survival guides for course conveners for the 2017 mini ... guides...survival guides for course...

Survival Guides for Course Conveners

for the 2017 Mini-Semester

Brought to you by the Education Development Unit and the Writing Lab

in the Department of Health Sciences Education

Convener survival guide 1:

Planning a condensed course Lunelle Pienaar [email protected]


Rethinking classroom discussion:

Enhancing learning through classroom discussion Busayo Ige [email protected]


Teaching strategies for the mini semester Elmi Badenhorst [email protected]


Demonstrating Relevance and Encouraging Active Participation Busayo Ige [email protected]


Using reading and writing to support teaching and learning Natashia Muna [email protected]


Finding out and keeping track of which page your students are on Francois Cilliers [email protected]


Assessment in a condensed course Francois Cilliers [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]










Planning a condensed course

Lunelle Pienaar [email protected]

This guide provides an overview of construc-tive alignment as a framework to evaluate teaching practice. Viewed through the lens of the mini semester, planning and implementa-tion of curriculum restructuring must occur within tight deadlines. Given the scope of a typical course curriculum, developing and im-plementing a condensed curriculum raises important questions. Questions such as: what should be taken out? how much of a topic is enough? what should be assessed? what learning opportunities are appropriate? what resources (human and material) are required?

Constructive alignment Constructive alignment is a process that in-forms and makes the association between the learning outcomes, assessment tasks and the teaching and learning strategies explicit. In constructive alignment, the teaching strate-gies are designed to optimize learning to achieve the desired learning outcomes. The learning in turn is assessed using appropriate assessment tasks. What this means is that the knowledge, skills or attitudes and behavior we expect students to exit with, should be taught and assessed with the outcomes in mind.

In maintaining the educational soundness of a course constructive alignment provides a framework to assist teaching design before teaching commences. More importantly it is a system to evaluate existing teaching practice. Each of the components (learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities and assess-

ment) of a constructively aligned system will be discussed below.

Learning outcomes Outcomes are educational statements which concisely describe the competencies that will be achieved at the end of a course. Outcomes are crucial in constructive alignment, given that the learning outcomes are reached when there is alignment between them and the as-sessment tasks and teaching activities. A way to evaluate the precision of your outcomes is to use the acronym S.M.A.R.T:

Specific – the outcome must target the topic represented in the course precisely

Measurable – this means that the outcomes must state which measurable cognitive pro-cesses, attitudes, behavior and or skills will be learned, developed or mastered during the course and therefore be assessed.

Achievable – the learning outcome should be doable within allocated space of the mini se-mester

Relevant – this must be essential knowledge for the student to progress to the next year or course. In this way, it informs discussion of what is crucial now and what can be carried forward into the next year.

Time-efficient – the outcome must be achiev-able within a realistic period

If you want to know more about writing learn-ing outcomes click here.


http://www.healthedu.uct.ac.za/usr/edu/downloads/How%20to%20write%20learning%20outcomes.pdf

References Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher education, 32(3), 347-364. Biggs, J. (2003). Aligning teaching and assessing to course objectives. Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: New Trends and

Innovations, 2, 13-17

Figure 1: Constructive alignment

Teaching and Learning activities When designing teaching and learning activi-ties, it is important to take into account of how well the planned activities make the best use of the assigned time to achieve the de-sired outcomes. In an optimal system, teach-ing and learning activities draw on the meth-ods used, the learning environment and the learning activities. The learning environment should take account of the diversity of the student body (different backgrounds, sets of experiences, cultural contexts, and world views) which are brought into the teaching space. This increases the likelihood that stu-dents will feel they are part of the teaching process and participate in the activities de-signed to achieve the intended outcomes. The intention of teaching is to facilitate learning and methods of teaching play a part in the teaching and learning process. Importantly it recognized that learning is facilitated when a) the learning builds on student prior

knowledge and is appreciative of student diversity and uniqueness as well as

b) engaging students through various learn-ing activities (such as discussion, ques-tioning etc.) using different levels of cog-nition or skills as described in the out-comes.

In doing so, the teaching and learning activi-ties students participate in support the in-tended outcomes.

To read more on the various teaching activities please view Guide 2 on Rethinking Classroom Dis-cussion and Guide 3 on Teaching strategies for the mini semester.

Assessment An unaligned system result in the assessment of knowledge, skills, attitudes and/or behav-iors which did not form part of the intended learning outcomes shared with students.

When reviewing the assessment tasks it is important to examine how well the task indi-cates whether individual students achieved the intended outcomes. It is therefore a way of obtaining information from tests or other sources about the achievement or abilities of individual students. It requires a process of documenting and sharing with students, in measurable terms the, knowledge, skill, atti-tudes, and/or beliefs being assessed. Usually a description of what is considered as success-ful achievement of outcomes are necessary.

To read more about assessment, please view Guide 7 on Assessing in a condensed course.




