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SudanPost-Conflict Environmental Assessment

United Nations Environment Programme

First published in June 2007 by the United Nations Environment Programme.© 2007, United Nations Environment Programme.

ISBN: 978-92-807-2702-9Job No.: DEP/0816/GE

United Nations Environment ProgrammeP.O. Box 30552Nairobi, KENYATel: +254 (0)20 762 1234Fax: +254 (0)20 762 3927E-mail: [email protected]: http://www.unep.org

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Unless otherwise credited, all the photographs in this publication were taken by the UNEP Sudan assessment mission team. UNEP wishes to thank the following individuals and institutions for providing additional photographic material:Phil Snyder, Nick Wise – WFP/GTZ, Red Sea Enterprises, CARE International, USAID, UNOPS and the Ministry of Environment and Physical Development, Government of National Unity.

Cover Design and Layout: Matija PotocnikMaps and Remote Sensing: Yves Barthélemy & UNEP/DEWA/GRID~EuropeCover Image: Grant Wroe-Street – UNEP/PCDMBPrinter: SRO-Kundig Geneva, Switzerland

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SudanPost-Conflict Environmental

Assessment

This report by the United Nations Environment Programme was made possible by the generous contributions of the Governments of Sweden and the United Kingdom

2 • United Nations Environment Programme • United Nations Environment Programme • United Nations Environment Programme •

Table of contents

Foreword 5

Executive Summary 6

Chapter 1: Introduction 18

1.1 Background...................................................................................................................................................201.2 Objectives .....................................................................................................................................................201.3 Assessment scope...........................................................................................................................................211.4 Methodology.................................................................................................................................................211.5 Assessment team and consultations ...............................................................................................................251.6 Report structure ............................................................................................................................................26

Chapter 2: Country Context 30

2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................322.2 Society ..........................................................................................................................................................322.3 Governance and economy .............................................................................................................................362.4 Climate .........................................................................................................................................................382.5 Geography and vegetation zones....................................................................................................................42

Chapter 3: Natural Disasters and Desertification 56

3.1 Introduction and assessment activities ...........................................................................................................583.2 Water shortages .............................................................................................................................................593.3 Desertification...............................................................................................................................................623.4 Water damage................................................................................................................................................663.5 Disaster risk reduction and mitigation of desertification................................................................................673.6 Conclusions and recommendations ...............................................................................................................68

Chapter 4: Conflict and the Environment 70

4.1 Introduction and assessment activities ...........................................................................................................724.2 Overview of conflicts in Sudan......................................................................................................................734.3 Analysis of the role of natural resources as a contributing cause of conflict in Sudan......................................774.4 Environmental linkages to local conflicts over rangeland and rain-fed agriculture..........................................804.5 Assessment of the environmental impacts of conflict .....................................................................................884.6 Conclusions and recommendations ...............................................................................................................95

Chapter 5: Population Displacement and the Environment 98

5.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................1005.2 Overview of population displacement in Sudan...........................................................................................1015.3 Overview of displacement-related environmental issues...............................................................................1045.4 Environment as one of three major causes of displacement in Sudan...........................................................1045.5 Environmental impacts of camps and settlements........................................................................................1055.6 Other environmental impacts of displacement ............................................................................................1125.7 Environmental implications of the return process........................................................................................1125.8 International aspects of environment and displacement in Sudan ................................................................1155.9 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................115

Chapter 6: Urban Environment and Environmental Health 118

6.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................1206.2 Overview of demographics and major urban centres....................................................................................1216.3 Overview of urban environment and environmental health issues ...............................................................1226.4 Urbanization and urban planning................................................................................................................1226.5 Drinking water, sanitation and waterborne diseases .....................................................................................127

3• United Nations Environment Programme • United Nations Environment Programme • United Nations Environment Programme •

