a community presents its own

challenges, where trust and communication between various groups may be undermined by corruption or other abuses of power.

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Literature Review

The literature review draws on journal articles, media articles, census data, reports,

studies and texts (both fiction and non-) to explore existing knowledge surrounding

the research question. This review is structured according to overlapping thematic

areas:

1. The histories and cultures of Aboriginal peoples in and before Canada;

2. Contemporary Aboriginal housing – frameworks, models, key issues and

conditions

3. Challenges and opportunities to green building and clean technologies;

and

4. Aboriginal cultural considerations that have emerged in recent discourse

and practice.

Due to limitations on the length of this report, the entirety of literature considered

could not be covered in this review. The review is thus intended to provide only a

preliminary foundation for the concepts being examined. While the works cited are

central to the current state of research, additional materials listed in the

bibliography are also valuable to a more comprehensive account. It is also

important to note that throughout the literature reviewed, no single report

synthesized the broad systemic drivers influencing Aboriginal housing with project

level strategies for achieving more sustainable design and policy outcomes. For

this reason, this paper offers novel and important insight for achieving positive

change.

1. The Histories and Cultures of Aboriginal Peoples in and Before Canada

The troubled history of Aboriginal peoples in Canada is a root cause of

contemporary housing problems. Colonial policies and legislation have contributed

to the destruction of Aboriginal economies and social structures; the appropriation

of land and resources; external control of individual legal and financial status; the

imposition of foreign organizational structures that foster conflict within and

between Bands; the repression of cultural practices such as language and

ceremony; the forced removal of children from their homes and communities; and

dependency on the federal government for housing, infrastructure and social

12

assistance funding.2 This legacy continues to shape contemporary dialog and

practice; sensitivity and mistrust permeate relationships between Aboriginal and

non-Aboriginal peoples, in turn impacting the many housing outcomes that rely on

these relationships (Royal Commission, 1996).

Disrupted cultural traditions specific to housing include transfer of knowledge,

ownership and responsibility. Further, new foreign systems that were imposed –

socioeconomic, political and technological – were not properly translated or

interpreted. This has driven a knowledge gap in Aboriginal communities in terms of

both building science and housing market function.3 Many of these communities

now demonstrate reduced capacity and resources, and experience a sense of

marginalization, dispossession, and disempowerment4 (INAC 2004, Royal

Commission 1996, CREA/IHC 2006).

Occupying special status in this discussion, “the Indian Act is the primary

prohibitive factor in the development of… successful housing programs on Indian

lands (CREA/IHC 2006). The Act presents complex barriers to private ownership

on reserve lands, undermining market function and financing. As the original

territorial agreements between the Federal Government and First Nations,

numerous Treaties also influence housing and associated infrastructure through

limited land base, location, quality, and access to local resources.

“The most intense conflicts between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people center

on the use and control of land… [as] the essential substructure of political,

economic and social development (Royal Commission, 1996).”

Varied interpretation of laws and policies lead to conflict surrounding responsibility

for housing, which indirectly contributes degradation of housing assets.

Although some of the problems that follow from the Indian Act and Treaties are

specific to reserve lands, their impact has reached well beyond these physical

boundaries, affecting Aboriginal people living within and beyond reserve lands in

both rural and urban settings. Identity, self-determination, equity, and sense of

home, community and belonging remain critical challenges, and thus deserve

consideration in any housing initiative intended for Aboriginal peoples (Royal

Commission, 1996). Beyond these considerations, Aboriginal housing outside of

2 Royal Commission, 1996. Specific policy-based and legislative documents contributing to this legacy include the

British North American Act, the Royal Proclamation, the Constitution Act and the Indian Act.

3 Based on oral teachings of Dr. Reg Crowshoe, former Chief of the Piikani Nation.

4 It is critical to acknowledge that the diversity of Aboriginal groups in Canada translates into a diversity of experience

of these phenomena. In practice, despite common themes, each community must be recognized as a unique entity and treated accordingly.

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reserve lands also faces the many challenges associated with conventional social

housing initiatives.

2. Contemporary Aboriginal housing – Frameworks, Models, Key Issues and Conditions

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples aptly summarizes the contemporary

housing crisis, stating that “conditions pose an unacceptable threat to the health of

Aboriginal peoples and reinforce feelings of marginalization and hopelessness

(Royal Commission, 1996).” Specific conditions relevant to this research include

but are not limited to housing shortages, overcrowding, substandard building

quality and building disrepair, high rates of mould and fire, challenges to

affordability, and inadequate access to essential services. Estimates vary, with the

need for tens of thousands of significant renovations and new unit construction at a

National level.5

Problematic conditions are highly interrelated in their existence and outcomes as

illustrated in Figure 2 on page 20. The status quo is unsustainable from social,

economic and environmental perspectives:

Individual and community health, safety and well-being are below

acceptable standards;

Energy inefficiency and wasted materials drive negative environmental

impacts; and

The economic cost of operating, maintaining and replacing homes results

in unmanageable debt and unmet need.

5 These conditions and their relationship to negative socioeconomic outcomes are further documented in numerous

government reports, and journal and media articles. See Beavon 2009, CMHC 2002/2010, CREA/IHC 2006, Health Canada 2005, INAC 2004, Robson 2008, and the Auditor General’s Report 2011.

14

Desired performance improvements for contemporary Aboriginal housing thus

include but are not limited to promoting health and safety, structural durability,

functional flexibility, and affordability. Beyond these outcomes, strategies for

enhancing capacity are also highly desirable, as a means to garner support, foster

a sense of ownership, and move communities towards independence and self-

determination. These potential improvements are used to guide the exploratory

case studies.

Here, it is important to note that beyond historic root causes, current conditions are

a direct result of contemporary housing policy and subsequent design options (or

lack thereof). From its introduction around the mid-20th century well into the mid-

1990s, housing on reserve lands was centrally controlled by INAC and CMHC. A

minimal range of options were available to meet the significant variety of needs and

interests that follow from Aboriginal diversity, including cultural, geographic, and

socioeconomic factors. Numerous housing failures can be linked to this limited

approach, including rapid degradation and related health issues. While the 1996

on-reserve housing policy was created to deliver more control to First Nations, it

was not applied consistently, and has been identified as largely unsuccessful. Key

challenges remain in terms of responsibility, accountability, transparency,

complexity of process, and centralized decision-making by government bodies

(Status Reports of the Auditor General 2003/2011). Current evaluative frameworks

such as CMHC’s Core Housing Need (CHN) also contribute to policy shortcomings,

wherein:

Affordability data is not available for housing on reserve lands;

It is weak in rural and remote contexts, where incomes are generally lower

and market functions differ significantly (CMHC 2003);

It implicitly assumes that with sufficient income, a household can resolve

housing difficulties (CMHC 2003);

Adequacy (need for significant repairs of a housing unit) is determined by

the tenant, who may not be qualified to conduct such an assessment; and

Suitability is narrowly defined as the number of bedrooms in a unit based

on Canada’s National Occupancy Standards.

15

In addition to the CHN framework, CHMC’s “Maximum Unit Price” model (MUP)

prescribes an initial capital cost based on the number of bedrooms in a unit. This

indirectly limits initial design options and subsequently influences quality. The

model also results in biases towards cost considerations over actual community

needs. While there are allowances within the MUP for increased expenditure in

order to achieve specific performance outcomes, the full range and availability of

features that qualify cannot be readily identified (CMHC 1994, Shaw et. al. 2007).

Additionally, research has uncovered ‘modesty requirements’ – certain features

that cannot be included in housing developments on reserve lands regardless of

cost. While the rationale for these requirements is unknown, one suggested these

might create the appearance of equitable treatment across different Aboriginal

communities, and also to avoid perception of high costs relative to Aboriginal

housing portfolios. Specific modesty requirements identified from the 1980s include

basic features such as fireplaces, microwaves, and garages. Initial correspondence

with CMHC suggests that these requirements still exist in some form today, though

their correlation with the features identified has not yet been confirmed.

Funding approvals for renovations, new unit construction, and land improvement

currently remain in the domain of CMHC and INAC, controlled through vehicles

such as Ministerial Loan Guarantees (MLGs), Section 95 allocations, and

Certificates of Possession (CPs). Literature and preliminary interviews indicate

resulting complexity, ambiguity of process, and unmanageable debt loads. These

vehicles are explored in the context of the case studies, in order to further account

for their impact on Aboriginal housing.

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3. Green Building and Clean Technologies: Challenges and Opportunities

As emerging sectors, green building and clean technologies present both new

challenges and new opportunities. Literature points to unfamiliarity as one of the

foremost challenges, with the potential to negatively influence project outcomes

through:

Ambiguity of effectiveness in cost and performance;6

Inflated estimates for services or products;

Improper installation, maintenance or replacement;7 and/or

Increased complexity in funding and certification.

(Proscio 2008, Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia 2007)

Unfamiliarity may present additional challenges in Aboriginal contexts, where

capacity in conventional methods and technologies is already insufficient to

address substandard conditions. Simultaneously, there is an opportunity for

Aboriginal communities to ‘leapfrog’ over the inefficient, unhealthy, and costly

methods that have occupied homebuilding of their non-Aboriginal counterparts in

recent times.

Integrated design processes and specially designed programs are identified as

means to overcome unfamiliarity. These can be used to establish and

communicate project objectives and responsibilities; educate key stakeholders

such as occupants and building managers on unique maintenance and

replacement needs; and develop capacity-building measures. Such processes and

programs may also help to overcome external stakeholders’ unfamiliarity with

aspects of history, culture and lifestyle relevant to contemporary Aboriginal housing

design. Literature also highlights the importance of comprehensive visioning and

committed industry partners to achieving long-term success.

Emerging studies in life cycle assessment point to building material selection as an

important part of improving environmental sustainability, including not only direct

6 For example, environmental impact of new materials and technologies may not be evident until they have been in the

market for some time. They may also exert substantial influence on a project’s environmental impact and economic feasibility, through recycling and/or retrofitting potential.(Thormark 2002/2006, Blengini 2009) These benefits are particularly important in remote areas where supply chains represent a challenge to availability and cost of materials and their transportation and/or storage. Such complex interrelationships highlight the importance of life cycle assessment (LCA) and cradle-to-cradle housing design.

7 For example, IAQ benefits will be lost if low-VOC finishes are replaced with conventional ones.

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and indirect environmental impacts through all phases, but determining options for

re-use, recycling, repurposing and retrofitting (Thormark 2002/2006, Blengini

2009). Demand-side energy conservation and efficiency are also widely

acknowledged as ‘low hanging fruit’ for realizing O&M savings and reducing

environmental impact in residential design.

The potential value of alternative energy projects should also not be discounted.

While these may require higher capital investment than efficiency and conservation

measures, they also demonstrate potential for O&M savings and reduced

environmental impact. Further, with appropriate policy and funding support, such

projects may provide Aboriginal communities with a valuable means to autonomy

of service provision; independence from fossil fuels, and associated logistics and

price volatility; and even revenue generation to support future initiatives (INAC

2010). Revolving loans and community level feed-in-tariffs (micro-FiTs) are among

the innovations that have been used to alleviate costs, facilitate realization of long-

term benefits, and incentivize valuable partnerships with financial institutions and

service providers (CREA/IHC 2006, INAC 2010, Ontario Green Energy Act).

4. Aboriginal Cultural Considerations in Recent Discourse and Practice

The diversity of Aboriginal peoples in Canada includes significant variation of

historic, cultural and geographic contexts. The goal of this section therefore, is not

to establish a universal set or model, but rather to explore examples found in

contemporary discourse. Parallels observed in different contexts do suggest

however, that these examples may be used as initial points of departure for future

research and design (Dobie and Seniuc 2003, INAC 2010, Memmott 2008, Shaw

et. al. 2007, Dalla Costa, n.d.).

