MEMORY

Studying for the ExamHow to study for your examComplete all the multiple choice questions on EdmodoUse cue cards and practice with matesDo as many past practice exams as possible (i.e. the ones I have given you)Also get them off this website: http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Pages/vce/studies/psychology/exams.aspx Try and do 10 more from now until the exam50 past exams, is likely to get you an A+Refer to Study design http://www.vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/vce/psychology/PsychologySD-2013.pdf Use Andrew Scotts websitehttp://www.epsychvce.com/

Listen to youtube clipsUse the mindmapsUse his worksheets Make sure your glossary is finished with all the words in redKey Knowledge: Research Methods Refer to PDF for all definitions and examples Experimental research: construction of research hypotheses; identification and operationalisation of independent and dependent variables; identification of extraneous and potential confoundingVariables including individual participant differences, non-standardised instructions and procedures,Order effects, experimenter effect, placebo effects; ways of minimising confounding and extraneousVariables including type of sampling proceduresType of experiment, counterbalancing, Single and Double blind procedures, placebos, standardised instructions and procedures; evaluation of differentTypes of experimental research designs including:independent-groupsmatched-participantsrepeated-measures; reporting conventions as per American Psychological Association (APA) format know the strengths and weaknessesKey Knowledge: Research MethodsSampling procedures in selection and allocation of participants: random sampling; stratified sampling; random-stratified sampling; convenience sampling; random allocation of participants to groups; Control and experimental groupsTechniques of qualitative and quantitative data collection: case Studies; observational studies; self reportsStatistics: measures of central tendency including mean, median and mode; Interpretation of p-values and conclusions; evaluation of research in terms of generalising the findings to the populationEthical principles and professional conduct: the role of the experimenter; protection and security of participants rights; confidentiality; voluntary participation; withdrawal rights; informed consent procedures; use of deception in research; debriefing.Key Knowledge: Area of Study 1 Mind Brain and BodyConcepts of normal waking consciousness and altered states of consciousness including daydreaming and alcohol-inducedIn terms of levels of:awarenesscontent limitationscontrolled and automatic processesperceptual and cognitive distortionsemotional awarenessself-control Time orientationhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rdZmtq6CjR8

Key Knowledge: Area of Study 1 Mind Brain and Bodysleep as an altered state of consciousness: purpose of sleep, characteristics and patterns of the stages of sleep including rapid eye movement (REM) and the non-rapid eye movement (NREM)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a3ONM_6fkRs stages of sleephttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zI_hdRd-HrM

Key Knowledge: Area of Study 1 Mind Brain and BodyMethods used to study the level of alertness in normal waking consciousness and the stages of sleep. Measurement of physiological responses including:electroencephalograph (EEG)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zI_hdRd-HrMelectromyograph (EMG)electro-oculargraph (EOG) heart rate body temperaturegalvanic skin response (GSR) the use of sleep laboratories, video monitoring and self reportshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VpR1CXS7ujM

Key Knowledge: Area of Study 1 Mind Brain and Bodythe interaction between cognitive processes of the brain and its structure including: roles of the central nervous system http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w9IK_pFSpr8peripheral nervous system (somatic and autonomic) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTGWZoe4mCo autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8ItFuDgYKw roles of the four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital) of the cerebral cortex in the control of motor, somatosensory, visual and auditory processing in humans; primary cortex and association areashttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=luXDQrmMoUU hemispheric specialisation: the cognitive and behavioural functions of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, non-verbal versus verbal and analytical functionshttp://www.slideshare.net/coburgpsych/lesson-6-hemispheric-specialisationKey Knowledge: Area of Study 1 Mind, Brain and BodyContribution of studies to the investigation of cognitive processes of the brain and implications for the understanding of consciousness including:Studies of aphasia including Brocas aphasia and Wernickes aphasiahttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iHDF5twkcE Spatial neglect caused by stroke or brain injury http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QHtMmR2_V4g Split-brain studies including the work of Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzanigahttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h7DwNFFe6Ws