Rethinking classroom discussion:

Enhancing learning through classroom discussion

Busayo Ige [email protected]

The recent ‘#Fees Must Fall’ protest has evoked a wide range of emotions: from fear and anger to passion and hope. It is important to bring our class together again during the mini-semester by ensuring that every student is offered the opportunity to learn and improve in their learning. Classroom discussions is an excellent strategy for enhancing student moti-vation, fostering intellectual agility, and en-couraging inclusive classroom participation. Classroom discussion creates opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of critical academic skills, which includes the abil-ity to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist and evalu-ate evidence (Some sections adapted from Da-vis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999).

Benefits of Discussion 1. It helps students explore a diversity of per-

spectives.

2. It increases students’ awareness of and tol-erance for ambiguity or complexity.

3. It helps student recognize and investigate their assumptions.

4. It encourages attentive, respectful listen-ing.

5. It develops new appreciation for continu-ing differences.

6. It increases intellectual agility.

7. It helps student become connected to a topic.

8. It shows respect for students’ voices and experiences.

9. It helps student learn the processes and habits of democratic discourse.

10. It affirms students as co-creators of knowledge.

11. It develops the capacity for clear commu-nication of ideas and meaning.

12. It develops habits of collaborative learning.

13. It increases breadth and makes students more empathetic.

14. It helps students develop skills of synthesis and integration.

15. It leads to transformation. (Brookfield, and Preskill 1999)

Asking Good Questions Good questions are the key to a productive dis-cussion. These include not only the questions you use to jump-start discussion but also the questions you use to probe for deeper analysis, ask for clarification or examples, explore impli-cations, etc. But questions can also be used to stimulate the recall of prior knowledge, pro-mote comprehension, and build critical-think-ing skills.

It is therefore helpful to think about the vari-ous kinds of questions you might ask and the cognitive skills they require to answer (Tofadeet al 2013).


References Brookfield, S. and Preskill, S. (1999) Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for University Teachers. Buckingham:

SRHE and Open University Press.

Brookfield, S. & Preskill, S. (2005). Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Davis, B. (2009). Tools for Teaching, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Tofade, T., Elsher, J. and Haines, S.J (2013) Best Practice Strategies for Effective use of Questions as a Teaching Toll. Journal of Ameri-can Pharmaceutical Education. 77(7): 155.

Effective questions strategies Effective questions are meaningful and un-

derstandable to students. Depending on the level of comprehension of

a topic, students may be able to handle ques-tions of various levels of difficultly. Effective questions challenge students but are not too difficult.

Students benefit from answering easier questions before difficult ones.

Tofadeet al (2013) provides a useful sample table of types of non-hierarchical questions (below) that can be used to facilitate discus-sion as a teaching tools lists question struc-tures and how they determine the way the students can respond.

Some examples of ineffective questions:

Too vague. Students are unsure of what is being asked and may refrain from attempt-ing to answer.

Too loaded. Students may guess at what you want them to say rather than tell you what they think.

"Does everyone understand?" "Any other questions?" Most students will not reply and even if they do, their answer is only a report of their own assessment of their comprehen-sion.

Yes/No questions or other closed-ended questions can be useful for drawing on pre-vious knowledge to get started on a new topic, but are dead ends for discussions and deeper engagement.

Types of Non-hierarchical Questions Used as Teaching Tools

Tofadeet al (2013)




Teaching strategies for the mini semester

Elmi Badenhorst [email protected]

No doubt the mini semester will bring with it specific challenges to teaching and learning. The good news is that academically strong students have the tendency to survive regard-less of potential obstacles. The flip side of the coin is that students who have to work hard at achieving academic success, usually become the first causalities under atypical teaching circumstances. During the mini semester and subsequent condensed year, more than ever, it is recommended that you, the lecturer, ac-tively “fetch” students from where they are, and take them to where you want them to be.

In the literature this gap between a student’s actual ability (what they can achieve on their own without guidance) and their potential ability (what they can achieve with guided assistance), is referred to as the zone of prox-imal development. The teaching strategy ded-icated to close this gap, is called mediation.

Any good lecturer applies mediation on a daily basis, so this is not news to you. However, the condensed year will require of you to make mediation explicit to help students to achieve their potential.

How does mediation work? There are five key ingredients to ensure that potentially struggling students are given suffi-cient opportunities to learn from you.

1) Inclusivity and feelings of compe-tence

Inclusivity is important for learning. In addi-tion, students need to be made aware of their capabilities to function both successfully and independently.

How do I do it? Rearrange learning activities so that students

have ample opportunities for success, demon-strating to them that they have dealt with problems efficiently and mastered the work. This does not mean “dumbing down” activi-

ties, it simply means that students are given opportunities which demonstrate to them – “I have got it!”