The exploration of cultural design considerations responds in part to a gap in the

literature: cultural ‘appropriateness’ appears in different contexts, including

discussion on the form and function of actual housing units. In common language,

the term may be interchanged with similar ones such as ‘suitability’. This can be

problematic given the latter’s specific role as an indicator within the CHN

framework. Beyond this use however, neither term is well-defined relative to

Aboriginal housing. The review thus explores cultural design considerations as a

foundation for expanding on the concept of appropriateness through the case

studies. The objective is threefold:

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1. To further develop a sense of how cultural appropriateness might be

defined;

2. To explore whether related considerations were included in the case

studies; and

3. To explore whether and how their inclusion or absence might affect

outcomes of form and function.

Worldview is often considered central to the identities and cultures of Aboriginal

peoples, and is frequently characterized by collaborative relationships with the

natural order. This is indicative in part of pre-contact lifestyles, wherein

relationships with local resources and other people were integral to Aboriginal

existence.8 Collaboration was thus frequently embedded in the value systems of

these peoples as a sort of survival mechanism. The degree to which such values

remain intact today varies from one community to the next, as a result of varied

experiences of historic and contemporary forces (King 2003, Highway 1998).

Therefore, interest in or desire to include worldview in residential design will also

vary significantly.

Aboriginal worldview may be expressed through residential design, for example in

the use of traditional building forms and principles; local, natural and/or reused

(recycled/repurposed) materials; orientation of buildings relative to natural features;

type and arrangement of functional spaces; connection to the exterior through

features such as windows, skylights, doors, and intermediate spaces; and/or use of

local and/or renewable sources for essential service provision.

Beyond fostering a sense of identity and cultural connection, such features may

offer additional benefits. For example, use of local materials may also incur lower

transportation costs and reduce associated emissions. Alternately, desired

outcomes may be at odds with each other. For example, although connection to

the land may be fostered by expansive windows, these also represent challenges

to energy efficiency and consequent operating costs. The potential for opposing

objectives highlights the importance of clearly communicating these, and

establishing appropriate strategies in the design process.

8 The UNESCO World Heritage Center at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump provides a comprehensive account of plains

peoples’ harmonious relationship with the buffalo, which was an essential source of food, shelter and tools for thousands of years.

19

Aboriginal lifestyles may also contribute to unique functional needs and interests.

Examples from the literature include alternative options for food preparation and

storage, as well as gathering space for family and community. Flexibility of spatial

function is also identified as a way to respond to crowding, changing family needs,

and/or high rates of turnover and transition (Shaw et. al. 2007). Traditional forms

such as the Tipi and Long House may also act as a an expression of identity,

values and practices, while also contributing to function that is grounded in

Aboriginal identities and practices (Dalla Costa n.d.)

To design Aboriginal housing without acknowledging the aforementioned

contextual factors runs the risk of producing ‘band-aid’ solutions – that is, projects

or programs that do not adequately respond to root and direct causes.9 Positive

change therefore relies upon on a holistic and sustainable approach. The

overlapping areas reviewed here mark critical considerations for improving

contemporary Aboriginal housing, and will be explored further through the case

studies. Figure 1 represents the conceptual framework that emerged from the

literature review and subsequent research.

Figure 1: Aboriginal Housing – Relationships Across Scales

9 Further risk emerges as a result of uninformed perspectives, through the potential perpetuation of ignorance,

stereotypes, racism, and externally imposed solutions that have historically undermined positive change. King 2003 Chapters 2 and 5 highlight the importance of combating these historically significant social forces.

20

Figure 2: Aboriginal Housing – Interrelated Conditions, Causes and Feedbacks

Figure 3: Map of Case Studies

1 Seabird Island First Nation 2 Saugeen First Nation 3 Treaty 7 First Nations

21

Seabird Island First Nation: Case Study

Background, Capacity, Conditions and Funding

Seabird Island First Nation is an independent community within the Sto:lo Nation,

located southeast of Agassiz on the lower mainland of British Columbia (see Figure

3 on page 24).10

At the time this research was conducted, informants indicated

there were approximately 210 homes in the community, with a shortage of roughly

50 units. The Nation was constructing 12 new units, and renovating 27, which

represents approximately double their annual average, made possible in part by

CEAP funding described below. A comprehensive physical plan was also being

undertaken by the Band management, including demographics, GIS studies, and

housing strategy development.

Problematic housing conditions in the Seabird Island First Nation community

include substandard buildings, mould, crowding and high rates of occupant

transition. Informants identified inadequate specifications and funding as key

drivers of substandard buildings. They perceive the primary cause of mould to be

leakage, as a result of occupants leaving hoses connected throughout the winter.

This leads to excess moisture in the home that often goes unreported and

unresolved. Crowding is identified as a result of housing shortages, which stem

from insufficient resources and backlog. Additional occupancy pressure is created

by members returning to the community without access to their own units, resulting

in as many as 7 people residing in a 2-bedroom unit. The previously unidentified

phenomenon of under-crowding was also identified in this case, as challenge to

optimal use of housing assets. Multiple informants confirmed that beyond these

direct causes, contemporary housing problems have evolved in part from contact

and colonization; imposition of foreign social, governance and ownership

structures, and restrictions on access to and use of land and resources were cited

as underlying problems.

Capacity for housing within Seabird Island First Nation includes community college

programs in plumbing, carpentry, painting and wallboard installation. The housing

department is certified to conduct home inspections, and has recently completed

inspecting all homes in the community – seen as a critical step to identifying

10

The existence of Seabird Island as an independent Nation within the greater Sto:lo is indicative of contemporary sociopolitical complexity surrounding Aboriginal peoples – in this case demonstrating a First Nation within another First Nation, within Canada. Such complexity presents significant challenges to improving Aboriginal housing, where histories and sociopolitical structures are not always well documented or understood and related issues of authority, responsibility and accountability are unclear.

22

problems and needs. Insufficient funding, high rates of managerial turnover,

understaffed administration, and lack of specialized trades and professions were

cited as current capacity challenges. High turnover is attributed in part to lack of

awareness of and/or unpreparedness for housing management responsibilities and

scope of work. Understaffing is attributed to lack of resources, with subsequent

multi-tasking undermining individual and community ability to sufficiently address

housing and broader issues.

The Nation’s housing department has developed and is enhancing a ‘Housing 101’

program. The objective is to educate occupants on key maintenance issues, with

preventative action towards mould as the primary focus. The long-term goal is to

gradually shift maintenance responsibility away from the housing department,

except in areas of health, safety and plumbing. Various methods used include open

houses, discussions at community meetings, monthly newsletters and flyers, in-

home education and lists of tenant responsibilities. Although no formal assessment

of results has been undertaken, informants felt the program had successfully

contributed to reduced maintenance needs. Looking forward, they hope it will

expand to include occupant perceptions of and behavior towards home systems

and appliances.

Funding for Seabird Island First Nation’s housing typically comes from INAC,

administered through CMHC’s section 95. Interviewees indicated that the MUP for

the region is approximately $80,000-$100,000 for a single bedroom unit. They also

indicated that these funds are intended to cover not only construction costs but

also servicing and site development. The amount is viewed as insufficient to meet

individual project needs as well as overall demand. Further, accompanying

specifications result in substandard buildings that don’t last. If these are not

adhered to however, no funding is granted. High interest rates and resulting debt

are perceived as further undermining the effectiveness of Section 95 subsidies.

Funding cycles were also identified as problematic, where resources are often

granted in the rainy season, creating logistical challenges for implementation.

Overall, resources are spread thinly across administration and financing, forcing

the maintenance department to scale back programs. Only the most critical

problems are addressed, with neglect of regular maintenance needs fueling

widespread deterioration.

23

First Nations specific resources allocated within Canada’s Economic Action Plan

(CEAP) were identified as a valuable opportunity. These were recently used in

several mould remediation projects and other renovations, as well as over 19

furnace and hot water tank replacements, with long-term benefits in the range of 25

years. Seabird Island First Nation has a rent program in place intended to cover

maintenance, but informants indicated it is not sufficient to this end, and rental

arrears remain a challenge. They have also recently signed onto the First Nations

Market Housing Fund, and hope this will contribute to improvements in housing

and related capacity.

Seabird Island First Nation: Sustainable Housing Pilot Project – Description

In 2002, CMHC and INAC approached the Seabird Island Chief and Council, to

gain access to the community, and determine their interest in participating in a

sustainable housing pilot project. Resources would include contributions from

INAC/CMHC Section 95, CEAP, Band resources, and the private sector. The initial

concept was to build a single unit that would integrate multiple green building

methods and clean technologies, providing a reference point for future housing

initiatives.

An integrated planning process followed the approval to move forward. Community

representation was wide and intergenerational, and complemented by numerous

participants from public and private sectors. A shift to a multi-unit design was

accepted, in order to demonstrate consequent reductions in land requirements and

related costs of site development and servicing. Increased objectives for

environmental performance were driven by the community, as was an increase of

per-unit square footage beyond MUP specifications. A self-construction model

emerged as a strategy for capacity building. The objectives of the self-construction

model were to:

Learn to implement new methods and technologies;

Foster community pride, ownership, and trust between stakeholders;

Keep resources within the community, and use them more efficiently.

The Seabird Island First Nation pilot project was opened in 2004 with a ceremonial

blessing involving community spiritual and political leaders. The development is

comprised of four multi-storey buildings, totaling seven units in a combination of

duplex and triplex configurations, which are oriented in a south facing semi-circle.

The multi-storey approach diverged from the original concept of a traditional long

24

house (a low-lying structure) in order to facilitate technologies and flexibility

measures outlined below. Duplex and triplex configurations were selected to foster

long-term occupancy, given the development’s anticipated lifespan of 75-100

years. A circular medicinal garden was installed at the centre of the development.

Four Totem poles were positioned at the cardinal directions surrounding the

garden, with animals on each pole representing important community values and

teachings.

The project also uses CMHC’s flexhousing™ concepts11

, allowing adaptation

according to changing needs, thereby fostering optimal and long-term occupancy.

Specifically, the multi-storey units have been designed to accommodate retrofitting

– for changes in spatial function, additional mechanical systems, and separate

entrances.12

Slab-on-grade construction allows barrier-free accessibility of ground-

level areas. Independent units on different floors may thus be created, for example,

to facilitate multi-generational occupancy, with the grandparents living on the

ground floor while parents and grandchildren occupy a separate unit above. The

effectiveness of these measures remains untested to date – the community had not

undertaken major changes to the units in the first 7 years of occupancy.

Some of the project’s objectives and strategies demonstrate overlap between

social, economic and environmental outcomes. For example, reclaimed materials

were purchased at lower cost while also reducing impacts associated with

manufacturing or processing. Alternative energy features that were designed to

alleviate operating costs and emissions also resonated with traditional values.

Relationships between goals, objectives and strategies are summarized in Table 1.

11

See http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/co/buho/flho/index.cfm

12 The aforementioned identification of under-crowding in this case provides additional justification for inclusion of

flexibility measures.