6.6 Solid waste management .............................................................................................................................1306.7 Air pollution and urban transport ...............................................................................................................1336.8 Urban energy...............................................................................................................................................1336.9 Sustainable construction opportunities........................................................................................................1346.10 Urban and health sector environmental governance.....................................................................................1346.11 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................136

Chapter 7: Industry and the Environment 138

7.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................1407.2 Overview of the industrial sector in Sudan ..................................................................................................1417.3 Overview of industry-related environmental issues ......................................................................................1447.4 General industry-related environmental issues.............................................................................................1447.5 Environmental issues specific to the upstream oil industry ..........................................................................1487.6 Industrial sector environmental governance.................................................................................................1537.7 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................155

Chapter 8: Agriculture and the Environment 158

8.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................1608.2 Overview of agriculture in Sudan ................................................................................................................1618.3 Cross-cutting environmental issues and impacts ..........................................................................................1638.4 Mechanized rain-fed agriculture sector impacts and issues ...........................................................................1668.5 Traditional rain-fed agriculture sector impacts and issues.............................................................................1698.6 Mechanized irrigation sector environmental impacts and issues...................................................................1728.7 Traditional irrigation sector impacts and issues............................................................................................1788.8 Livestock husbandry impacts and issues ......................................................................................................1798.9 Agricultural sector environmental governance .............................................................................................1898.10 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................190

Chapter 9: Forest Resources 192

9.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................1949.2 Overview of forest resources ........................................................................................................................1969.3 Forest utilization .........................................................................................................................................2009.4 Forestry sector environmental impacts and issues ........................................................................................2039.5 Deforestation rates and causes .....................................................................................................................2039.6 Potential conflict ‘flashpoint’ over the charcoal industry in Southern Sudan ................................................2139.7 Development opportunities for the timber industry in Southern Sudan ......................................................2139.8 Forestry sector governance...........................................................................................................................2149.9 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................216

Chapter 10: Freshwater Resources 218

10.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................22010.2 Overview of the freshwater resources of Sudan ............................................................................................22110.3 Environmental impacts and issues of the water sector..................................................................................22410.4 Large dams and water management schemes ...............................................................................................22410.5 Sustainable use and conservation of wetlands ..............................................................................................23410.6 Invasive plant species...................................................................................................................................23610.7 Water pollution ...........................................................................................................................................23710.8 Groundwater exploitation ...........................................................................................................................24110.9 Transboundary and regional issues...............................................................................................................24410.10 Freshwater fisheries......................................................................................................................................24510.11 Water sector environmental governance.......................................................................................................24510.12 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................248


Chapter 11: Wildlife and Protected Area Management 25011.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................25211.2 Overview of the wildlife and habitats of Sudan............................................................................................25311.3 Overview of protected areas.........................................................................................................................25911.4 Wildlife and protected area management issues ...........................................................................................26411.5 Wildlife and protected area sector governance .............................................................................................27211.6 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................273

Chapter 12: Marine Environments and Resources 27412.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................27612.2 Overview of marine and coastal environments and resources.......................................................................27712.3 Environmental impacts and issues ...............................................................................................................27812.4 Marine and coastal environmental governance.............................................................................................28712.5 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................288

Chapter 13: Environmental Governance and Awareness 29013.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................29213.2 Overview of environmental governance structures.......................................................................................29213.3 Overview of environmental and natural resource legislation ........................................................................29613.4 Environmental education and civil society...................................................................................................29913.5 Overview of environmental governance and awareness issues.......................................................................30113.6 Social, development and investment issues ..................................................................................................30113.7 Structure and legislative issues .....................................................................................................................30313.8 Environmental governance and peacebuilding.............................................................................................30513.9 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................306

Chapter 14: International Aid and the Environment 30814.1 Introduction and assessment activities .........................................................................................................31014.2 Overview of international aid in Sudan .......................................................................................................31214.3 Overview of environmental aid programmes in Sudan ................................................................................31314.4 Overview of impacts and issues for aid and the environment.......................................................................31914.5 Conclusions and recommendations .............................................................................................................324