2) Intentionality and reciprocity. Inten-tionality refers to a lecturer’s deliberate efforts to focus students’ attention, awareness, perception, processing, or re-action. Intentionality reflects what the lecturer wants to achieve with the learn-ing activity – what is the purpose of to-day’s session, why is this work important, and what should the student take home from today’s session. Reciprocity is when the student responds vocally, verbally, or nonverbally to your attempt. Reciprocity is a willingness to take new information on board.

These two things are considered crucial for the "ignition" of the learning process. Metacognitive skills like self-reflection, in-sight and articulation develop as a result. These skills in turn become the steering power towards more efficient learning. In-tentionality transforms the three partners involved in the learning and teaching in-teraction - stimuli, lecturer and student - in such a manner that it results in an ap-propriate response from the student.

How do I do it? Make your teaching explicit and a deliberate

process to achieve a change in the student’s thinking, processing or response. Today I am going to cover X because it builds onto Y and it will enable you to do Z. There are 5 things that you must know – you must know the defini-tion, you must be able to describe it etc. etc.

Select the material to be learnt and make it very explicit to students that THIS is what must be learnt. The PowerPoint will give you an overview of the concepts, but it is im-portant to also study pages x-y in your text-book.

Choose and rearrange the content material for students. To make it easier to digest, I have


provided a diagram/summary of the work. Indicate the relevance of the material via ges-

tures, questions or voice changes. Why do you think it is important that we know this con-cept?

When asking probing and challenging ques-tions, give sufficient time for answers so that all students can respond (not only the usual responders.) I want somebody else to respond, who else can tell me that… (see Guide 2 for more information on asking good questions).

Ask many leading and follow up questions to probe if all students have fully understood the intent of today’s learning activity.

Encourage dialogue and listen to alternative ideas with interest and care. It is interesting that you say X, but have you thought of Y? Do you think it can be applied across all situa-tions?

3) Meaning refers to the motivational and value-orientated significance of the learn-ing material that is presented. Students who experience mediation of meaning will actively connect future meanings to new information rather than passively take information on board.

How do I do it? Give ample examples of how a concept will

play out in the student’s chosen career Relate the concept to other events. You will

also encounter this concept when you get to … Emphasize the importance and value of know-

ing this information through tone of voice, repetitious actions and class room rituals. What do you say when I say X? Let’s go….

4) Transferring knowledge and skills across disciplines.

Students do not necessarily understand the relationship between specific and general goals. Some might struggle to see how today’s learning activity links with previous and future material. Students are therefore not neces-sarily able to transfer knowledge from one session to the other, let alone transfer be-tween disciplines, such as anatomy and sur-gery. It is therefore imperative that the lec-turer continuously and deliberately switch between the specific goals of a given activity and the general application thereof.

How do I do it? In order to allow for better transfer, discuss

the learning outcomes with students in detail during all learning activities – specifically

when one learning activity leads to another. Yesterday in the lecture, you learnt about X. Today’s prac will enable you to….

Give explicit value to tools you are using, such as PowerPoint and textbooks. The PowerPoint is a summary, but you will find many more ex-amples in the textbook

Ask probing questions throughout your ses-sions to see if transfer is taking place and to encourage students to examine relationships within your discipline and others. In return students become critical thinkers who exam-ine and understand the purpose of a learning activity.

Mathematical formulae and Latin and Greek prefixes/suffixes might have no meaning to the student outside the boundaries of your lecture which give them meaning and pur-pose. Enable students to grasp the purpose and meaning of these things, and how and why to use them outside of the current learn-ing activity so that students are not lost and bewildered by symbols with no meaning or relevance to furthering their learning.

5) Scaffolding teaching and learning events is an organized process by which a lectur-er organizes an event that is unfamiliar or beyond a student’s ability in order to as-sist them to carry out that event. Students are encouraged to carry out parts of the task within their ability, and you "fill in" or "scaffold" the rest. Scaffolding involves recruiting students’ interest, initially re-ducing their choices, maintaining their goal orientation, highlighting critical as-pects of the task, controlling their frustra-tion, and demonstrating activity paths to them by using these three components:

A scaffolded activity should enable students to carry out a task, which they previously were not able to complete on their own. I want you to reason with me…What do you think will happen if…Ok, but let’s say that we are only able to…What would happen next?

Bring students to a point of competence, which will enable them to eventually access the right information, process it successfully and apply their knowledge in a constructive way to solve the problem on their own.

Provide evidence to show students that they have now achieved a greater level of inde-pendent competence as a result of the scaf-folding. So you see, you were able to find the correct answer. Can you now do it on your own?

References Badenhorst, E. (2008). An exploration of mediation in an intervention programme for educationally disadvantaged medical students,

University of Cape Town. MEd.

Badenhorst, E., Hartman, N., & Mamede, S. (2016). How Biomedical Misconceptions May Arise and Affect Medical Students :Learning ׳A Review of Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Evidence. Health Professions Education, 2(1), 10-17.