25

Figure 4: Seabird Island First Nation – Sustainable Housing Pilot Project

a) Site Plan

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

b) Townhouse Units

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

26

c) Circular Garden

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

d) Single Family Unit

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

27

Table 1: Summary of Goals, Objectives and Strategies

Goal Objective Strategy

Ensure occupant health & safety

Reduce mould, provide IAQ, durability

Formaldehyde-free low-VOC insulation and finishing, paperless drywall

Durable materials, high performance envelope: polished concrete radiant floor, metal roof, vinyl window frames, rain screen

Minimize environmental impact

Use alternative sources of energy

Increase energy/water efficiency

Use repurposed materials

Approximately 4kW of wind power, solar air roof, geo-exchange

South-facing orientation for solar exposure: passive heating, pre-heating water

Double insulation, efficient mechanical systems, lighting, plumbing fixtures, appliances, radiant floor, windows

Site graded for storm water absorption, use of drought-tolerant plant materials

Reclaimed yellow cedar telephone poles used for interior and exterior poles and beams, ‘plastic wood’ made from recycled bottles used in interior finishing

Reduced O&M and replacement costs

Longer maintenance cycle

Reduce dependence on hydro through alternative energy sources, energy/water efficiency

See durability and efficiency measures above

Alternative energy: approximately 4kW wind power, geo-exchange, solar thermal/air

Respond to cultural considerations,

demographics

Build capacity, sense of ownership, pride, trust

Reflect local values, needs, interests

Provide flexibility, adaptability to meet changing occupant needs

Multi-generational community input in design

Used local labour in construction

See alternative energy – reflects local values

Opening ceremony

Medicinal herb garden, carvings acknowledge community values

Guided by CMHC’s flex housing concepts, multi-purpose adaptable floor plan

Barrier-free slab-on-grade ground level units

Potential for retrofit of separate multi-storey access and additional mechanical systems

28

Seabird Island First Nation: Sustainable Housing Pilot Project – Analysis

Seabird Island First Nation’s sustainable housing pilot project provides a wealth of

data to consider. The project’s objectives were comprehensive, targeting social,

economic, and environmental outcomes. Several opportunities were capitalized on,

resulting in an attractive development that addressed certain community values

and needs, and provided many lessons learned. Simultaneously, challenges

experienced on this project confirm and add to findings from the literature review.

Some of these undermined the success of the initiative, including but not limited to:

Gaps in communication surrounding objectives and outcomes;

Lack of comprehensive auditing, resulting in ambiguity of total cost and

effectiveness;

Lack of follow-up from key external stakeholders, compromising capacity

building; and

Unforeseen increases in cost due to unfamiliarity and/or complexity.

From the outset, project objectives included integrating a suite of technologies,

some of which were unproven in terms of effectiveness and cost. Multiple

informants from both within and beyond the community suggested that complexity

of this approach was driven by external stakeholders and that, with all due respect

to them, it would have been beneficial to undertake a simplification exercise early

in the design process.

It is also unclear whether various options and their perceived benefits and risks

were clearly understood, and whether these were in turn made explicit to the

community. One informant external to the community estimated significant savings

from the multi-unit approach, including reduced infrastructure costs of $250,000

and reduced land costs of $300,000 - $400,000. Interview data suggests a

communication gap in this area: these benefits were not identified by key

informants within the community, and prevailing sentiment is that a smaller and

less ambitious project might have been a better way to start.

In-kind contributions from private sector partners were viewed as invaluable to the

project, including donations of materials, system components, and services.

Simultaneously these contributions undermined an accurate sense of actual project

costs. Informants estimate these were much higher than anticipated – $150 per

square foot or more, which is at least double the initial target. Further, they believe

29

this is the reason for a relative lack of follow-up from CMHC and INAC – that the

demonstration was simply too expensive to repeat. One external informant

suggests that the initial target is simply not realistic for providing adequate housing,

especially when this is expected to cover site and servicing costs.

Some partnerships with external stakeholders also resulted in dependency upon

their expertise for maintenance, monitoring, repeat installation, and/or realization of

benefits associated with specific technologies. Several of these relationships failed,

directly undermining community capacity in these areas. The project’s wind

turbines are a prime example of this dependence. This installation was the subject

of the first small-scale feed-in-tariff (micro-FiT) in the province of British Columbia,

and so required the support of high level champions in provincial politics and

service provision. Informants estimated that the cost of the requisite grid

connection exceeded conventional hydro hook-ups by up to 1000%. Of the multiple

turbines installed, one featured a new horizontal orientation that had not been

locally tested. Unable to survive heavy local wind loads, the device was blown

apart, and never reassembled or replaced, as the manufacturer went out of

business. Anticipated benefits from the other turbines – including reduced

operating costs and revenue generation – were also not realized. Accounts of the

reasons for this vary.

Outcomes of the geo-exchange earth tube system were the subject of additional

problems and communication gaps. Despite high costs and lengthy excavation

requirements, informants still identified this as possibly the most successful and

promising technology. Simultaneously, research conducted by an external

stakeholder points to multiple failures. Firstly contamination from soil during

installation had the potential to lead to mould, and it appears that this fact was

never relayed to the community. Secondly, energy requirements for circulating heat

exceeded the value of the heat being captured by this and other systems. Although

this was expressed in a post-occupancy assessment, the community indicated that

they were unable to interpret this report. Further confounding the matter, water

tanks that were installed as part of the system were far more costly than

conventional units, and had to be replaced inside of their projected lifespan. The

designer of this system also went out of business, again undermining community

capacity relative to this system.

30

Interviews suggest that community dissatisfaction with project outcomes is

exacerbated by these capacity-building failures. While project implementation did

successfully integrate local carpentry and other labour, the requirements for

maintaining, monitoring, and analyzing advanced technological systems exceeded

community resources and skill sets; requisite knowledge transfer and training had

not been realized in the first 7 years of occupancy. Data suggests that informants

may associate these failures not only with technological complexity and/or lack of

knowledge transfer, but also with the scope of the multi-unit approach. Such

association could negatively impact receptivity towards a multi-unit strategy in

future housing developments, thereby influencing other areas such as land base

and infrastructure. Indeed, receptivity of the multi-unit approach is further

influenced by a common preference for single family-units within Aboriginal

communities.13

Interview data suggests that perceptions of densification in the

Seabird Island community may be polarized, with awareness centered on extremes

of single units and high rises.

It is difficult to determine whether complexity would have been sufficiently reduced,

and capacity building improved in this case, had the project adhered to the original

single-unit strategy. It should be noted however, that a multi-unit approach does

not preclude simplicity, capacity building, or affordability – as demonstrated in the

second case study. The project faced further challenges where methods and

features resulted in excessive labour and related costs. The cedar shingle rain-wall

entailed extensive cutting and mounting relative to simpler methods.14

Sealing of

multiple round windows, unconventional corners and angles, and double layer

insulation were also cited. Compact fluorescent lights were seen as prohibitively

expensive, and their non-standard compatibility a source of inconvenience.

Paperless drywall, a strategy used to prevent mould and promote durability, was

applied throughout the project. Here, contractors’ unfamiliarity with the product

resulted in hourly rather than contractual rates. The extended drying time of the

product (4-5 times that of conventional drywall) further drove up costs, and also

created a bottleneck – preventing progress and in turn driving up costs in other

areas. Informants suggested that while this and other durability measures have

been successful, strategic placement of the paperless drywall in high-risk areas

such as the bathroom and kitchen would have been preferable. Other health-

promoting measures employed in the project include non-toxic and low-VOC paints

13

This preference was identified by key informants in all cases.

14 Local code has since been modified to include rain walls to address the wet climate.

31

and finishes, and durable polished concrete floors. The housing department no

longer installs carpet in any of their homes, and sees this as a strong strategy for

promoting IAQ.

The installation of the project’s medicinal herb garden came at significant cost. The

soil was never seeded, however, and the entire garden was eventually removed.

Informants indicated that lack of community interest may have resulted from the hot

summer climate, as well as the presence of hardy local weeds and insects. The

project’s south-facing orientation and use of alternative energy sources were

identified as important links to traditional worldviews and practices, according to

which all resources should come from the sun and the earth. In exploring other

cultural design considerations, informants cited previous installations of sheds for

smoking fish. These were removed, however, where resulting particulates were

found to exacerbate asthma and respiratory illness in the community. This is

significant, demonstrating that the absence of a particular cultural response does

not mean it has not been considered or tried, as one might otherwise assume.

Diversifying options for food preparation such as smoking and canning remain an

area of interest, as a potential way to revitalize traditional practices that are still

contribute to lifestyles in the community. Options for exterior cleaning and storage

of outdoor activity gear, and larger driveways for multiple vehicles were also

identified as desirable features. A formal needs assessment or community

consultation to explore such interests has not been conducted to date. Analysis of

this case is summarized in Table 2.

Table 2: Seabird Island First Nation – Strengths and Weaknesses

Strengths Weaknesses

Political, institutional, regulatory

Comprehensive physical plan

Absence of Treaty provides greater freedom and flexibility in land use and related negotiation

Pilot partnered with external stakeholders – introduced new methods and technologies to the community, in-kind donations of materials, systems, services

Pilot established micro-FiT support for wind power, potential savings, revenue generation

Pilot capitalized on increasing diversity of Aboriginal specific funding (CEAP)

Vestiges of colonialism include mistrust within and beyond community, enduring socioeconomic disadvantage that affects community resources for funding housing initiatives

Complexity surrounding Nation within a Nation within a Nation

Territorial boundaries and local activity surrounding community limit quality and access to land and resources

MUP restricts housing options

Current specifications tied to funding are substandard

Lack of follow-up from, and bankruptcy of external stakeholders,

32

Strengths Weaknesses

undermined transfer of knowledge and capacity-building related to emerging methods and technologies

External stakeholders increased complexity (see pilot below)

Failure to realize benefits of FiT (see pilot below)

Socio-cultural including community resources, skills, education, capacity

Capacity to locally conduct inspections

‘Housing 101’ occupant education, multiple methods

Local community college with certified trades programs

Community outreach intent behind comprehensive physical plan

Youth familiarity with technology allows access to information including housing innovations (methods, technologies, programs)

Traditional role of Elders in knowledge transfer

Use of local labour in pilot construction

Housing management understaffed, high turnover

Crowding, backlog, high rates of transition

Tenant sense of entitlement, lack of responsibility

Rental arrears undermine local government’s ability to deliver housing and community services

Lack of housing diversity sub-optimal use (incl. under-crowding)

Misperceptions, knowledge gaps surround function, maintenance, energy demand of home appliances, systems

Emerging methods/technologies require specialized knowledge (architecture, engineering), exceed current community capacity to evaluate, implement, maintain, subsequent reliance on external stakeholders for capacity building, knowledge transfer

Reliance on government funding for housing initiatives, high interest rates and debt challenge ability to improve conditions

High cost of energy consumes limited resources

Pilot project design process, objectives, strategies, outcomes

Integrated design process

Prioritized occupant health and safety, reduced environmental impact

Multi-faceted approach to reducing O&M and replacement costs

Duplex/triplex, flexibility to meet changing individual and community needs expected to maximize occupancy

Multi-unit approach to reduce costs, land requirements

Cultural considerations to foster sense of identity, ownership incl.