Area of Study 2 - Memorymechanism of memory formation: the neuron in memory formation including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters role of the temporal lobe including the hippocampus and the amygdala consolidation theory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bwYzvKUbfJM memory decline over the lifespanhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdUlc4jZK_s amnesia resulting from brain trauma and neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and Alzheimers diseasehttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NYHjZydo1_g Area of Study 2 - Memorymodels for explaining human memory: Atkinson-Shiffrins multi-store model of memory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0XLEuijX3cSensory memory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sXphKw1BPBw including maintenance and elaborative rehearsalhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJ2Uw5znL0I serial position effect and chunkinghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qsZKBsy6yDw Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitchs model of working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic bufferhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-jX08_Ft5LI levels of processing as informed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockharthttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_9I_7-VUzjs organisation of long-term memory including declarative (episodic and semantic) and procedural memory, and semantic network theoryhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ebKzcfbDx_c Area of Study 2 - Memorystrengths and limitations of theories of forgetting: forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaushttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tDPTQmRRPSQ retrieval failure theory including tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon interference theory (retroactive and proactive interference)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyXbdLIBhQo motivated forgetting as informed by the work of Sigmund Freud including repression and suppressionhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGt2Bz1mP_o decay theoryhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R90pHQrfyoY Area of Study 2 - Memorymanipulation and improvement of memory: measures of retention including the relative sensitivity of recall, recognition and relearning use of context dependent cues and state dependent cueshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=boKKhBvf5Bg mnemonic devices including acronyms, acrostics and narrative chaining effect of misleading questions on eye-witness testimonies including the reconstructive nature of memory informed by the work of Elizabeth Loftushttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SP8kJ5A5xU8 Unit 4 AOS 1 Learningbehaviours not dependent on learning including reflex action, fixed action patterns and behaviours due to physical growth and development (maturation)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=crWPuzaEQ3Aneural mechanisms of learning including developmental plasticity and adaptive plasticity of the brain: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKLqwNHzufkchanges to the brain in response to learning and experience http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytRC15vIA24 timing of experienceshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GDlurrS5Yw0 Learning applications, and comparisons, of learning theories:classical conditioning as informed by Ivan Pavlov: roles of neutral, unconditioned, conditioned stimuli; unconditioned and conditioned responseshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cbd0tt9cj_M applications of classical conditioning: graduated exposure, aversion therapy, flooding, trial-and-error learning

LearningThree-phase model of operant conditioning as informed by B.F. Skinner: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X-lgMnvPDQ0 positive and negative reinforcement, response cost, punishment and schedules of reinforcementhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdrkmu1g5OI schedules of reinforcementhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HBFCsjVwXJs applications of operant conditioning: shaping, token economieshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7x6gGr5JCg

LearningComparisons of classical and operant conditioning in terms of the processes of acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination, spontaneous recovery, role of learner, timing of stimulus and response, and nature of response (reflexive/voluntary)Comparison of operant and classical conditioning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nv81eEc_Xzs Extinction and Spontaneous recovery http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=34MEA3whgnM

Observational learning (modelling) processes in terms of the role of attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement as informed by Albert Banduras social learning theory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPGqN1iPvQI the extent to which ethical principles were applied to classic research investigations into learning including John Watsons Little Albert experimentAOS 2 Mental Healthconcepts of normality and differentiation of mental health from mental illness systems of classification of mental conditions and disorders: underlying principles of classification;strengths and limitations of discrete categorical (DSM-IV and ICD-10) and dimensional (gradedand transitional) approaches to classification of mental disorders use of a biopsychosocial framework (the interaction and integration of biological, psychologicaland social factors) as an approach to considering physical and mental health application of a biopsychosocial framework to understanding the relationship between stress andAoS 2 Mental Healthphysical and mental wellbeing: physiological and psychological characteristics of responses to stress including fight-flight response, eustress and distress psychological determinants of the stress response; strengths and limitations of Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkmans Transactional Model of Stress and Copinghttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8FEMHCRowM social, cultural and environmental factors that exacerbate and alleviate the stress responseallostasis (stability through change brought about by the brains regulation of the bodys response to stress) as a model that integrates biological, psychological and social factors that explain an individuals response to stresshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cg-NKd61eFk strategies for coping with stress including biofeedback, meditation/relaxation, physical exercise, social support

MEMORYInvolves an active, information-processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information.

22Remembering: 3 key processesEncoding is the entire process of converting information into a useable form or code that can be stored in memoryStorage is the retention of information overtime.Retrieval is the process of locating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it.

Measures of Retention Memory is measured in 3 ways.RECALLThis involves being asked to reproduce information with no or minimal external cues.Free recall- retrieval of items in any order without cues or prompts.Cued recall- retrieval of items in any order but with cues to aid retrievalSerial or ordered recall- retrieval of items in the same order in which they were presented.

Cont... Measures of RetentionRecognitionCorrectly identifying or selecting previously learned information from a set of alternatives Which of the following are names of Walt Disneys 7 dwarfs?Bashful SneezyHappyDocGrumpyGrouchyPopSleepyGoofy Dopey

RelearningAlso called the savings method, relearning information previously memorised, and calculating the amount of information saved (or retained) in memory from the original learning.

No. of trials (or time) No. of trials (or time) Original Learning _ Relearning _______________________________ = Savings Score No. of trials for Original learning(or time)

Relative sensitivity of each measure of retentionRELEARNINGRECOGNITION RECALL ____________________________________________________most sensitiveleast sensitive The Relationship between the stages of memory

Sensory MemorySensory memory is a type of memory that stores sensory information in a raw form for very short periods of time. The 2 types of sensory memory most extensively explored are:Iconic memory: all information held in the visual sensory register. Echoic memory: all information held in the auditory sensory register.