Checklist for diagnosing learning problems

When encountering new information, a few things might go wrong. The student might have insufficient or incor-rect prior knowledge, they might have an unscientific understanding of the new concept, they might struggle to construct the new concept, or they might not be fa-miliar with all the complexities that make up the new concept.

Typical mistakes related to constructing knowledge against prior knowledge: Compartmentalising: If the student is not able to fit

new information into existing knowledge struc-tures, it becomes compartmentalized, and cannot be used constructively. An example is studying anatomy and physiology in isolation, and no trans-fer of knowledge from structures to pro-cess/functions. Typically this happens because the student cannot see the relevance of the new in-formation with regards to prior knowledge, and simply applies rote learning. Ask may probing ques-tions to enable the student to see how the new in-formation builds onto prior knowledge. Give them ample opportunities to integrate knowledge.

Struggling to integrate “part” and “whole”. An ex-ample is the concept of metabolism—from the food we digest (learning the structures of the GIT) to glucose metabolism. Lead them step by step to see how “part” becomes “whole”. Engage students in meaningful learning by choosing relevant infor-mation and providing the means to help students relate this new information to concepts they al-ready possess.

Typical mistakes related to conceptualising: When encountering a new concept, our first reac-

tion is often to try and see it in our mind’s eye. What does it look like, how big is it, and where is it? Typical problems related to visualising relates to the ability to use 3D thinking, to correctly visualise the size and position of an anatomical structure and to be able to move between macro and micro structures. To overcome this problem, make use of visio-spatial tools, such as life size models and computer-based programmes to show students three dimensional aspects, actual sizes and posi-tions of structures in the human body. Make explic-it to students that drawings in textbooks are not a true reflection of the human body.

Not all concepts can be visualised, as some con-cepts needs abstraction, i.e. – we need to under-stand that it is a process. We cannot “see” homeo-stasis, and if we do try, we might end up with inco-herent knowledge. Give students ample opportuni-ty to develop an ability to imagine that what cannot be seen by the naked eye. Students might not be able to construct a mental or metaphorical image of a concept that is not defined in their home lan-guage, so allow for discussion of how this concept can be described in their home language.

Typical mistakes related to scientific under-standing: Students might have an unscientific understanding

of the new concept, because it is affirmed in every-day explanations that make some sense, for exam-ple, drink a lot of Vit C and you will cure your cold. Ask probing questions to dispel myths and miscon-ceptions about the concept.

Watch out for unscientific language when students describe a process and encourage them to use the correct and understood terminology. Get them to use the correct terminology in ample examples.

Typical mistakes related to complexity: If students do not realize that a complex concept or

process is made up of many elements, they might for example not associate links between “ions”, “charged particles” and “nerve conduction”, but learn them in isolation—therefore not applying causal reasoning. The expert (lecturer) might not be aware that the student is treating “charged parti-cle” and “nerve conduction” as single elements, as the student is not aware of the level of complexity involved in understanding the process of “charge”. In order to provide educational interventions, edu-cators could for example continuously probe stu-dents’ knowledge by asking “how” and “why” ques-tions to determine whether they have a causal un-derstanding of the process or concept.

Be aware that you, as the expert, understand a complex concept such as respiration (all the pro-cesses and structures involved), but the student might have a simplistic and naïve understanding, for example, thinking that both inhalation and ex-halation are active processes.

Foundational knowledge is key when students are required to construct more complex knowledge, so ask many probing questions to see that they have understood the complexity of the new work.




Demonstrating Relevance and Encouraging

Active Participation Busayo Ige

[email protected]

Establish Relevance When attempting to engage students in class dis-cussion, it is important that you do not focus solely on cognitive factors. It is critical to also pay atten-tion to social and emotional factors that can either foster or inhibit the productive exchange of ideas.

Studies on student participation in the classroom show that while students generally enjoy discus-sions, some may find it difficult to recognise or measure what they gain from participating. Perhaps this is because it is different from a lecture situa-tion, where they might take copious notes and leave with a sense of accomplishment. This maybe particularly true for non-first language English speaking students in the classroom from different language and cultural background.

It is therefore essential that students are told up front how the skills they gain by participating will help them in academic work and in future, for ex-ample, by stressing that it provides them with an opportunity to practice ‘that specific skill’. Beyond explaining the relevance of discussion in general, it is also helpful to also: 1. Connect and link discussion to local cases/is-

sues 2. Relate subject matter to everyday application 3. Discuss how theory can be applied in practice 4. Find applications in current issues and event.

Encourage Inclusive Participation

To effectively facilitate inclusive participation in our current academic climate, various issues that can affect students’ willingness to participate in discus-sions need to be addressed. To uncover some of these challenges it might be useful to start by asking and answering some difficult questions relating to

students’ level of familiarity with discussion style, preparedness and types of questions being asked, - e.g.

Are discussion classes new and unfamiliar?

Has the background work or reading required for discussion been done?