Complexity increased by exploratory approach, external stakeholders increased cost, challenged capacity building, resulted in negative perception of emerging methods/technologies and multi-unit strategy

Multi-unit strategy goes against community preference, familiarity

Lack of follow-up from external partners with critical expertise, failure to transfer essential skills related to implementation, maintenance and monitoring/assessment

33

Strengths Weaknesses

ceremonial opening, blessing, carvings representing community values

Alternative energy and building orientation tied to worldview

Increased square footage per unit

See above re. partnerships, micro-FiT, use of local labour

Lack of auditing undermines sense of total cost and effectiveness, incl. failure to adequately account for/communicate benefits of multi-unit strategy between all stakeholders

Failure to clearly identify/communicate all options, challenges, opportunities, costs, risks across stakeholders

Failure to realize initial target cost

Unproven technologies failed: turbine could not sustain local wind load, never replaced; cost of circulating alternative heat sources exceeded value of heat produced; see FiT failure above

Geo-exchange problems: costly excavation and system components; potential soil contamination during installation

Unfamiliarity, complexity increased costs: cedar shingle rain wall, round windows, paperless drywall - widespread application, extended drying time, consequent bottleneck

Micro-FiT required special support from government and service provider, costly grid connection for alternative energy feed-in, benefits ultimately not realized

Requires custom replacement parts such as CFL bulbs, seasonal HRV filters

Medicinal garden expensive, unused

Seabird Island First Nation: Case Study – Conclusions

The Seabird Island First Nation case provides important insight into contemporary

Aboriginal housing. The case confirms key issues, and direct and root causes

identified in the literature review. Substandard conditions and insufficient resources

are primary concerns. Beyond this, the sustainable housing pilot project indicates

some of the challenges and opportunities specific to implementing green building

methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal communities. In terms of

opportunities, these strategies are consistent with environmentally-oriented

community values, and further aligned with their need in terms of providing durable,

efficient, flexible, and healthy housing.

34

In terms of challenges, the project demonstrates that integrated processes are not

sufficient to guarantee positive outcomes. Alignment between selected strategies,

community resources, and current/potential capacity is needed, if success is to be

realized. Planning and design should therefore include comprehensive assessment

and communication of options and their perceived benefits and risks between all

stakeholders. Unfamiliarity with solutions in emerging sectors may pose a direct

challenge to such assessment and communications. In cases where capacity is a

challenge, alignment may be fostered by keeping objectives modest, and/or

grounding strategies in proven methods and technologies. Follow-up from external

stakeholders may be a further requisite of success to transferring knowledge and

building capacity, especially where solutions have special requirements for

maintenance, monitoring and/or (re)implementation.

Project auditing is also essential. In this case, the effectiveness of specific solutions

remains ambiguous due to lack of comprehensive auditing, gaps in communication,

lack of monitoring (where applicable), and insufficient post-occupancy analysis.

While this ambiguity undermines the original project goal of providing a precedent

and reference point for future initiatives, it is important to note that the project

acknowledged community values, needs and interests as an important part of the

design process and that, above all else, it successfully provided housing for a

community in need.

The data gathered on the Seabird Island First Nation pilot project does present a

different reality from that of publicly available literature, which focuses on strengths,

and fails to identify many of the challenges faced during development and after

completion. While support for innovative approaches to Aboriginal housing may

rely upon demonstrations of success, it is equally important to identify these

challenges, in order to prevent repeated mistakes and develop best practices for

future initiatives. The challenges identified here suggest valuable areas for future

research on the Seabird Island First Nation pilot project itself, as well as important

considerations for future initiatives in this and other communities. The discrepancy

between publicly available literature and case data highlights the importance of

conducting research to comprehensively assessing project outcomes.

35

Saugeen First Nation: Case Study

Background, Capacity, Current Conditions and Funding

Figure 5: Saugeen First Nation – Sustainable Housing Pilot Project

a) Townhouse Units (8)

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

b) ICF Foundation

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

36

c) Eleven inch stud walls

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

d) Eleven inch studs

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

e) Radiant Floor

37

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

Table 3: Saugeen First Nation Sustainable Housing Pilot Project – Goals, Objectives and Design Strategies

Goal Objective Strategy

Ensure affordability

Reduce construction costs

Reduce O&M costs

Increase energy/water efficiency

Provide durability

Local labour, training and employment

Multi-unit townhouse approach

Capitalized on existing site services

11” stud walls, R40 insulation

Efficient mechanical system, appliances, lighting, plumbing (low-flow fixtures, faucet aerators, economizer shower heads), drain-water heat recovery (DWHR), radiant slab thermal battery

ICF foundation, laminate vinyl flooring, paperless drywall

Build capacity

Increase knowledge and ability surrounding housing construction/maintenance, alternative energy options

Foster creativity, unity, pride, ownership

Keep resources within community

Local labour, training and employment based on emerging methods and technologies

Local manufacturing of 11 inch framing

One unit features additional

38

Goal Objective Strategy

Test viability of alternative energy sources

technologies (integrated PV/solar thermal, solar air curtain), other units roughed-in for easy retrofit

Ensure occupant health & safety

Reduce mould

Provide high IAQ

Provide durable structure

Vinyl floors, latex paint increase IAQ, reduce cleaning and replacement costs

Paperless drywall resists mould

HRV provides strong ventilation, comfort

ICF foundation R50, sealed with 6mm polyurethane rests on foam and gravel for drainage – prevent leakage, mould

Respond to cultural considerations, demographics

Address community need for family-size units

Avoid institutional feel

Satisfy community aesthetic concerns

Consultation with community

Opening ceremony

All units 3-bedroom with balcony

Middle units set back

Maintained local vegetation

Maintained consistent style with existing housing

Saugeen First Nation: Sustainable Housing Pilot Project – Analysis

Although eventually granted, rejection of the pilot project’s initial application for

funding resulted in a shortened timeline of four months, necessitating construction

throughout winter. Informants thus pointed to ambiguity and complexity in the

application process as challenges, with specific mention of unclear criteria for

qualification and competitiveness. The Band also would have preferred a more

flexible timeframe to allow for design refinements, including exploration of cultural

design considerations.15

That the project was ‘shovel-ready’ was identified as a

requisite of funding approval. Informants point to CEAP funding as extremely

valuable, especially where funds are dedicated specifically to First Nations

initiatives. There is hope that future projects will see similar opportunity. Dialog did

take place between Saugeen First Nation and INAC on potential positive changes

for application processes and criteria going forward.

15

The longhouse was identified as a structural precedent that might have contributed to appropriateness had timelines allowed. One informant also pointed to a planning concept based in traditional community values, wherein roads are kept to the outside of groups of homes that surround a protected communal area. This was viewed as a good strategy for keeping children from playing on the street, and for increasing awareness of their whereabouts. Cultural considerations are expected to contribute to future initiatives; the new administration building may feature a central fire pit, and/or relevant literal representations such as an upside down canoe, a turtle, or an eagle in flight.

39

The multi-unit approach of Saugeen First Nation’s sustainable housing pilot project

was identified by interviewees as unconventional, for and generally not preferred

in, First Nations contexts. It was noted that instances of this strategy are

increasing, however, likely in response to diminishing land base. The Band has

some concern over the potential outcomes of putting people closer together than

they are used to, where historically they have occupied separate tracts of land. No

significant negative feedback had been received on this matter within the project’s

first year of occupancy. Concern was also expressed over how these units might

be passed down from one generation to the next, which informants felt could prove

more complex than with a single-family dwelling, a distinct plot of land, and/or an

existing certificate of possession.

Direct relationships with suppliers of structural, envelope and mechanical system

components were important to reducing project costs. Bulk purchasing and

potential for future procurement contracts allowed middlemen such as retailers to

be avoided, resulting in discounts of up to 50%. Some of these relationships were

newly established, while other existing relationships were brought to the project by

third parties. These third parties were also identified as essential to project

success, possessing critical knowledge, expertise and the ability to relate this to

the project’s vision and objectives within the community. While CMHC was not

involved in the initial project planning and implementation, their international branch

has now formally expressed interest, particularly in the potential for marketing the

project in the United States.

The self-construction approach was not a first for the community: informants cited a

marked positive difference in attitude towards, and quality of outcomes from,

previous self-constructed projects. Specific training and employment outcomes of

the project were not tracked or assessed, and no formal feedback mechanism was

put in place. Informants estimated however, that approximately 90% of project

labour came from within the community. This included representation from different

generations and genders, across a broad range and level of skills. Participants in

the project expressed enthusiasm towards new technologies and methods,

including means for achieving efficiency and R2000 standards. This extended

beyond design and implementation phases into occupancy, and inquiry

surrounding policy and future initiatives.

40

Informants specifically noted that hands-on experience was more valuable than

written information. If mistakes were made in construction, site management was

careful to ensure that these were undone and completed properly, emphasizing the

important relationship between specifications, implementation and performance.

Areas of learning included ICF foundations, vapour barriers, and electrical and

mechanical systems. Although a micro-manufacturing model for the 11 inch wall

studs was envisioned, informants’ opinions vary as to its realization and potential

contribution to future initiatives.

Informants indicated that the self-construction approach changed individuals’

attitudes towards both future initiatives and broader housing policy. One informant

cited a community-based push for mandatory envelope testing in new projects. The

self-construction model was thus seen as important not only for providing specific

training and employment opportunities, but also for educating the community and

strengthening support for housing policy improvements. The Band hopes the high

degree of involvement will act as benchmark for future self-construction initiatives,

including a new administration building.

After the first year of occupancy, the Band undertook a usage evaluation.

Maintenance requirements during this time had been minimal. Despite being better

insulated by the exterior units, central units were unexpectedly found to consume

the most energy. Investigation uncovered an excess of 60 home appliances and

entertainment devices connected within individuals homes, some of which may

draw power even when not in use. HRVs had also been turned off or unplugged

and highly-consumptive air conditioners installed. As a consequence, the Band

intends to create a tenant education program targeting these specific areas.

Analysis of this case is summarized in Table 4.

Table 4: Saugeen First Nation – Strengths and Weaknesses

Note: Table 4 summarizes the analysis of the Saugeen First Nation case according to the strengths and weaknesses exhibited within the community and by the sustainable housing pilot project. It is critical to note that these are determined by the case context, and may result in different outcomes under different circumstances. Accurate interpretation of this table therefore also relies upon due consideration of the case description.

Strengths Weaknesses

Political, institutional, regulatory

10-year strategic plan as basis for community needs assessment

Capacity to locally conduct inspections

Receive support from OFNTSC

Ontario FiT incentivizes alternative

Policy instability: provincial FiT may be abolished

OFNTSC support can include long wait times

Funding dependency on CMHC Section 95, Section 10

41

Strengths Weaknesses

energy, provides opportunity for savings, revenue

Pilot capitalized on increasing diversity of Aboriginal-specific funding (CEAP)

Pilot partnered with external stakeholders for knowledge transfer related to new methods, technologies, direct bulk discount through suppliers

Lack of housing funding flexibility precludes adaptation to emerging circumstances

Dependence on policy support (FiT) for maximum benefit of alternative energy

Socio-cultural including community resources, education, skills, capacity

Existing precedents for self-construction model

Community college trades programs

Local skilled trades, R2000 trained crew

Awareness, education intent behind 10-year plan

Traditional role of Elders in keeping and transferring knowledge

Youth familiarity with technology allows access to information including housing innovations (methods, technologies, programs)

Vestiges of colonialism include enduring socioeconomic disadvantage that affects community resources for funding housing initiatives

Insufficient funding, undermines renovation point system, creates bias in terms of types of projects undertaken

Knowledge gaps re. housing market function, including role of mortgages, consequences if not paid

Knowledge gap/ambiguity surrounding individual role relative to home building choices, relationships with contractors, tenant satisfaction

Tenant sense of entitlement, lack of responsibility for maintenance

Insufficient resources limit renovation/construction, drives rental arrears, undermines maintenance funding – feedback loop, undermines point system

Lack of rent enforcement leads to arrears

Crowding, backlog, high rates of transition

Large families challenge suitability

High energy costs diminish limited resources

Community developing mortgage-based plan

Misperceptions, knowledge gaps re. energy demand of appliances – HRVs unplugged, numerous other passive energy consumers plugged in