Chapter 15: Conclusions 32615.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................32815.2 Key findings ................................................................................................................................................32815.3 Key recommendations and investment requirements ...................................................................................33015.4 The way forward..........................................................................................................................................33215.5 Concluding remarks ....................................................................................................................................333

Appendices

Appendix I: List of acronyms and abbreviations.............................................................................................336

Appendix II: List of references.........................................................................................................................338

Appendix III: List of contributors.....................................................................................................................351


Achim SteinerUnited Nations Under-Secretary-GeneralExecutive Directorof the United Nations Environment Programme

Foreword

The peace deal signed in Nairobi by the Sudanesegovernment and the Sudan People’s LiberationMovement on 9 January 2005 put an end to morethan two decades of civil war in the country. TheUnited Nations family in Nairobi is proud to haveplayed a lead role in the conclusion of the peaceprocess by hosting an exceptional meeting of theUnited Nations Security Council in November2004, which facilitated negotiations that led to aComprehensive Peace Agreement being reachedin early 2005.

For most of Sudan, it is now time to focus onrecovery, reconstruction and development. In thiscontext, the Government of National Unity andthe Government of Southern Sudan requestedUNEP to conduct an environmental assessment ofthe country in order to evaluate the state of Sudan’senvironment and identify the key environmentalchallenges ahead. This report presents the findings ofthe fieldwork, analysis and extensive consultationsthat were carried out between December 2005 andMarch 2007, and contains:

• an overview of the environment of Sudan andthe assessment process;

• analysisandrecommendationsforthemajorcross-cutting issues of climate change, desertification,conflict, and population displacement; and

• analysis and recommendations for key en-vironmental issues in nine different sectors(urban/health, industry, agriculture, forestry,water, wildlife, marine environment, law andforeign aid).

Sudan will not benefit fully from the tangibledividends of peace as long as conflict rages on inDarfur. Despite the signing of a peace agreementin May 2006, violence and insecurity continue toprevail in the region. The United Nations, throughitsSecretary-General,hasdesignated the resolutionofthe crisis in Darfur as a main priority, and it is hopedthat the findings and recommendations presented inthis UNEP report will contribute to this goal.

Indeed, UNEP’s investigation has shown clearly thatpeace and people’s livelihoods in Darfur as well asin the rest of Sudan are inextricably linked to theenvironmental challenge. Just as environmentaldegradation can contribute to the triggering and

perpetuationof conflict, the sustainablemanagementof natural resources can provide the basis forlong-term stability, sustainable livelihoods, anddevelopment. It is now critical that both national andlocal leadership prioritize environmental awarenessand opportunities for the sustainable managementof natural resources in Sudan.

We wish to sincerely thank the Governments ofSweden and the United Kingdom for their generousfinancial support, which enabled UNEP to carryout this assessment, organize two environmentalworkshops for national delegates in Sudan in 2006,and publish this report.

In addition, this assessment would not have beenpossible without the support of our colleagues inthe UN Sudan Country Team, including thosein sister agencies such as UNDP, UNICEF, FAO,UNHCR, WFP and OCHA. The Ministries ofEnvironment of the Government of NationalUnity and the Government of Southern Sudanwere also active partners in the assessment process,providing both information and support. We hopethat UNEP can remain a long-term partner of theSudanese authorities and people as they address theenvironmental challenges ahead.

SUDANPOST-CONFLICT ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT


Executive summary

Introduction

In January 2005, the Sudanese Government andthe Sudan People’s Liberation Army signed aComprehensive Peace Agreement, putting an endto twenty-two years of continuous civil war. Withpeace and a fast-growing economy fueled by itsemerging oil industry, most of the country can nowfocus on recovery and development.