Are the questions too difficult or the answers too obvious? (see Survival Guide number 2)

Here are some strategies that can help encourage meaningful student participation.

Establish a discussion climate early - encourage ac-tive student participation from the first day of class. Start with a planned icebreaker early to get stu-dents talking and interacting. You will also need to create a climate in which students feel comfortable to take intellectual risks by responding respectfully fully to their comments, even when correcting or challenging them.

Ask students to prepare for discussion - discussions often break down due lack of students prepared-ness e.g. when students have simply not done the reading or work upon which the discussion is based. Students tend to participate more and better when they have done some preparatory work. To encour-age active participation, it can be helpful to give as-signments to help students to prepare for discus-sion. This could be in the form of set questions, a question or two to write, an informal one-page (or paragraph) reflection on a reading, video etc. Brookfield and Preskill (1999), for example, recom-mend “structured, critical pre-reading” focused on these kinds of questions:

Epistemological questions - probe how an au-thor comes to know or believe something to be true

Experiential questions -help the student re-view the text through the lens of his/her rele-vant personal experiences

Communicative questions - ask how the au-thor conveys meaning and whether the forms clarify or confuse

Political questions -ask how the work serves to represent certain interests and challenge others


References Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (2005) Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San Fran-

cisco: Jossey-Bass.

Davis, B. G. (2009) Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Tofade, T., Elsher, J. and Haines, S.J (2013) Best Practice Strategies for Effective use of Questions as a Teaching Toll. Journal of Ameri-can Pharmaceutical Education. 77(7): 155.

Preparatory assignments can help students focus their reading and their thinking, thus facilitating a higher-quality participation.

Know your students - students are more likely to participate if they feel that they are recognized as individuals. If possible, learn your students’ names and encourage them to learn and use each other names too.

Model classroom participation behaviour - most students often need to learn how to enter mean-ingfully into an academic discussion. By modelling your desired discussion and participation style for the class, you can demonstrate key techniques on:

how to build on another individual’s contribu-tion (“As Sibu pointed out…”)

how to ask for clarification (“I’m not sure what you mean, Inge. Can you give a concrete exam-ple from one of the readings?”)

how to disagree politely (“I’ have a different take on that …”)

how to organise evidence to support a position (“There are three things in the article that led me to this conclusion. They are…”)

As a way of modelling a particular style of intellec-tual exchange, you may invite a colleague to your class and engage in a scholarly discussion or de-bate for the benefit of your students.

Establish ground rules - explicit ground rules or guidelines are required to ensure a respectful envi-ronment for inclusive participation and productive discussion. Your ground rules would depend on your class size and goals, but may include provi-sions such as:

speak respectfully to one another, even when disagreeing

avoid using insults (even humorous ones) avoid disrupting the flow of thought by intro-

ducing new issues before the discussion of the previous issue has come to an end

keep in confidence any information shared by a student in class

You should involve the students to help create ground rules.

Monitor group dynamics – to ensure that person-alities are managed in group discussion, so that no student feels their contributions are not welcome.

Engaging Reluctant and Dominant Students Plan for exigencies - strategize how you will deal with students who dominate or are unresponsive. You will probably have a few students who may be reluctant to speak. Some maybe fearful of being cri-tiqued by classmate and find solace in silence. Oth-ers maybe disinterested and wander away, prefer-ring to think about everything else except what’s going on in your room.

Here are a few suggestions for bringing such reti-cent students into the fold of rich discourse:

Invite them to discuss aspect of the topic of that are important to them.

Engage them in a pair-talk or small-group dis-cussion before whole group. More students tend to participate in whole-group talk if first allowed to articulate, clarify, and reorganize thoughts with a partner or a smaller group.

Give students time to write down their thoughts before opening the floor to discus-sion – which would allow them to draw on pair-work or small-group discussions, and en-courages more students to get involved.

Allow time for students to process infor-mation when you ask questions. Wait-time can improve not only the proportion of stu-dents who respond but the quality of the re-sponses as well.

Calling on quiet students by name to partici-pate can be liberating for some of them, alt-hough embarrassing for others. But not all students who are quiet are shy, some may simply be unsure of how to join in. Sometimes the problem is not shyness but the monopoly of the discussion by a few dominant students.

Acknowledge the dominant students and sub-tlety encourage them to give others chance, e.g. “I see your hand and want to hear your perspective, but I’d like to give some of the other students a chance to answer first”.

When there is disagreement and emotions are running high, remind students to stay fo-cussed on the idea/issues and to refrain from personal comments.




Using reading and writing to support teaching and learning

Natashia Muna [email protected]

This guide provides an academic literacies ap-

proach to supporting teaching and learning. As

we are now more pressurised than ever to de-

liver content while facing serious time con-

straints, the natural inclination will be to ask

‘What can we do without?’. It can be tempting

to forego some of the “softer” skills in favour

of more time on content. However, it is im-

portant that reading and writing within the dis-

cipline should not be seen as soft skills. Rather,

within a resource constrained environment,

reading and writing become even more criti-

cally relevant to effective teaching and learn-

ing.