42

Strengths Weaknesses

Pilot project design process, objectives, strategies, outcomes

MUP adhered to as basis for recognition, support of INAC/CEAP

Conducted dialogue with INAC on problems experienced in CEAP application

Improved community awareness, attitude, motivation related to future initiatives

(Re-)enforced relationship between specifications, implementation and performance

Provided comprehensive hands-on construction experience and employment opportunities to community members

Modest, simple scope, prioritizes key issues (health, durability, reduced O&M, affordability) aligned with community capacity, resources

Multi-unit approach reduces implementation and operating cost, service and land requirements

All units 3-bedroom – responds to need, demographics, optimizes occupancy

Consultation communicated objectives, ensured absence of opposition, guided aesthetic considerations

See above re. external partnerships

Single demo unit allows testing, analysis prior to scaled up implementation; other units designed for easy retrofit

Opening ceremony

Multi-generational and across-gender representation in local labour construction

Resulted in high Energuide rating of 86/87

Interest from CMHC international in promoting in US – exposure, additional support

Ambiguity of CEAP application resulted in shortened timeline, limited consultation and subsequent cultural considerations

Multi-unit strategy goes against community preference, familiarity; ambiguity surrounding potential for inheritance/will of property

No formal feedback mechanism for training and employment, no formal assessment/tracking of outcomes such as continued training/employment

Increased maintenance requirements of some technologies

Design poses limitations on user behavior, including requirement to keep windows closed for efficient system function

Requires custom replacement parts such as CFL bulbs, seasonal HRV filters

43

Saugeen First Nation: Case Study – Conclusions

As in the prior case, study of the Saugeen First Nation provides important insight

into contemporary Aboriginal housing. The case confirms key issues, and direct

and root causes as identified in the literature review. Substandard conditions and

insufficient resources are amongst the primary concerns. Beyond these findings,

the community’s sustainable housing pilot project indicates some of the challenges

and opportunities specific to implementing green building methods and clean

technologies in Aboriginal communities.

In terms of opportunities, the pilot project demonstrates the feasibility of delivering

cost effective solutions that simultaneously prioritize occupant health, and reduced

operating maintenance costs through durability and efficiency. Modesty and

simplicity of objectives were combined with a successful approach to self-

construction. This allowed rapid delivery, and increased sense of ownership, pride

and interest in the project.

The project was not without challenges. Of particular interest are those surrounding

the application process for funding, including ambiguity of criteria, tight timelines,

and lack of flexibility. This in turn necessitated construction through winter, and

minimized the degree to which the design could be refined, including through

exploration of, and response to, cultural considerations.

Having overcome these, the Nation feels it is now in a position to offer guidance on

similar initiatives beyond their community, and is proud that it did in four months

what some communities take years to do. There is confidence that the methods

and technologies can be re-implemented, and that these solutions have increased

awareness of new possibilities. This positively contributes to the project’s potential

as a prototype for future initiatives, including the mentality of the Nation’s Council

and the broader community towards innovation in residential design. From their

perspective, the sustainable housing pilot project is viewed as a resounding

success, seen as a vital first step towards community sustainability.

44

Treaty 7 First Nations: Case Study

Background on the U.S Department of Energy’s Solar Decathlon Competition

In 2009, students from the University of Calgary applied for the U.S. Department of

Energy’s Solar Decathlon 2011 competition, in partnership with the Treaty 7 First

Nations of Southern Alberta. This collaborative 2-year initiative is the basis of the

third case study.

The Solar Decathlon challenges international student teams to design, build and

operate full-scale solar powered homes.16

The mandate is to demonstrate the

viability of solar power in contemporary residential design, based on the capacity of

solar related technologies to meet household demand. Competing entries must

adhere to international building code and exhibit full functionality of mechanical

systems, contemporary appliances, lighting, and interior and exterior spaces.17

Identifying a specific target market and user group is an additional pre-requisite.

The 2011 competition also saw the introduction of an affordability sub-contest, an

important component in demonstrating the economic viability of proposed

solutions.18

Differences in the nature of this case necessarily impact the degree to which it can

be compared to the previous two. For example, while Treaty 7 offered a functional

definition of a target market for the purposes of the competition, it does not

represent a well-defined community like those of the Seabird Island and Saugeen

First Nations. Rather, significant diversity follows from the member Nations.19

The

type of background research that was conducted in the previous cases – on

specific housing conditions and capacity – was in this case precluded by the scope

of research.

16

Since its inception in 2002, the Solar Decathlon has fostered innovation in green building and clean technologies. While 2011 competition rules prevented use of significant battery storage and limited energy use to that available through global solar radiation, previous competitions have been more flexible, allowing storage and other alternative energy sources such as wind and simulated geothermal systems. As such, the open source materials generated by competitors are a valuable source of data.

17 For a full breakdown of competition rules and sub-contests see www.SolarDecathlon.gov.

18 Unlike the MUP model, the Solar Decathlon’s 2011 affordability sub-contest did not impose a hard limit. Rather,

prototypes were evaluated on total cost, with $250,000 representing a score of 100%, and costs beyond this leading to reduced points.

19 Signed in 1877, Treaty 7 was a peace agreement between these First Nations and the Queen of Great Britain and

Ireland. Member Nations include the Blackfoot Confederacy (Kainaiwa/Blood Tribe, Piikani/Peigan, and Siksika/Blackfoot), as well as the Tsuu T’ina and Stoney First Nations (the latter including the Chiniki, and Wesley/Goodstoney Tribes. While the members of the Blackfoot confederacy share traditions and protocols, these are distinct from those of Tsuu T’ina and Stoney. Beyond diversity of culture, these nations also exhibit substantial differences including contemporary housing capacity, conditions and socioeconomic circumstance.

45

Nevertheless, the Treaty 7 First Nations / Solar Decathlon 2011 project is seen as

an important precedent for consideration. The design’s strategies were informed by

similar housing issues, and demonstrate innovative approaches not only to green

building and clean technologies, but also to cultural appropriateness. Furthermore,

firsthand experience throughout design and implementation provided insight that

did not follow from the other cases, including exposure to relationships between

processes, objectives, and stakeholders across project phases. 20

Extended

consultation with Aboriginal community representatives was particularly valuable in

establishing mutual trust, allowing for a more in depth exploration of the impact of

root and direct causes of current housing conditions, and the potential of cultural

design considerations to address these.

Treaty 7 First Nations – TRTL Sustainable Housing Pilot Project: Description

The rationale for selecting the Treaty 7 First Nations as a target market was based

in part upon lessons learned in the 2009 competition. Founding students of the

2011 project wanted to improve upon this precedent, where they felt that outcomes

of the event itself are limited, that the 2009 project did not achieve its potential

impact beyond these limits, and subsequently that return on investment would be

increased if the 2011 project were better aligned with real world needs and

interests from its inception. As such, the project sought to explore:

Added value of solar power in Aboriginal contexts;

Modular construction and temporary foundations, as a means to

circumnavigate barriers to private home ownership on reserve lands;21

and

Culturally driven improvements to contemporary Aboriginal housing.

Dubbed TRTL (pronounced “turtle”, short for Technological Residence Traditional

Living), this project was the only proposal to be accepted from a Canadian

institution in the 2011 competition.22

In the first application phase, consultation within and beyond Treaty 7 First Nations

identified key housing issues including mould, fire, flooding, crowding and disrepair.

At this time, magnesium oxide structural insulated panels (SIPs) were selected as

20

As the primary researcher of this paper, I also acted as the TRTL project manager for 1 year, and the Aboriginal relations manager and chair of the Aboriginal Advisory Council for 1 year.

21 Key informants confirmed the potential of such methods to allow for home ownership.

22 For more information on TRTL, including virtual tours and material specifications, see www.SolarDecathlon.ca.

46

the building material strategy, where the product has the potential to address key

issues (it is durable, resists both fire and mould, and allows for rapid assembly); it

was seen as well-suited to modular construction; and product sponsorship was

available. A preliminary version of the mechanical systems was also drafted at this

time. Key objectives were to provide reduced operating and maintenance costs. A

purely electric strategy resulted (without solar thermal components), based on an

air source heat pump, a bi-directional hydronic fan coil, and a heat recovery

ventilator (HRV). While the absence of solar thermal decreases cost effectiveness,

this was also seen to reduce maintenance needs and risk of mould from water-

related circulation components.

During the second application phase, the pool for community consultation was

expanded to include local Elders, Chiefs, and professionals such as architects, and

housing and infrastructure managers.23

These consultations identified the Tipi as a

precedent for traditional form and function. An architectural studio was used to

develop concepts, resulting in an overarching strategy to push conventions of both

modular and contemporary Aboriginal housing. The design that emerged paid

homage to Treaty 7 spirituality, referencing the Tipi’s rounded form and east-facing

entrance, which relate to the sun as a traditional source of energy and life.24

Following the studio, representatives from within and beyond Treaty 7 were invited

to form an Aboriginal Advisory Council (AAC) to the student team, in order to

achieve more consistent and in-depth input from the community. At the AAC’s

recommendation, a Spiritual-Cultural Advisor was also sought out, to mentor the

team and validate the project according to protocols of knowledge transfer and

ceremony.25

Design progressed through exploration of additional cultural considerations,

transportation strategies, engineering of mechanical and electrical systems, and

23

The team’s initial vision also included community capacity building as an outcome, to be achieved through partnership with one or more Treaty 7 trades institutions. This vision was not realized however, due to challenges of funding, logistics, and administrative barriers to inter-institutional relationships.

24 Although alternative designs on the same concept received preferential feedback from some informants, this chosen

iteration concept was preferred by academics and building industry professionals – its perceived systematic nature was thought to be more readily modified and built in a student context, and would also provide consequent flexibility to adapt to different contexts beyond the competition.

24 Appendix D illustrates the initial TRTL design concept, as well as

the other primary design concept produced at this time.

25 The term ‘Spiritual-Cultural Advisor’ was put forward by the AAC as a more politically correct and accurate version of

the term ‘Elder’. The latter can be misleading, as it denotes specialized experience in a certain area of knowledge rather than indicating age; a person can become an ‘Elder’ at a very young age, and may be much younger than those upon whom he or she is responsible for providing guidance or imparting knowledge. The role of Spiritual-Cultural Advisor was viewed by the AAC as a critical one, where specific traditional knowledge surrounding the home must be conveyed by individuals with transferred rights to do so. This knowledge is treated as highly sensitive, and cannot be conveyed with explicit permission from such an individual. Also, note that previous reference in the text to an Elder is intentional, based upon that individual’s own use of the term.

47

design of interior space. Results include a flexible floor plan resembling the Tipi,

centered on the kitchen as a space for family and community gathering. Interior

finishing features natural materials, and a color palette that references the four

elements and the medicine wheel. Decorative elements include cultural items, and

a traditional winter count – a pictographic account of the project participants, and

the home’s creation – painted on a canvas liner that covers the vaulted ceiling.

Structural engineering is based on the magnesium oxide SIPs mounted to a

galvanized steel sub-frame. While recognized as lacking cultural appropriateness

relative to a wood frame, steel was selected to avoid warping from humidity

changes between Alberta and Washington D.C. It was also sourced more

affordably than glue laminate wood. The home’s electrical needs are met by a grid

tied 8.7kW photovoltaic array, connected to a series of micro-inverters. Micro-

inverters were chosen to increase efficiency, and prevent system disruption in the

event of individually shaded or damaged panels. These also allow per panel

monitoring, and reduce voltages for safer installation.