Sudan, however, faces a number of challenges.Among these are critical environmental issues,including land degradation, deforestation andthe impacts of climate change, that threaten theSudanese people’s prospects for long-term peace,food security and sustainable development. Inaddition, complex but clear linkages exist betweenenvironmental problems and the ongoing conflictin Darfur, as well as other historical and currentconflicts in Sudan.

Post-conflict environmental assessment

With a view to gaining a comprehensive under-standing of the current state of the environment in

Sudan and catalysing action to address the country’skey environmental problems, the Government ofNational Unity (GONU) and Government ofSouthern Sudan (GOSS) requested the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP) toconduct a post-conflict environmental assessmentof Sudan. The goal of the UNEP assessment wasaccordingly to develop a solid technical basisfor medium-term corrective action in the fieldof environmental protection and sustainabledevelopment.

Assessment process

The post-conflict environmental assessment processfor Sudan began in late 2005. Following an initialappraisal and scoping study, fieldwork was carriedout between January and August 2006. Differentteams of experts spent a total of approximately 150days in the field, on ten separate field missions, eachlasting one to four weeks. Consultation with localand international stakeholders formed a large andcontinuouspartofUNEP’sassessmentwork,withthetotalnumberof interviewees estimated tobeover twothousand. Parties consulted include representativesof federal, state and local governments, NGOs,academic and research institutions, internationalagencies, community leaders, farmers, pastoralists,foresters and businesspeople.

The UNEP team on mission in Northern state. Different teams of experts spent 150 days in the field, on ten separate field missions, each lasting one to four weeks

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Figure E.1 General map of Sudan

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The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

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UN Cartographic Section.

UNEP/DEWA/GRID~Europe 2006



The assessment team was comprised of a coreUNEP team and a large number of national andinternational partners who collaborated in a rangeof roles. These partnerships were crucial to theproject’s success, as they enabled the fieldwork,ensured that the study matched local issues andneeds, and contributed to national endorsementof the assessment’s outcomes. UNEP also workedclosely with the Government of National Unityand the Government of Southern Sudan, andspecific efforts were made to align UNEP activitieswith a government initiative known as theNational Plan for Environmental Management.

Summary of the findings

The assessment identified a number of criticalenvironmental issues that are closely linked to thecountry’s social and political challenges.

Strong linkages between environment and conflict: a key issue in the Darfur crisis

The linkages between conflict and environmentin Sudan are twofold. On one hand, the country’slong history of conflict has had significant impactson its environment. Indirect impacts such aspopulation displacement, lack of governance,conflict-related resource exploitation and under-

investment in sustainable development have beenthe most severe consequences to date.

On the other hand, environmental issues have beenand continue to be contributing causes of conflict.Competition over oil and gas reserves, Nile watersand timber, as well as land use issues related toagricultural land, are important causative factorsin the instigation and perpetuation of conflict inSudan. Confrontations over rangeland and rain-fedagricultural land in the drier parts of the countryare a particularly striking manifestation of theconnection between natural resource scarcity andviolent conflict. In all cases, however, environmentalfactors are intertwined with a range of other social,political and economic issues.

UNEP’s analysis indicates that there is a very stronglink between land degradation, desertificationand conflict in Darfur. Northern Darfur – whereexponential population growth and relatedenvironmental stress have created the conditions forconflicts to be triggered and sustained by political,tribal or ethnic differences – can be considered atragic example of the social breakdown that canresult from ecological collapse. Long-term peacein the region will not be possible unless theseunderlying and closely linked environmental andlivelihood issues are resolved.

The UNEP team interviews a group of local men in Umm al Jawasir, in Northern state. Community hearings and consultations were a critical component of UNEP’s assessment work

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Population displacement: significant environmental impacts

With over five million internally displaced persons(IDPs) and international refugees, Sudan has thelargest population of displaced persons in the worldtoday. In Darfur, internal displacement has occurredat an unprecedented rate since 2003, with some 2.4million people affected. This massive populationdisplacement has been accompanied by significanthuman suffering and environmental damage. Areasaround the larger camps – particularly in Darfur– are severely degraded, and the lack of controls andsolutions has led to human rights abuses, conflictsover resources and food insecurity. Although this isnot a new phenomenon, the scale of displacementand the particular vulnerability of the dry northernSudanese environment may make this the mostsignificant case of its type worldwide.