An Academic Literacies approach acknowl-

edges that although, for example, English is the

official language of instruction, in fact each dis-

cipline really has its own particular ‘language’

or discourse. This discourse is evident not only

in the vocabulary of the discipline, but also in

the form, structure, nature and value placed

on the different literacy practices present

within the discipline. Therefore, within each

discipline there are particular types of texts

that students will need to read and write. For

the student to engage meaningfully when they

read, and to communicate meaningfully when

they write, they will need to learn the conven-

tions, values and practices of how knowledge

is constructed, organised and communicated

within a given discipline.

Given enough time and exposure, students can

acquire these practices without necessarily re-

quiring explicit teaching. However, with this

approach, multiple opportunities must be pro-

vided for formative assessment that allows stu-

dents to try and fail, receive feedback, and try

again on their learning journey. Unfortunately,

there are many challenges facing educators

and students now that weren’t as pressing in

the past. Firstly, many more of our students

are now English additional language speakers.

This means that we need to be aware that not

only are our students trying to acquire discipli-

nary discourse, but many are doing this in an

additional language. Secondly, our students

don’t have the luxury of time or as many op-

portunities for practice. The pressure is on and

the stakes are high. So, what can we, as educa-

tors, do to help our students engage meaning-

fully with content?

Reading First and foremost, make your teaching explicit

– specifically with regards to literacy practices.

As all courses require students to read, this is a

good place to start. Begin by carefully examin-

ing the texts that your students will need to

read and ask yourself:

Are these texts all the same? Or, will

my students have to read across differ-

ent genres? For example, text books,

journal papers, case histories?

Within each type of text, how is the in-

formation organised?

Where is the most important infor-

mation located?

What kind of language is being used

here?

Where are students most likely to get

stuck?

Once you know the answers to these ques-

tions, pass this information onto your stu-

dents. The goal here is to give your students

the “keys” to this new language they are grap-

pling with. Once they have the keys, it becomes

easier for them to engage with the content be-

ing communicated.


References Lea, M.R. and Street, B.V., 1998. Student writing in higher education: An academic literacies approach. Studies in higher educa-

tion, 23(2), pp.157-172.

McKenna, S., 2010. Cracking the code of academic literacy: An ideological task. Provision of Extended Curriculum Programmes in South Africa, 8.

Writing The next opportunity to take is to embed writ-

ing within the discipline. Firstly, writing offers

students the opportunity to think through their

work and as such provides an excellent learn-

ing opportunity. Think carefully about the

types of written assignments you give your stu-

dents and ask yourself:

What are the different written genres I

want my students to produce? For ex-

ample, a reflection, an argumentative

essay, a laboratory report or a portfo-

lio task?

How should each of these texts be

structured?

What are the most important features

of each of these texts?

Where are students most likely to

struggle?

Just as with reading, make the valued written

practices of the discipline clear to your stu-

dents. Remember, not all writing needs to be

marked - formative assessments offer excel-

lent learning opportunities and can be used for

peer review and feedback, which can also facil-

itate critical classroom discussions. However,

even though you may not be grading the writ-

ing, it is still an important resource for you, the

educator, as it offers insight into student think-

ing. As such, written work can help you to iden-

tify a struggling student early on.

Assessment Finally, as almost all assessment at tertiary

level requires reading and/or writing, it is our

responsibility to make sure that when we as-

sess, it is actually the students’ content

knowledge and not their ability to interpret the

cryptic phrasing of an assignment or exam

question that is under scrutiny. Therefore, ex-

amine your questions carefully and ask your-

self:

What kinds of action words have I used

and how do I expect students to re-

spond to them? For example, describe,

discuss, explain or argue?

What kind of vocabulary have I used?

Could my word choices pose a greater

challenge to students that are not Eng-

lish first language?

What kind of examples or scenarios

have I used? Could my examples seem

confusing to students that come from

a different background or context than

you do?

Please feel free to browse through are freely

available online resources:

(http://bit.ly/2h1G5Bj),

or to contact the FHS Writing Lab directly

([email protected])

if you would like to know more about our ser-

vices and how we can support both you and

your students as you engage with the literacy

practices of your discipline.

http://bit.ly/2h1G5Bj





Finding out and keeping track of which page

your students are on Francois Cilliers

[email protected]

At any given time, it can be difficult to know where to pitch your teaching. This is all the more so as students return for 2017. Some may have been able to study work you made avail-able to them after formal teaching ended in 2016. Others may not have been able to access the work if it was internet based or been too stressed and exhausted to engage with the ma-terials. Add to that a compressed time scale for what lies ahead, and you have the makings of a challenging scenario for a mini-semester of learning!