In terms of resources, every successful applicant to the Solar Decathlon is

awarded $100,000 by the U.S. Department of Energy, conditional upon completion

of specific competition tasks and deliverables. Beyond this, it is up to individual

teams to determine requirements and sources for project funding. All resources for

TRTL were raised by students, staff and community members of the team. The

private sector was the primary source of donations for both funds and in-kind

materials. The home was displayed publicly on the West Potomac Park in

Washington D.C., from September 23rd

– October 2nd

2011, placing 10th out of 19

teams. Relationships between goals, objectives and strategies specific to this case

are summarized in Table 5.

48

Figure 6: Treaty 7 First Nations – TRTL Sustainable Housing Pilot Project

a) Photo render of home

Images by Johann Kyser

b) Steel sub-frame and SIPs during construction

Images by Johann Kyser

49

c) Plan: interior spatial function

Images by Johann Kyser

d) Design inspiration: the Tipi

(Treaty 7 Management Corporation Tipi here)

Images by Johann Kyser

50

e) Open social space centered on kitchen, dining room

Images by Johann Kyser

Table 5: Summary of Goals, Objectives and Strategies

Goal Objective Strategy

Ensure occupant health & safety

Prevent mould

Prevent fire

Provide high IAQ

Ensure structural and interior durability

Magnesium oxide SIPs: resist fire and mould, complemented by sprinkler system

Simple, efficient, purely electric mechanical system based on HRV, air source heat pump, bi-directional hydronic fan coil; PV micro-inverters reduce voltage for safe installation

Ventilate key areas: kitchen range and bathroom fan

Durable hygienic finishes: cork flooring, vinyl counters, glass tile; low VOCs

Durable structure: magnesium oxide SIPs and steel sub-frame, extended lifecycle estimated at 75-100 years

Establish economic viability

Reduce O&M and replacement costs

Provide legal ownership on reserve lands as means to build equity

Purely electric highly efficient mechanical system to simplify operating and maintenance (including HRV, air source heat pump, hydronic fan coil, forced air ventilation)

Photovoltaic (PV) power – 8.7kW net zero system, free up financial resources to contribute to rent/mortgage payments, potential FiT

51

Goal Objective Strategy

revenue; micro-inverters improve efficiency, allow per- panel monitoring

Durability, lifespan (see health and safety)

Modular structure and screw pile foundations result in temporary structure as means to foster legal ownership (see project description)

Provide cultural appropriateness

Explore potential for home to reflect worldviews, lifestyles, traditions, protocols, values, needs and interests

Determine whether this would increase sense of ownership, responsibility for the home

Solar power: sun viewed as traditional source of energy and life

Tipi inspired form: round, east facing entrance – relate home to sun, foster positive spiritual and spatial energy

Natural materials, colors: cedar, cork; colors of 4 elements, ochres

Connection to landscape: south facing patio and bay windows, rounded form minimizes visual impact

Oral culture: canvas interior with winter count references tipi liner, pictographic story connects home to traditions of family, community, and home’s creation

Four ceremonies held to validate the home through blessing and naming in the Blackfoot language – “Spo’Pi”

2-bedroom design in response to demographics of young families – maximize occupancy within 1000ft2 competition limit

Flexible, open living space: centered on kitchen, fosters gathering, cooking eating according to community values

Non-load bearing wall between bedrooms allows for conversion to single bedroom or studio/office to accommodate changes in household structure.

52

Treaty 7 First Nations – TRTL Sustainable Housing Pilot Project: Analysis

The monitoring and judgment of TRTL in the Solar Decathlon 2011 offers important

data for consideration. Simultaneously, acknowledging the project’s initial intent is

integral to a more comprehensive assessment, based on response to real world

issues and partnership with actual community stakeholders. Findings from both

areas are synthesized, and organized according to consideration of the initial

rationale, the design process, objectives and strategies, and lessons learned

through implementation.

The location of the University of Calgary within traditional Treaty 7 territory

provided an important foundation for working with the community. This allowed for

more frequent access to individuals and organizations, and contributed to their

willingness to participate. Despite this access and willingness, relationships

between community representatives and other parts of the team were often

strained. The short and demanding project schedule challenged community

participation, and the student team’s capacity to respond to input. Had timelines

allowed, it would have been preferable to bring the AAC and Spiritual-Cultural

Advisor on board prior to initiating the design process, in order to better establish

roles, responsibilities, and a more unified strategic vision between the competition

requirements and the community’s values, needs, interests. Timelines, and vested

interests within the institution, also undermined integration across disciplines,

particularly between architecture and engineering.

The student team’s relative inexperience in Aboriginal initiatives presented

additional challenges surrounding cultural protocols, sensitivities, inclusiveness and

appropriateness of language. Contribution by most participants was also voluntary.

Subsequent turnover within the student team undermined knowledge transfer and

consistency of objectives and strategies. This necessitated repetition of numerous

design processes, and in some cases prevented response to community input. Had

resources and institutional decision-making allowed, it would have been preferable

to compensate individuals for their work, to foster accountability and commitment

and improve efficacy.

Of particular importance to the team’s organization, function, and to overall project

outcomes was the insistence by Treaty 7 representatives that their input exceed

that found in a more conventional designer-client relationship. Their occupation of a

central role in project decision-making was viewed as a critical part of authentic

53

orientation towards Treaty 7 First Nations identity. At times this challenged other

team members’ sense of ownership and control. Patient and respectful dialog was

integral to resolving conflict, bridging cultural gaps and achieving consensus.

Ultimately these challenges were overcome, with results consistently viewed by

participants as a true and meaningful partnership. This eventually came to define

the project itself, and was critical to developing a better understanding of

challenges and opportunities in this context.

Community input was also particularly valuable in confirming root causes of

contemporary housing issues, and identifying opportunities to address these

through project design. Long-term relationships allowed sufficient trust to develop.

Community participants were then willing to share personal experiences of

attempted cultural assimilation, malignant policy, substandard housing, and the

influence of these forces on Aboriginal peoples’ current struggles with identity and

dispossession. The project’s Spiritual-Cultural Advisor emphasized a significant

gap, where contemporary housing methods and technologies have not been

adequately translated or interpreted into Aboriginal ways of thinking and living. His

teachings point to identification of parallels between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal

cultures as an important means to bridge this gap, and to improve broader cross-

cultural relations. Ceremonies at specific locations and times throughout the TRTL

project followed this guidance, and became an integral part not only of validating

the project according to community protocols, but also of facilitating learning and

appreciation for different perspectives.

Examining the project’s rationale, the value of solar power in Aboriginal contexts,

was initially acknowledged as ambiguous. Expectations of benefit centered on the

potential of distributed energy – as an important but ill-defined area for exploration.

The primary challenge anticipated was the high cost associated with photovoltaic

technologies. A critical finding that was not anticipated was the substantial amount

of support for solar power that was expressed by Treaty 7 participants as a result

of synergy with their own spirituality, which holds the sun as the creator of all

energy and life on earth. This synergy emerged through the course of the project,

as local traditional values and beliefs were revealed. Although it is impossible to

quantify the benefit of such a connection, it clearly influenced community interest

and buy-in in this case, and could prove significant in other contexts where similar

beliefs are held.

54

Community representatives and public observers of the competition also expressed

interest in the potential of solar power to provide independence from conventional

energy sources, especially in remote communities. The degree to which the TRTL

design pursues this was determined in part by the competition rules, which prohibit

significant battery storage and dictate that all prototypes be tied to a micro-grid.

The grid tie model is based on real world applications, wherein conventional energy

sources are used to counter the intermittency of alternative ones. Thus TRTL does

not represent a fully independent or off-grid design (which would incur additional

costs of battery storage and related systems). Rather, the home was engineered

for annual net-zero performance – generating as much or more energy than it

consumes over the course of a year. Specifically, excess energy is produced

during peak times (daytime, especially during summer), to be fed onto a

conventional grid and sold to the existing service provider, and repurchased during

non-peak times (night, and short winter days).26

While not fully independent, TRTL does have the potential to offset operating costs

through reduced demand for conventional energy sources. As indicated, initial cost

of PV technology itself was anticipated as a key challenge to the viability of solar

power in Aboriginal contexts, where funding is already an issue, and where PV

panels remain more expensive than conventional methods of generation. Here,

viability must be considered not only in the context of the grid tie model, but also

relative to the home’s overall cost, outcomes of the design, and broader industry

trends.27

The official competition cost estimate for TRTL was $294,000USD, including labour

and transportation.28

While this price point exceeds the resources of many

Aboriginal communities (and likely all regional MUPs), several factors must be

considered before ruling out the prototype’s economic viability. Firstly, this estimate

represents the cost of a one-time build. Intent for the prototype’s real world

application is based on mass production, which would reduce costs of material

26

Preliminary net metering of TRTL occurred in Washington D.C. for the 10 days of competition. The home consumed more energy than it produced at this location and time. These results are not sufficient to determine likely outcomes of annual performance however, where there was substantial cloud cover and rain, and where performance was modeled for a 12-month balance in Alberta. Further testing is required to determine if the system captures energy as intended.

27 A comprehensive evaluation of the grid tie model’s applicability in Treaty 7 First Nations and other Aboriginal

contexts is beyond the scope of this research. Viability depends upon a number of complex and interrelated factors including but not limited to: current energy sources, pricing, and infrastructure; provincial energy policy, including feed-in-tariffs; willingness of local service providers to implement feed-in technology; quantity and quality alternative resources; and the cost, efficiency and scale of technologies deployed.

28 Internal estimates by the team are outstanding. Where TRTL is approximately 1000ft

2, this works out to $294USD

per square foot. See competition rules for detailed information on how transportation was estimated and normalized between teams.

55

fabrication and labour. Secondly, TRTL’s structural lifecycle is estimated at 75-100

years or more, a dramatic improvement relative to current Aboriginal housing in

many communities. TRTL’s PV system represents approximately 20% of the total

initial cost, or $59,000CDN, including installation.29

During the anticipated structural

lifecycle, the PV system will need to be replaced approximately three times. Even if

PV prices remain constant over this period, the cost of the TRTL including this

replacement is competitive with current reserve housing in the long-term.30

To

generalize for purposes of comparison:

Poor quality of contemporary Aboriginal housing necessitates recurring

investment of approximately $100,000 every 10 years for 100 years. Total

= $1,000,000

TRTL represents an initial investment of $300,000, plus PV replacement

costs of $60,000 every 25 years. Total = $480,000

This preliminary estimate suggests that TRTL is economically viable in the long-

term. A comprehensive assessment relies on numerous other factors beyond the

scope of this research, including but not limited to: potential cost reduction from

mass production; reductions in PV pricing over this period;31

increased pricing of

conventional sources over this period; broader economic and environmental

implications of reduced demand for conventional energy sources; potential for FiT-

based revenue, and numerous areas of added value discussed below.

Quantification of these benefits is thus an important area for future research.

Unfortunately, the initial capital requirements present a barrier to many Aboriginal

communities regardless of long-term potential, with MUP representing an additional

impasse.

Here it is important to note that removal of the PV system puts the one-time build

cost at $234,000, which is only marginally higher than the cost of R2000 homes

being built in some Treaty 7 communities – at $225,000 per unit. This suggests that

TRTL’s construction costs are competitive, especially if mass production leads to

further price reduction.

29

Within the grid tie model, the PV could also be complemented or substituted for more cost-effective alternatives such as solar thermal, wind, or geothermal systems.

30 The actual frequency and cost of replacement will depend heavily upon on industry trends, which have recently seen

significant reduction in prices and increases in efficiency. Replacement need is cited here as once every 25 years based on manufacturer warranty, and specifications of efficiency decrease below 80% after this period.