In addition, the large-scale return of southernSudanese to their homeland following the cessationof the civil war is likely to result in a further waveof environmental degradation in some of the morefragile return areas.

Desertification and regional climate change: contributing to poverty and conflict

An estimated 50 to 200 km southward shift ofthe boundary between semi-desert and deserthas occurred since rainfall and vegetation recordswere first held in the 1930s. This boundaryis expected to continue to move southwardsdue to declining precipitation. The remainingsemi-desert and low rainfall savannah on sand,which represent some 25 percent of Sudan’sagricultural land, are at considerable risk offurther desertification. This is forecast to lead toa significant drop (approximately 20 percent) infood production. In addition, there is mountingevidence that the decline in precipitation due toregional climate change has been a significantstress factor on pastoralist societies – particularlyin Darfur and Kordofan – and has therebycontributed to conflict.

Cattle in poor condition on overgrazed land near El Geneina, Western Darfur. Intense competition over declining natural resources is a contributing cause of the ongoing conflict in the region

Desertification and the associated loss of agricultural land are not an inevitable and unstoppable process. Good management practices can sustain agriculture even in seemingly arid and hostile environments, as in this dune belt in Northern Kordofan



Natural disasters: increasing vulnerability and impacts

Sudan has suffered a number of long and devastatingdroughts in thepastdecades,whichhaveunderminedfood security and are strongly linked to humandisplacement and related conflicts. The vulnerabilitytodrought isexacerbatedbythetendencytomaximizelivestockherd sizes rather thanquality, andby the lackof secure water sources such as deep boreholes thatcan be relied on during short dry spells.

Despite serious water shortages, floods are alsocommon in Sudan. The most devastating occuron the Blue Nile, as a result of deforestation andovergrazing in the river’s upper catchment. Oneof the main impacts of watershed degradation andassociated flooding is severe riverbank erosion inthe narrow but fertile Nile riverine strip.

Agriculture: severe land degradation due to demographic pressure and poorly managed development

Agriculture, which is the largest economic sector inSudan, is at the heart of some of the country’s mostseriousandchronicenvironmentalproblems,includingland degradation in its various forms, riverbank

erosion, invasive species, pesticide mismanagementin the large irrigation schemes, and water pollution.Disorganized and poorly managed mechanized rain-fed agriculture, which covers an estimated area of 6.5million hectares, has been particularly destructive,leading to large-scale forest clearance, loss of wildlifeand severe land degradation.

In addition, an explosive growth in livestocknumbers – from 28.6 million in 1961 to 134.6million in 2004 – has resulted in widespreaddegradation of the rangelands. Inadequate ruralland tenure, finally, is an underlying cause of manyenvironmental problems and a major obstacle tosustainable land use, as farmers have little incentiveto invest in and protect natural resources.

Forestry: a deforestation crisis in the drier regions, risks and opportunities in the south

Deforestation in Sudan is estimated to be occurringat a rate of over 0.84 percent per annum at thenational level, and 1.87 percent per annum in UNEP case study areas. It is driven principally byenergy needs and agricultural clearance. Between1990 and 2005, the country lost 11.6 percentof its forest cover, or approximately 8,835,000

The most serious and common natural disaster facing the population of Sudan is drought. Rural commu-nities such as this village in Khartoum state have faced waves of drought since the 1970s, which have exacerbated rural poverty and precipitated large-scale displacement to the northern cities

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


hectares. At the regional level, two-thirds ofthe forests in north, central and eastern Sudandisappeared between 1972 and 2001. In Darfur,a third of the forest cover was lost between 1973and 2006. Southern Sudan is estimated to havelost 40 percent of its forests since independenceand deforestation is ongoing, particularly aroundmajor towns. Extrapolation of deforestation ratesindicate that forest cover could reduce by over10 percent per decade. In areas under extremepressure, UNEP estimates that total loss couldoccur within the next 10 years.