Sensory memory is the initial stage of the memory system in which all the stimuli that bombard our senses are retained in their original sensory form (exact copies & not encoded). Sensory information remains in sensory memory just long enough for us to attend to and select the information to be transferred to short term memory. Selective attention is an automatic process that allows us to attend to some information entering our memory system and to ignore the rest. As soon as it is attended to, information transfers to STM.SENSORY MEMORYIconic (visual) memoryEchoic (auditory) memoryCapacity Very large (stores all sensory experiences briefly and therefore assumed to have unlimited capacity)Duration~0.3-0.5 sec

~3-4 sec

EncodingBased on physical properties of the stimulusShort Term Memory Short Term MemoryCapacity

Limited to 7 +- 2 bits of information (can be increased by chunking combining smaller bits of information into larger, more meaningful units).Duration

Approximately 18-20 seconds (occasionally up to 30 secs).Encoding

Information is encoded verbally, although visual-isation can be used to rehearse the information.

Working Memory: The active STMAn active part of memory where information you are consciously aware of is actively worked on thought about and processed in a variety of ways.Baddeley (1999, cited in Grivas, Down & Carter, 2004) proposed working memory consists of 3 sub-systems: The Phonological (or Articulatory) Loop (verbal working memory) stores speech based information and is comprised of 2 parts: The phonological memory is a limited number of sounds (phonemes) such as words for a short period of time of about 2 seconds.The articulatory sub-vocal rehearsal silently repeating words. Prevention of this results in rapid forgetting.

30Working Memory cont... The Visuo-spatial sketchpad:holds mental pictures temporarily.is responsible for the manipulation of visual and spatial information.Such as the location and nature of objects in the environment. ie. Knowing exactly where on the kitchen bench we have placed a cupcake and cup when we turn to pour a coffee from the perculator.

The Central Executive:Attends to information and decides what should be done with it (it plans and coordinates).Integrates info from the verbal and visual storage systems as well as information retrieved from LTM. It is responsible for suppressing irrelevant information from our conscious thinking.

REHEARSAL: Maintain information in STM by preventing it from being lost through decay (not being used) or displaced (being pushed out) by other material.Maintenance rehearsalRelies on the conscious recitation of information in a rote fashion. It can be verbal or non-verbal. Eg either repeating info over and over in ones head (sub-vocally) or by saying the info aloud over and over again (vocally).Easily affected by distraction which can displace information from STM.Elaborative rehearsalIs the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in memory or with other new information, to aid in its storage and retrieval from LTM.Is a more active process than maintenance rehearsal.It is a better method for remembering information because that info is encoded well. Consolidation Theory

In order for new information to be transferred effectively from STM to LTM there needs to be a time period in which these memories are able to stabilise without being disrupted.The consolidation theory refers to Physical changes occuring to the neurons in the brain when something new is being learned and immediately following learning for a period of time as the new info sets (consolidates) in memory. If memory is disrupted during consolidation phase (stabilisation of changes in the brains neurons) info may not be processed in LTM & will be lost. The consolidation process takes 30 minutes.Long Term MemoryLTM is a relatively permanent memory system which has an unlimited capacity for storing information for a relatively unlimited duration. LTM stores information semantically. ie. encoding is elaborative, according to meaning.

TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORYProcedural memory is the memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously and involves knowing how to do something eg. how to ride a bike or how to bake a cake. They are also called implicit memories because it is often difficult to recall when or how we learned to perform the sequence of actions required to do something .Declarative memory is the memory of specific facts or events that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or declared eg. Identifying a type of flower or remembering what you ate for dinner last night.

TYPES OF LONG TERM MEMORYPROCEDURAL MEMORYMemory for actions or skills, knowing howDECLARATIVE MEMORY

Memory for facts and events in the world, knowing thatTWO TYPES OF DECLARATIVE MEMORYEPISODIC MEMORY

Memories which contain autobiographical information about personal events and experiences in ones life and the context in which they occurred.SEMANTIC MEMORY

Memories which involve specialised knowledge of factual information about the world. This includes general knowledge , academic knowledge (of that learned at school) as well as the meaning of words.

Semantic Network Theory Proposes that LTM is organised systematically into hierarchical networks of concepts (nodes), arranged as interrelated categories and sub-categories. Information within the nodes is interconnected via meaningful links.

A shorter link between two concepts in a semantic network indicates a strong association between concepts; while a longer link between two concepts illustrates a more distant association.

Activating more nodes increases the chances of success and speed of retrieval of an item.

Semantic Network Theory

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT The serial position effect displays the tendency for recall of items in a serial list as being superior for items at the beginning of the list due to the primacy effect and if tested immediately after presentation of the list for items at the end of the list due to the recency effect (than for those in the middle).What causes the serial position effect ? If recall occurs immediately after a list has been learned the last few items are remembered best because they are still in STM.The first few items are remembered well because they receive more attention and rehearsal than other items and are therefore transferred into LTM.