Stress• It´s very complicated• There are some factors that influence the stress• Stress can be studied from two points of view 1. production point of view (stressed syllable is produced

with bigger force of articulation) 2. perception point of view (all stressed syllables have

one feature in common – prominence)PROMINENCE

• Loudness (one syllable is made louder than the others)• Lenght/ Duration (one syllable is made longer)• Pitch of the voice/Tone (one syllable is said with the pitch

which is noticeably different that the others)• Vowel quality (if syllable has different vowel quality, it would

be perceived as stressed)

• Stress placement isn´t the same in all languages

Types of the stress• Primary (tonic stress, pitch movement is dominant, in

transcription small vertical line)• Secondary (non-tonic stress, no pitch movement, in

transcription low mark)• No stress (absence of any recognisable amount of

prominence, vowels can be reduced in loudness, lenght)

Rhythm• It is the regular repetition of some linguistic event• Idea of regular repetition is called isochromy• Lexical words are usually stressed (nouns, adjectives, verbs,

pronouns, adverbs)• Grammatical words aren´t usually stresses ( propositions,

interjections, conjuctions, posesive pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs)

• In 1945 Pike came with the forts comparision, he distinguished machine-gun languages (roman languages) and morse-code languages (german languages)

• Structure of syllable and duration of vowels contribute to the creation of rhythm

Duration of syllables aproximately the same

Syllables may last different amounts of time

• Abercrombie came with new division – rhythm class thypotesis – all languages of the world fall into three main rhytmical classes

• 1. syllable-timed rhythm - the main unit is syllable, syllables are regularly repeated, they have the same duration, unstressed syllables are never reduced, also called machine- gun languages.Typical for roman languages

• 2. stress-timed rhythm – the main unit is interstress interval – foot, each foot contains one stressed syllable and another unstressed which follows. Lenght of feet should have equal duration, we should squeeze them quickly. Unstressed syllables are reduced in lenght, loudness and vowel quality. They are also called morse-code languages. English is stress-timed plus other german languages

• 3. mora-timed rhythm - the main unit is mora and is smaller than a syllable. It is the most regular rhythm. Typical for Japanese

• Rhythm is very regular in ideal situation as in news , but in colloquial speech can be various

Aspects of connected speech• In English there is a markable difference between pronunciation of

the word in isolation and pronunciation of the same word in speech• English speakers simplify their english to the limit of inteligebility

How to simplify1. Vowel reduction- full vowel can become reduced vowel (in

grammatical words)2. Deletion- vowel can be ommited in lexical items (when you speak

fast) -across the word boundaries -unstressed vowels can be deleted3. Assimilation- process in which one vowel changes in order to

become similiar to a neigbouring one (plus process of palatalization)

4. Linking/ Inserting

Intonation• Melody of the speech, movement of the pitch of the voice 4 levels:• Extra-high• High• Middle• Low

• 1. Tonal languages- tone differenciate the lexical meaning of the words (chinese)

• 2. Intonational languages- tone doesn´t diferenciate, it just gives extra information

• 1. level tone – constantly tone• 2. rising tone• 3. falling tone• 4. complex tone ( rise-fall, fall-rise)

Functions of intonation• Attitudenal- express attitude• Accentual- highlight any word• Grammatical- we can indicate the type of question• Discourse- we can indicate which info is new ( in

dialogue)