These negative trends demonstrate that this valuableresource upon which the rural population and a largepart of the urban population depend completelyfor energy is seriously threatened. The growing useof fuelwood for brick-making in all parts of Sudanis an additional cause for concern. In Darfur, forinstance, brick-making provides a livelihood formany IDP camp residents, but also contributes tosevere localized deforestation. If it were properlymanaged, however, the forestry sector couldrepresent a significant opportunity for economicdevelopment and sustainable north-south trade.

Abandoned degraded agricultural land in a former irrigation scheme near Tandelti in Northern Kordofan

A mango orchard in Juba, Central Equatoria. The combination of higher rainfall and lower population and development pressure results in Sudan’s remaining forest cover being con-centrated in the southern half of the country



Dams and water projects: major impacts and conflict linkages

UNEP considers the principal and most importantenvironmental issue in the water resource sector inSudan to be the ongoing or planned construction ofover twenty large dams. While its electrical outputis expected to bring major benefits to the country,the Merowe dam epitomizes environmental andsocial concerns over the country’s ambitiousdam-building programme. Although it is thefirst dam project in Sudan to have included anenvironmental impact assessment, the processdid not meet international standards, and wouldhave benefited from more transparency and publicconsultation. Major environmental problemsassociated with the Merowe dam include silt lossfor flood recession agriculture, dam sedimentationand severe riverbank erosion due to intensive flowrelease within short time periods.

In addition, the active storage capacity of allof Sudan’s existing dam reservoirs (with theexception of Jebel Aulia) is seriously affectedby sediment deposition. Dams have also causedmajor degradation of downstream habitats,

particularly of the maya wetlands on the BlueNile and of the riparian dom palm forests in thelower Atbara river.

The infamous Jonglei canal engineering mega-project, which started in the 1970s, was closelylinked to the start of the north-south civil war. Asit was not completed, its anticipated major impactson the Sudd wetlands never came to pass. Theunfinished canal bed, which does not connect toany major water bodies or watercourses, now actsonly as a giant ditch and embankment hinderingwildlife migrations. Nevertheless, lessons learntfrom this project should be carefully studiedand applied to existing efforts in peacebuildingbetween north and south, especially as economicmotivations for the project still exist, includingfrom international partners.

Urban issues and environmental health: rapid and chaotic urbanization and chronic waste and sanitation issues

Uncontrolled sprawl, chronic solid waste ma-nagement problems and the lack of wastewatertreatment are the leading environmental problems

The rusting wreckage of the Jonglei canal excavator lies in the unfinished main channel. This failed venture illustrates the risks associated with developing large-scale projects in socially and environmentally sensitive areas without local support

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


facing Sudan’s urban centres. The explosive growthof the capital Khartoum continues relentlessly,with 64 percent of the country’s urban populationresiding in the area. The larger towns of SouthernSudan are also experiencing very rapid growthfueled by the return of formerly displaced persons,estimated at 300,000 by end of 2006. In Darfur,the majority of the two million displaced are foundon the fringes of urban centres, whose size in somecases has increased by over 200 percent in the lastthree years.

Sewage treatment is grossly inadequate in all ofSudan’s cities, and solid waste management practicesthroughout the country are uniformly poor. In themajority of cases, garbage of all types accumulatesclose to its point of origin and is periodically burnt.These shortcomings in environmental sanitationare directly reflected in the elevated incidence ofwaterborne diseases, which make up 80 percent ofreported diseases in the country.