31 Prices for PV have dropped significantly in recent years. See: http://eetd.lbl.gov/ea/emp/reports/lbnl-5047e.pdf

56

Considering the second rationale for selecting Treaty 7 as the project’s target

market, key informants support modularity and temporary foundations as a viable

strategy for allowing private home ownership on reserve lands.32

The objective of

this strategy would be to provide a mechanism for individuals to mortgage the

actual unit without possessing land title. This would in turn allow individuals and

families to build equity and finance improvements, for example through

renovations, upgrading, and/or starting a small business or farm.

Feasibility of this approach depends in part upon the capacity of enforcement

bodies to seize mortgaged assets. In the case of a modular structure, this in turn

depends upon ease and cost of (dis)assembly and transportation.33

TRTL’s

complex and costly requirements – including a large crane and 6 flatbed trucks –

indicate that a much simpler structure must be developed in order to realize this

objective. Entries in the 2011 and previous Solar Decathlon competitions offer

superior precedents. In particular, the 2011 Illinois team’s pre-fabricated prototype

can be shipped on a single truck and (re)assembled in less than 24 hours. Looking

forward, a key challenge to achieving this objective is the merging of easy transport

and (dis)assembly with a culturally responsive design.34

Indeed, simplification is a critical next step to commercial viability of TRTL overall.

The initial design approach – to push formal boundaries of modular and Aboriginal

housing – can be viewed as a key driver of both the project’s greatest strengths

and its greatest weaknesses. The design broke numerous conventions of

architectural and industry practice, resulting in a uniquely appropriate form that

resonated with Treaty 7 spirituality and values. Community representatives

supported the idea that such a design could foster a sense of identity in the home,

which could in turn lead to increased sense of ownership and responsibility for it.

This (re)connection between Aboriginal peoples and their homes represents a vital

step to improving housing conditions both on and beyond reserve lands.

32

TRTL is intended to rest on screw piles, which must be evaluated according to local conditions. One key informant did express doubt in the soundness of this approach, citing connectivity of modules as source of building envelope failure in existing modular projects. It was not however the legal underpinnings of the approach that were questioned.

33 Capacity for seizure of assets is further complicated by location on reserve lands, requiring enforcement by local

agencies. This dependency might deter external institutions from entering into the necessary mortgaging agreements in the first place, unless sufficient trust can be established between stakeholders.

34 The competition’s rules also include size restrictions, which encourage creative approaches towards spatial

efficiency and flexibility. Innovation in this area may prove valuable in addressing overcrowding in Aboriginal contexts. Measures to expand sleeping capacity are of particular import, but must be evaluated according to contextual criteria, including the need for durability.

57

Simultaneously, the complexity of TRTL’s form results in challenges not only to the

strategy of legal ownership through modularity, but also to other factors within and

beyond Aboriginal contexts. The building’s shape is ill-suited to the original

manufactured form and structural characteristics of the SIPs, necessitating

significant modification, and inclusion of a custom built sub-frame, with associated

increases in material and labour costs.35

The large number and unusual nature of

connections increase risk of leakage and therefore of mould. The home’s rounded

roof and floor plan present additional challenges to PV efficiency, as well as

mechanical systems design and cost. The disassembly strategy that follows from

this shape further results in recurring damage to the SIPs, limiting the number of

times that the structure can feasibly be moved. Beyond impacting cost, durability,

and systems, the complexity of the design challenges buildability and replicability,

and thereby fails to respond to issues of capacity and overall demand in Aboriginal

contexts.36

Analysis of this case is summarized in Table 6.

Table 6: Treaty 7 First Nations – Strengths and Weaknesses

Note: Table 6 summarizes the analysis of the Treaty 7 First Nations case according to the strengths and weaknesses exhibited within the communities and by the sustainable housing pilot project. It is critical to note that these are determined by the case context, and may result in different outcomes under different circumstances. Accurate interpretation of this table therefore also relies upon due consideration of the case description.

Strength Weaknesses

Design Process

Partnership between local community, student body and industry professionals fostered willingness of, and access to, participants

Patient and respectful dialog aided conflict resolution, informed consensus

Length, extent of partnership fostered trust necessary to broach sensitive topics

Adherence to community protocols of knowledge transfer greatly increased two-way cross-cultural learning

Validation according to local tradition increased community

Sort and demanding schedule challenged degree of, and capacity to respond to, community input, resulting in increased tension

Formal consultative board established after (not prior to) initiation of design process - undermined clarity and consistency of roles, responsibilities, objectives, strategies

Team inexperience in Aboriginal contexts: ignorance of protocols, sensitivities, significance of inclusiveness

Inability to compensate for participation undermined commitment, accountability, drove

35

For the competition, steel was sourced more readily and affordably than glue laminate wood. Timber framing was ruled out due to potential warping from humidity changes between Alberta and Washington D.C. (as experienced in the 2009 post and beam construction). In exploring substitution, all options would need to be compared relative to objectives of affordability, durability, health and safety.

36 As an emerging technology, SIPs themselves are subject to unfamiliarity relative to conventional methods such as

stick frame. Beyond their benefits to health and safety, they do offer advantage of prefabrication in controlled conditions. Their availability may be limited however, and the custom sub-frame required by the design likely presents additional supply chain challenges.

58

Strength Weaknesses

buy-in, support high turnover

Institutional prioritization of architecture, exclusion of other disciplines undermined holistic vision, interdisciplinary integration

Objectives, Strategies

Prioritization of health, safety, durability, cultural considerations

Synergy between PV and worldview increased community buy-in, support

Long-term view of economic viability through reduced O&M, replacement costs

Facilitate legal ownership through modular construction, temporary foundations

Potential for reduced cost via mass production

Reduced environmental impact through alternative energy, energy efficiency

Initial capital cost exceeds community economic resources, and likely MUP

Economic viability depends partly on grid tie, FiT

Architectural form increased cost and complexity of construction, systems design, (dis)assembly and house transport; ill-suited to materials and community capacity

Complexity and cost of TRTL transportation and (dis)assembly hinders ability to seize mortgaged asset, undermining ownership goal

Absence of solar thermal reduces cost effectiveness

Viability depends on increase in available Band funding, policy support for increased capital expenditure, and support of grid tie

Viability, higher initial capital required for innovations in durability, alternative energy

Complexity, competition within socio-political organization of Treaty 7

Technologies best suited to address current housing issues are still relatively new and emerging resulting in higher costs.

Grid tie model dependent on extensive and expensive support infrastructure and services, delaying its adoption as a feasible alternative in most First Nations contexts.

Grid tie model depends on existence of conventional energy sources, infrastructure, additional support of policy, service providers, technology

59

Treaty 7 First Nations: Case Study – Conclusions

The Treaty 7 First Nations case offers important insight into the implementation of

green building methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal communities. The

pilot project was also particularly valuable in confirming the significance of cultural

design considerations in this context. The partnership with Treaty 7 First Nations

was essential to learning in both of these areas, illuminating relationships between

community values, needs and interests and strategies such as solar power and

architectural form.

Project successes include the creation of a durable structure that promotes

occupant health and safety, and reduced dependence on conventional energy

sources. Further study is needed to confirm benefits such as indoor air quality, or

the economic competitiveness of solar power relative to conventional energy

sources in Treaty 7 communities. Here, the academic nature of the project

represents both weakness and strength. The home will not actually be lived in, so

evaluation will rely on simulation rather than results of real occupancy.

Simultaneously, there will be no occupants to disturb when accessing, monitoring

and modifying systems and features.

In terms of process and strategies, TRTL is not dissimilar from the Seabird Island

First Nation pilot project: complexity undermined success in both cases, including

achievement of affordability and alignment with community capacity. In this case,

these objectives were not sufficiently prioritized relative to others, such as the

decision to push formal boundaries of contemporary modular and Aboriginal

housing. Consequently, the TRTL design must be simplified and its cost reduced

before commercialization can be pursued. These remain realistic goals however,

and define important areas for future research.

One of the project’s most important outcomes, TRTL fostered a unique exploration

of cultural appropriateness in Aboriginal housing design. The home provides

numerous reference points for future initiatives – from synergies between energy

sources and Aboriginal worldviews, to significance of spatial function and materials

selection. Integration of the community’s values, needs and interests was essential

to achieving their support for the project. They further confirmed that such

measures may help to foster a sense of ownership and pride in the home, a

challenge for many individuals and families today, especially the younger

generations.

60

The prohibitive cost of TRTL should not necessarily be viewed as an outcome of

exploring cultural appropriateness. As indicated, removal of the home’s PV system

places it in competitive range with existing R2000 developments in Treaty 7

communities. That said, cost was influenced by the project’s exploratory nature. To

avoid similar risk in future projects, relationships between variables must be

carefully considered – for example those between form, material selection, modular

(dis)assembly and/or transportation strategy. It is difficult to determine whether a

less ambitious approach to design would have achieved the same degree of

appropriateness. While this certainly increased complexity, cost, and overall risk37

,

it also fostered innovation, and resulted in a strong foundation for future research.

37

Perceived risk from the exploratory approach included potential failure to complete the project. Such failure could have had serious consequences, impacting perception towards initiatives of this nature, disappointing expectations set within the community, and decreasing likelihood of future collaborations.

61

Table 7: Case Study Comparison – Summary of Strategies with Multiple Objectives

Objectives Cases

Inhi

bit m

ould

,

prov

ide

IAQ

Dur

abili

ty

Red

uced

O&

M, r

epla

cem

ent

cost

s*

Incr

ease

d en

ergy

/mat

eria

l/wat

er

effic

ienc

y

Red

uced

dep

ende

nce

on

conv

entio

nal e

nerg

y so

urce

s

Red

uced

Env

.

Impa

ct

Cul

tura

l app

ropr

iate

ness

Fle

xibi

lity

of

spat

ial f

unct

ion

Sea

bird

Isla

nd

Firs

t Nat

ion

Sau

geen

Firs

t Nat

ion

Tre

aty

7

Firs

t Nat

ions

Strategy

Paperless drywall

• • • • • •

Magnesium oxide SIPs

• • • • •

Insulated concrete forms

• • • •

Radiant slab, thermal battery

• • • • • •

Efficient mechanical, electrical, appliances

• • • • • • • •

Rough-in for mechanical retrofit

• • • •

Durable, efficient envelope

• • • • • • •

Healthy finishing • • •

Hard flooring • • • • • •

Alternative Energy

• • • • • • •

Local natural materials

• • • • • • •

Repurposed materials

• • •

Physical orientation

• • • • • •

Function of interior space

• • • •

Modular structure, temporary foundations

• • •

62

Table 8: Pilot Project Comparative Summary – Performance Improvements and Strengths

Cases

Seabird Island First Nation

Saugeen First Nation

Treaty 7 First Nations

Performance Improvements

Occupant health, safety • • •

Cultural appropriateness • •

Reduced O&M and replacement costs unknown • expected

Energy/water/material efficiency • • •

Durability, extended lifecycle • • •

Reduced dependence on fossil fuels NA (hydro) • •

Reduced environmental impact • • •

Flexibility of interior spatial function, unit size • •

Potential to retrofit additional features, systems

• •

Unit size responds to community needs • • •

Reduced land/service costs, requirements • • •

Modular structure and temporary foundations facilitate private on-reserve ownership

•

Project Strengths

Community consultation, participation in design

• • •

Self-construction increased capacity, awareness

• •

External partnerships shared knowledge, reduced costs, connections for future initiatives

• • •

Integration of emerging standards, ratings into project assessment

•

Leveraged policy, infrastructure support for alternative energy

• • •

Financial support included new opportunities specific to Aboriginal initiatives

• • NA

63

Table 9: Pilot Project Comparative Summary – Difficulties, Failures and Weaknesses

Cases

Seabird Island First

Nation

Saugeen First Nation

Treaty 7 First Nations

Difficulties, Failures

Unfamiliarity with methods and/or technologies led to cost overruns

• •

Ambiguity, complexity of process led to shortened timeline, limited amount of consultation

• •

Methods, technologies failed to perform as expected

• •

Onerous systemic requirements of technologies prevented realization of intended benefits

•

Project Weaknesses

Cost, complexity mis-aligned with community capacity, resources

• •

Absence of comprehensive auditing undermined sense of project cost, effectiveness vs. conventional approach

•

Lack of follow-up from and bankruptcy of external stakeholders undermined knowledge transfer

•

Absence of feedback, formal tracking of outcomes from self-construction

• •

Multi-unit approach contrary to community preference

• •

Partial dependency on policy support for alt. energy benefits

• • •

64

Conclusions and Recommendations

This report confirms the existence of key housing issues and problematic housing

conditions in Aboriginal communities, which undermine the health and well-being of

these peoples in different regions throughout Canada. Housing failures emerge

from inadequacies of design, insufficient resources, and numerous other direct

causes that are complex and interrelated. Research has also confirmed origins root

causes, manifest in broader systemic issues. These include problematic policy,

legislation, and history of cultural oppression. Intervention at the project level has

the potential to address key issues, conditions, and direct causes. For example,

contemporary green building methods offer superior performance in terms of

occupant health and safety, and durability relative to housing in many Aboriginal

communities. Simultaneously, strategies that have been explored also demonstrate

potential to counter root causes at the systemic level. Cultural design

considerations foster a sense of ownership and pride in the home, which may

translate into increased responsibility for maintenance; and modular structures and

temporary foundations may provide legal bases for private ownership on reserve

lands.