How on earth do you know what page students are on, so to speak? How to you gauge who is

where in terms of their understanding as the mini-semester progresses? Guide 3 in this se-ries recommends “that you, the lecturer, ac-tively “fetch” students from where they are, and take them to where you want them to be”. How do you know where to “fetch” students from?

A handy set of tools in this regard are called classroom assessment techniques (CATs). These are typically quick and easy to use tech-niques that allow you to rapidly gauge where students are at any given time and adjust your teaching accordingly.

Some commonly used CATs

background knowledge

probe

A background knowledge probe is a quick quiz used before starting a teaching session to find out whether the learning you assume is in place, is in fact in place. It can take the form of a few multi-ple choice questions flashed on the screen.

A higher tech version of this CAT will use electronic clickers to gather and collate students’ re-sponses.

For a fraction of the cost, you can easily make your own audience response system. Buy some A4 sized coloured card in four bright colours. Cut each into quarters and punch a hole in one corner so you can thread the card onto a keyring. Put one card of each colour on a keyring for each stu-dent in your class.

When you flash a question onto the screen, you can colour code the answers. Students hold up the colour card corresponding to the answer of their choice. In one quick glance, you can see what proportion of the class knows the information or has grasped the concept you are testing.

Whether you use clickers or the card based system, you will have an indication of whether or not you need to revise some concepts before proceeding.

muddiest point

The muddiest point is used after a teaching session. Simply ask students to write down on a scrap of paper what the single issue was in the session that was least clear (or most “muddy”) to them. They can just tear the corner off the bottom of a piece of note paper. Give them a minute at the end of a session to jot down their muddiest point and ask them to leave these on the corner of a desk as they leave the room.

TIP: Don’t hand out paper or cards for students to write on, unless you do this at the beginning of the session, as this will waste too much time.

After the session, go through the muddiest points, sorting them as you go. Within a few minutes, you will have a good idea of what the commonest issues were that students didn’t get and what to revise the next time you meet.

Be sure to report back on the muddiest point each time you use it, the next time you see the class! By asking students what they understood the least, you create the expectation that you will do something with the information.




Some commonly used CATs

student- generated

test questions

A good way to find out what your students think is important is to ask them to each generate one question on the work covered in a session or over the course of a few sessions. Ask them to gen-erate one question – it could be a multiple choice question or a short answer question, for exam-ple – on a concept they think is important, crucial or key to the work.

TIP: You should specify that you do not want questions on esoteric concepts or topics. Students tend to think exam questions are written to trip them up and so can choose very strange topics to write questions on!

These questions can serve two purposes. They can highlight for you what the students think are the most important aspects of the work (and where they have misconceptions about what is im-portant). They can also serve to motivate students, if you tell them that you will select the best questions submitted during the course for inclusion on the exam!

minute pa-per

The minute paper is also used at the end of a session. Ask students to jot their responses to the following two questions on a piece of paper: o What was the most important thing you learned during this class? o What important question remains unanswered?

Again, glancing through these after a session with students quickly gives you a sense of whether students are where you think they are in terms of their learning and whether revision of a couple of key issues is needed at the start of your next session together.

Advantages to your students of using CATs CATs can be used for diagnostic purposes or for formative assessment purposes if you add in feedback to students.

Using CATS shows students that you care about their learning and what they are struggling with. Using CATs can also help students to feel more involved in, and in control of, their own learning. When you use CATs to check relevant knowledge from another course, you help stu-dents to see linkages between different as-pects of their work. CATs can also help stu-dents to monitor their own learning.

Advantages to you of using CATs Using CATs will give you regular feedback about concepts that students have and haven’t yet grasped. On the one hand, you can address misconceptions and a lack of understanding immediately, rather than only after poor per-formance on an assignment or a test. On the other hand, you might discover that that very clever way you’ve devised to explain a concept actually doesn’t work as well as you’d hoped! You can then adjust your teaching as you go to better ensure that students achieve the out-comes you’ve decided to focus on for the course.

Your students will hopefully be more engaged with the course as you go and have a better

learning experience. This can help foster better relationships with your students.

Disadvantages of CATs CATs are not without their disadvantages. You do have to allocate some class time to running a CAT. You should explicitly allow time for this when planning your session with students. And if you run a CAT at the end of a session, don’t think that students will be prepared to stay a few minutes after the session to do the CAT! With some CATs, you will also have to allow some time to revise and clarify things that stu-dents are struggling with.

You must also be prepared for honest re-sponses from students! These might sting sometimes, but if you use CATs with a view to improving your teaching and better supporting students, you can be sure that this is worth-while in the long run.

The CATS described in this guide are just a few of the huge number of CATs out there. The book by Angelo and Cross is jam-packed with ideas in a very easy to use format:

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers. San Fran-cisco: Jossey-Bass.