Industrial pollution: a growing problem and a key issue for the emerging oil industry

Environmental governance of industry wasvir-tually non-existent until 2000, and theeffects of this are clearly visible today. While thesituation has improved over the last few years,UNEP has found that major challenges remainin the areas of project development and impactassessment, improving the operation of older andgovernment-managed facilities, and influencingthe policies and management approach at thehigher levels of government.

Due to the relatively limited industrial de-velopment in Sudan to date, environmentaldamage has so far been moderate, but thesituation could worsen rapidly as the countryembarks on an oil-financed development boom.The release of effluent from factories and thedisposal of produced water associated with crudeoil extraction are issues of particular concern,as industrial wastewater treatment facilities arelacking even in Khartoum. Industrial effluentis typically released into the domestic sewagesystem, where there is one.

Waste pickers at the main Khartoum landfill site. Waste management is problematic throughout Sudan.

The release of industrial effluent from older factories lacking wastewater treatment facilities is an issue of particular concern



Other issues include air emissions, and hazardousand solid waste disposal. While UNEP observedgenerally substandard environmental performanceat most industrial sites, there were exceptionalcases of responsible environmental stewardship atselected oil, sugar and cement facilities visited.

Wildlife and protected areas: depleted bio-diversity with some internationally significant areas and wildlife populations remaining

The past few decades have witnessed a majorassault on wildlife and their habitats. In northernand central Sudan, the greatest damage has beeninflicted by habitat destruction and fragmentationfrom farming and deforestation. Larger wildlifehave essentially disappeared and are now mostlyconfined to core protected areas and remotedesert regions. In the south, uncontrolled andunsustainable hunting has decimated wildlifepopulations and caused the local eradication ofmany of the larger species, such as elephant, rhino,buffalo, giraffe, eland and zebra. Nonetheless,Sudan’s remaining wildlife populations, includingvery large herds of white-eared kob and tiangantelope, are internationally significant.

Approximately fifty sites throughout Sudan– covering 10 and 15 percent of the areas ofthe north and south respectively – are listed as

having some form of legal protection. In practice,however, the level of protection afforded to theseareas has ranged from slight to negligible, andseveral exist only on paper today. Many of theseimportant areas are located in regions affected byconflict and have hence suffered from a long-termabsence of the rule of law. With three exceptions(Dinder, Sanganeb and Dongonab Bay NationalParks), the data on wildlife and protected areas iscurrently insufficient to allow for the developmentof adequate management plans.

Marine environment: a largely intact ecosystem under threat

UNEP found the Sudanese marine and coastalenvironment to be in relatively good conditionoverall. Its coral reefs are the best preservedecosystems in the country. However, the economicand shipping boom focused on Port Sudan andthe oil export facilities may rapidly change theenvironmental situation for the worse. Steadydegradation is ongoing in the developed stripfrom Port Sudan to Suakin, and the symptomsof overgrazing and land degradation are asomnipresent on the coast as elsewhere in drylandSudan. Mangrove stands, for example, arecurrently under severe pressure along the entirecoastline. Pollution from land-based sources andthe risk of oil spills are further issues of concern.

The all-women State Environment Council Secretariat in Gedaref state. The CPA and Interim Constitution devolve extensive responsibility to state governments in the area of environmental governance. State-level structures, however, remain under-funded and in need of substantial investment

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


Environmental governance: historically weak, now at a crossroads

By granting the Government of Southern Sudanand the states extensive and explicit responsibilityin the area of environment and natural resourcesmanagement, the CPA and new Interim Con-stitutions have significantly changed the frameworkfor environmental governance in Sudan and helpedcreate the conditions for reform.

At the national level, the country faces manychallenges to meet its international obligations, asset out in the treaties and conventions it has signedover the last thirty years. Although the technicalskill and level of knowledge in the environmentalsector are high and some legislation is already inplace, regulatory authorities have critical structuralproblems, and are under-resourced.

In Southern Sudan, environmental governanceis in its infancy, but the early signs are positive.High-level political and cross-sector support isvisible, and UNEP considers the new structuresto be relatively suited to the task.