Beyond confirming issues, conditions, and their direct and root causes, research

has also identified challenges and opportunities that accompany emerging green

building methods and clean technologies. The case studies and pilot projects

provide insight of how these may be further affected by implementation in

Aboriginal contexts. Where insufficient resources are a key challenge, their

conservation and effective use is essential. Beyond integration in the design

process, efficacy relies upon clear understanding and communication of objectives

and strategies. Incremental deployment of advanced methods and technologies

may be the best way for communities to explore and capitalize on emerging

sectors without overexposure to cost and risk.

A critical issue that did not stand out in the literature review, but which was clearly

relevant in all cases, was community capacity. While not unique to Aboriginal

communities, capacity challenges have been exacerbated by historical events and

problematic policies in these contexts. Relationships between different

stakeholders are an important part of building and transferring knowledge and

capacity. When these relationships occur between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal

65

peoples, awareness of Aboriginal perspectives are a critical component of respect,

inclusion, trust and productivity.

It is evident that capacity (or lack thereof) may influence project outcomes through

all phases, from inception to implementation, and on to inspection, maintenance,

post-occupancy evaluation and monitoring. Models for self-construction provide a

viable means to gain relevant skills and knowledge, and foster awareness of

methods, technologies and policies. Occupant education and training is also

integral to improving conditions and fostering responsibility. Successful self-

construction and education initiatives are thus potential foundations for self-

determination in Aboriginal communities, leading to positive feedbacks through

housing-related socioeconomic outcomes such as employment (CMHC 2010).

Progress in this direction is highly desirable from the community perspective, with

the potential to improve individual and community health and well-being. Capacity

building is therefore one of the most crucial considerations that should inform future

initiatives.

The Saugeen First Nation case highlights the potential of individual housing

projects to contribute to capacity building, as a foundation for sense of ownership,

pride, receptivity and community momentum. One informant from the Treaty 7 First

Nations case also cited the Habitat for Humanity model as having demonstrated

similar success. Simultaneously, the Seabird Island First Nation case is illustrative

of challenges to capacity building that may emerge from complexity, unanticipated

requirements, unproven technologies, or dependence on external stakeholders.

Success in capacity building therefore depends upon careful coordination of

objectives, strategies, assessment of current and potential community resources,

and lasting stakeholder relations.

Within the case studies, the pilot projects in sustainable housing provide a broad

spectrum of green building methods and clean technologies to consider. Tables 1-6

provide a summary of the relationship between goals, objectives and strategies

found within each case. Unfortunately, while many of the strategies presented by

the cases demonstrate potential, their success cannot be comprehensively

assessed herein. Rather, a detailed assessment of their effectiveness depends

upon further research in numerous areas. For example, mould prevention

strategies can only be adequately assessed through post-occupancy evaluation of

physical assets and monitoring of indoor air quality over extended periods of time.

66

Similarly, viability of alternative energy systems requires careful performance

monitoring, and analysis of economic and environmental outcomes relative to

conventional systems. That said, many of the methods and technologies examined

demonstrate potential, even in cases where their success may have been

undermined by contextual factors.

Identification of design processes, objectives, strategies, outcomes, and

subsequent analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats is

therefore central to the value of this research. Subsequent understanding of

contextual influence will ideally inform future initiatives, allowing individuals,

organizations and communities to avoid pitfalls, mitigate risk, and capitalize on

emerging trends in industry and policy. Consistent with the findings from the

literature review, some of the challenges and opportunities that accompany

emerging sectors are universal, while others are more prevalent in or even unique

to Aboriginal contexts. For example, while unfamiliarity and capacity are not

uniquely Aboriginal challenges, they may be exacerbated by historic factors

specific to this context. Again, Tables 1-6 provide summaries of each case, and

findings are compared in Tables 7-8.

Several important areas have been identified for future research specific to

Aboriginal contexts. As noted in two of the case studies, economies of scale have

an important role to play in improving Aboriginal housing. The Saugeen First Nation

pilot project demonstrates affordable implementation of sustainable technologies,

including reduced operating costs, and potential improvements in durability and

occupant health. Success of this project was based in part on a multi-unit strategy,

which in turn facilitated reduced cost through bulk purchasing agreements. In the

absence of a multi-unit strategy however, the amount of construction occurring in

many Aboriginal communities should still provide ample foundation for similar

arrangements. In the Treaty 7 First Nations case, mass production would likely

offer reduced costs, thereby increasing viability, with the potential to generate a

large number of homes that could be rapidly deployed. Economies of scale also

play an important role in determining the viability of alternative energy initiatives,

influencing their significance relative to conventional sources, their overall

efficiency, and their capacity to meet demand. This may in turn influence

willingness of local governments and service providers to facilitate grid connections

and provide FiTs.

67

In Aboriginal contexts, pre-existing models for communal ownership represent

opportunity related to economy of scale. For example, as the owner of all reserve

homes and infrastructure, a given Band can elect to implement technologies at the

community scale rather than depending on individual uptake. This may be true not

only of alternative energy sources, but also of innovations in water-related

technologies such as capture, filtration, and reuse. Whether the degree of control

held by Band management allows for more rapid implementation of innovation than

that of non-Aboriginal communities is an important question. Two precedents have

been identified in this area. First, the community-scale solar thermal installation in

Drake’s Landing, Okotoks, Alberta has garnered international attention, met initial

targets, and is now the subject of feasibility studies for larger scale application.

Secondly, solar power installations in the T’Sou-ke First Nation in British Columbia

have contributed to capacity building, and generated revenue not only from

alternative energy, but also from related spinoffs such as tourism.

As identified in the literature review, private home ownership on reserve lands is

perhaps the most uniquely Aboriginal housing challenge. Currently, debate

gravitates towards the related issue of land ownership, which remains highly

contentious between different communities and external stakeholders. This report

has identified another opportunity: further investigation into modular construction

and temporary foundations is warranted, as means to circumnavigate legal

barriers.

Legal barriers aside, the historical absence of cultural considerations in Aboriginal

housing design has thoroughly undermined actual sense of ownership, with

implications for the relationships between Aboriginals people(s), their homes, their

communities, and themselves. While the cases studied here offer insight into

cultural appropriateness, far more research is needed to adequately understand

the implications of improvement in this area, and to establish best practices for

research and design processes. In short, Aboriginal peoples must be afforded the

same opportunity which is often taken for granted outside this context – to design,

build and live in homes that reflect their identity, values, needs and interests.

Anything less is socially unsustainable, and will perpetuate housing failures that

have persisted for decades. There is marked potential for emerging green building

methods and clean technologies to contribute such a reality. Simultaneously,

culture must play a central role in defining the Aboriginal housing of the future.

68

Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Design

Establish a formal body of community representatives prior to initiating

design, to provide meaningful input in project decision-making;

Foster relationship-building between stakeholders, with consideration for

historical and cultural factors specific to the community in question

(sensitivities, traditions, protocols surrounding knowledge transfer,

validation, interpretation, and organizational and sociopolitical structures);

Assess local demographics, needs, and logistical considerations

(e.g. supply chains, climatic conditions);

Clearly communicate objectives and options between all stakeholders,

including perceived benefits, risks, and special considerations (such as

labour, scheduling and maintenance requirements);

Align solutions with existing or potential community capacity (where this is

a challenge, alignment may be fostered through modest objectives and/or

grounding strategies in proven methods and technologies);

Adhere to contemporary building performance standards and material

specifications;

Explore strategies to promote a sense of, and actual, legal home

ownership;

Foster self-construction models in order to build capacity, formally track

and assess related outcomes;

Allocate resources and plan for follow-up between stakeholders, including

post-occupancy evaluation, comprehensive auditing; and

Engage 3rd

parties to assess success relative to initial objectives, use to

inform dialog on best practices.

69

Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Policy

Provide clear criteria and guidelines for competitiveness and qualification;

Allow for flexibility of timelines to improve design processes and

outcomes, and avoid logistical challenges associated with

seasons/climate;

Allow for modification of objectives and strategies during design and

implementation phases, where sufficient need can be demonstrated;

Allow increases in initial capital investment specific to key issues such as

health, safety, durability, flexibility and appropriateness;

Allow increases in initial capital investment where long-term benefits can

be quantified;

Avoid bias towards specific housing occupancy rates, and respond to

actual needs;

Dedicate funding for capacity building in housing management and home

inspections, incentivize attendance, commitment to employment, and

third-party tracking of outcomes;

Dedicate funding for different levels and types of initiatives, including

both minor and major renovations and new construction;

Shift responsibility for assessing adequacy away from occupants;

Develop measures for affordability on reserve lands and improve these in

rural contexts;

Dedicate funding for proven ownership models such as rent-to-own

programs and revolving loan funds;

Dedicate infrastructure and site development funding independent of

housing;

Identify synergies between outcomes of green building, clean

technologies and mandates in other sectors such as climate change and

environmental protection, and use these to leverage increased funding;

Provide special measures to alleviate and avoid housing related debt,

including but not limited to reduced interest rates;

70

Support strategies for keeping economic resources within the community;

and

Promote housing related education in Aboriginal communities, explore

different methods for cultural appropriateness and effectiveness; address

general and specific maintenance issues, and broader housing market

function (mortgages, rent, impact of arrears on Band capacity to service);

track and assess outcomes, and develop best practices.

71

Acknowledgements

Firstly I would like to extend thanks to the Seabird Island First Nation, the

Saugeen First Nation, and the Treaty 7 First Nations, and specifically to all of the

individuals from within these communities who made this research possible. I

sincerely hope that the research herein is of benefit to you, and to other

Aboriginal communities who face similar challenges. Secondly I would like to

thank my wife Jessica, and my family and friends for their patience and support. I

would also like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Michael Buzzelli of the

Canadian Policy Network at the University of Western Ontario, my field mentor

Keir Brownstone, and my thesis research supervisor Dr. Larissa Muller in the

Faculty of Environmental Design, at the University of Calgary. Last but not least,

thanks to Margie Carlson and the Housing Services Corporation for providing the

resources needed to pursue research in this important area.

72

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