These websites are a few of those with information about CATs: http://bit.ly/2gBRV4O; http://bit.ly/2fMxbX0; http://bit.ly/2gF9A9k

There are also numerous videos about CATs on YouTube: http://bit.ly/2g1tjz4

http://bit.ly/2gBRV4O

http://bit.ly/2fMxbX0

http://bit.ly/2gF9A9k

http://bit.ly/2g1tjz4




Assessment in a condensed course

Francois Cilliers [email protected]

Any changes made to the design of a course

have implications for assessment in that

course. The purpose of this guide is to provide

a few tips to guide your thinking about how to

redesign assessment if you make changes to

the design of your course.

Purposes of assessment A good place to start is with what the purpose

of assessment is. You may be familiar with the

concepts of formative and summative assess-

ment. Formative assessment is sometimes de-

scribed as assessment FOR learning – assess-

ment done in the interests of students. Sum-

mative assessment is sometimes described as

assessment OF learning – in our context, as-

sessment done in the interests of society. Na-

triello (1987) actually distinguishes four pur-

poses of assessment:

selection the identification of students or groups of students to be recommended or

permitted to enter or continue along certain educational and occupational paths

motivation motivation entails engaging those being assessed in the tasks at hand

direction

of students (formative assessment): o the use of assessment processes to communicate the specific desires of

assessors to those being assessed (Natriello, 1987) o diagnosis of students’ strengths and weaknesses (Maclellan, 2004)

of your course: o to allow assessors to engage in diagnosis and further planning (Natriello,

1987) o provision of evidence with which to engage in course evaluation (Maclel-

lan, 2004)

certifica-tion

the assurance that a student has attained a certain level of accomplishment or competence (Natriello, 1987)

accounting (to society)

For final year or exit assessment in the health

sciences, the last of these, the certification

purpose, is by far the most important. We need

to be able to put our hands on our hearts and

say with confidence of any and every graduate:

this person is a com-

petent and safe

practitioner. For fi-

nal exams in other

courses, the selec-

tion purpose is im-

portant – who should continue to the next year

of study and why or why not. Of course, life is

never that cut and dried. Some courses in the

penultimate year of study may be the last

learning opportunity students have in a partic-

ular discipline and the last opportunity that we

have to certify them as competent and safe.

Making decisions about students Have you ever paused to think about the pro-

cesses you go through when making decisions

about students? Assessment is a process that

involves three steps (Kane, 2006). The first is

data collection about students. To collect this

making decisions

about students


References Kane, M. (2006). Validation. In: Brennan, R. Educational measurement. Praeger Publishers, Westport.

Maclellan, E. (2004). Authenticity in assessment tasks: A heuristic exploration of academics' perceptions. Higher Education Research & Development, 23(1), 19-33.

Natriello, G. (1987). The impact of evaluation processes on students. Educational Psychologist, 22(2), 155-175.

data, we have students perform assessment

tasks – examine a patient, write multiple

choice questions, write a report, explain their

thinking about a patient. Then, based on cer-

tain inferences and assumptions, we draw con-

clusions about the student. The student does

or does not know enough about the field. The

student is or is not competent in managing this

clinical scenario. Then, again based on certain

inferences and assumptions, we make deci-

sions about students. Putting all the infor-

mation we have about you from different as-

sessment tasks together, you pass the course

and may proceed to fourth year. Or, you need

to redo this course in full and retake the exam.

One of the most important inferences and as-

sumptions we make is that the data that we

have about students is representative of eve-

rything we need to know about them to draw

valid conclusions. Assessment can be likened

to research – what your data means is influ-

enced strongly by how you sampled and col-

lected data. So what do we need data about?

What data to collect about students? To be able to make a valid decision about

whether a student is ready to pass a set of

courses and proceed to the next year of study

or, at the end of a programme, whether they

are competent and safe practitioners, we need

to know two things.

The first is what out-

comes these deci-

sions are about. In

other words, what

was it you expected

students to achieve

by doing the course

in question. The second is whether your data

collection methods – the assessment tasks

students must do – provide sufficient data

about the outcomes to make valid decisions.

A quick way to check this is to draw up a simple

sampling matrix (also called a blueprint). First

list the intended outcomes for your course as

row headers in a table. Then, list the assess-

ment tasks as column headers.

IN COURSE END OF COURSE END OF YEAR

40% 60%

in course assignments (3)

group report MCQ structured practical exam (SPE)

portfolio based oral

MCQ

feedback feedback no feedback no feedback no feedback no feedback

8% 8% 12% 12% 30% 30%

Outcome 1

Outcome 2

Outcome 3

Outcome 4

This simple exercise will highlight whether all

of the outcomes are being adequately covered

by assessment or not – are there gaps? – and

equally, whether there is potential redun-

dancy in your assessment plan.

Remember, though, that no assessment plan is

ever perfect! In our resource constrained set-

ting, an assessment plan must always be the

best compromise possible between various

factors that must be taken into consideration

when planning assessment.

the data that deci-

sions about students

are based on should

be representative of

course outcomes

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