Environment and international aid: reduced environmental impact of relief operations and improved UN response to environmental issues necessary

The environmental assessment of the internationalaid programme in Sudan raised a number of issuesthat need to be resolved to avoid inadvertentlydoing harm through the provision of aid, and toimprove the effectiveness of aid expenditure in theenvironmental sector. UNEP’s analysis indicatesthat while most aid projects in Sudan do notcause significant harm to the environment, a fewclearly do and the overall diffused impact of theprogramme is very significant.

One major and highly complex issue is theenvironmental impact of the provision of foodand other emergency aid to some 15 percent of thepopulation, and the projected impact of the variousoptions for shifting back from aid dependence toautonomous and sustainable livelihoods. Indeed, thecountry is presently caught in a vicious circle of foodaid dependence, agricultural underdevelopmentand environmental degradation. Under current

The coral reefs of the Red Sea coast are the best preserved ecosystems of Sudan

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circumstances, if aid were reduced to encouragea return to agriculture, the result in some areaswould be food insecurity and an intensification ofland degradation, leading to the high likelihood offailure and secondary displacement.

The integration of environmental considerationsinto the current UN programme in Sudan needsto be significantly improved. In addition, theenvironment-related expenditure that does occur– while acknowledged and welcome – suffers froma range of management problems that reduceits effectiveness. Priorities for the UN and itspartners in this field are improved coordinationand environmental mainstreaming to ensure thatinternational assistance ‘does no harm’ to Sudan’senvironment, and ‘builds back better’

Recommendations

1. Invest in environmental management to support lasting peace in Darfur, and to avoid local conflict over natural resources elsewhere in Sudan. Because environmentaldegradation and resource scarcity are amongthe root causes of the current conflict inDarfur, practical measures to alleviate suchproblems should be considered vital toolsfor conflict prevention and peacebuilding.Climate change adaptation measures andecologically sustainable rural developmentare needed in Darfur and elsewhere to copewith changing environmental conditionsand to avoid clashes over declining naturalresources.

A group of southern Sudanese travels down the White Nile aboard a ferry, returning to the homeland after years of displacement due to the civil war. A massive return process is currently underway for the four million people displaced during the conflict

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


2. Build capacity at all levels of government and improve legislation to ensure that reconstruction and economic development do not intensify environmental pressures and threaten the livelihoods of present and future generations. The new governance contextprovides a rare opportunity to truly embedthe principles of sustainable development andbest practices in environmental managementinto the governance architecture in Sudan.

3. National and regional government should assume increasing responsibility for investment in the environment and sustainable development. The injection ofoil revenue has greatly improved the financialresources of both the Government of NationalUnity and the Government of Southern Sudan,enabling them to translate reform into action.

4. All UN relief and development projects in Sudan should integrate environmental considerations in order to improve the effectiveness of the UN country programme.Better coordination and environmental

mainstreaming are necessary to ensure thatinternational assistance ‘does no harm’ toSudan’s environment.

The way forward and the UNEP Sudan country programme

This report’s 85 detailed recommendations includeindividual cost and time estimates, and nominateresponsible parties for implementation. While theyenvisage a central and coordinating role for theenvironment ministries of GONU and GOSS, thewholehearted support and participation of manyother government ministries and authorities, aswell as several UN agencies, are also needed. Thetotal cost of the recommendations is USD 120million with expenditure spread over five years.UNEP considers that the majority should befinanced by GONU and GOSS, with the balanceprovided by the international community.

For its part, UNEP plans to establish a Sudancountry programme for the period of at least 2007-2009, and stands ready to assist the Governmentof Sudan and international partners in theimplementation of these recommendations.

A food aid delivery awaits distribution at Port Sudan. Fifteen percent of Sudan’s population depends on international food aid for survival

"sudan post-conflict environmental assessment" · sudan post-conﬂict environmental...

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