standarts of english in africa

8/23/2019 Standarts of English in Africa

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229

12Standards of English in East Africa

Jose schmied

12.1 Introduction

T ggrapal lt eat Ara ar nt alway larly n. T

ntrbutn wll nntrat n t artlan Knya, Ugana an

Tanzana n t untr ar a n anglpn bakgrun

an a n ptntal r tanaratn, pt ntrtng -

rn n tr lnal rtag an tr urrnt lngut ra-

wrk. T tr untr ar aratr by a plx pattrn Aran

rt languag (anly r t Bantu an Nlaaran languag al),

a n lngua rana (Kwal) an an qually plx xtur

crtan, ila an natv Aran rlgu an ultural bl, w

rlvant t languag atttu an u. T rvval t eat Aran

cunty (196776) n 1997 a pltal xprn t nrtag an utur ptntal.

Altug any lngut atur, .g. wtng an brrw-

ng, an lngut atur, .g. vwl rgr, yllabl-t ryt n

prnunatn, vrgnralatn n graar, a ral tnny n tyl,

an al b un n tr part Ara, eat Aran engl (eAe) an

b tngu larly nug r tr vart t juty t tr

(s 1990, 2008a, b). hwvr, wtr t n rtag an t

n uag r juty t npt a tanar engl n eat

Ara arly u n t rgn an prbably rgtly , a lng a

t u apt natnal tanar ar r .T llwng pag rb t tral bakgrun t an ngng

bat abut tanar n eat Ara. Ty w larly tat t bat

abut tanaratn (t ay ntng t atn n natnal

tnar an graar), n a a rt attpt t anpat natnal

vart r (Brt) stanar engl (ste), a arly bgun. T -

un al w t way n w al an aptabl atn ay

i w t tank Rayn hky, sra mwang an suann Wagnr r t unt ntrbutn ba n. The International Corpus o English, eat Aran cpnnt

(ICE-EA) an t apanyng anual ar avalabl r r www.tu-ntz./pl/ngl /ral/ara/.

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230 Josef Schmied

b av. o ur, tanaratn ally apt natnal nr

bgn lng br xplt atn. r t lngut pnt vw,

t pn n a n, nu r unnu, a grwng awarn

l-uny an npnn, ntty an trn. Altugvn r u awarn n publ an prvat ur an b un,

t ult t gnral an t rpra gnralng antal v-

n a t b takn ruly. Tu an pral rptn ul b

ba n autnt ata r quantabl ur: r a trat ataba

lk t Corpus o East Arican English pl wtn t rawrk

t International Corpus o English (ice-eA, hun-ettl an s

1999; s 2007), t bggr wb-ba platn a txt

(s an Wagnr rtng), r ntrnt ar ngn r tl

(lk WebPhraseCount, abbrvat blw a WPc) ung t Wrl W

Wb a a ataba (s 2006).

12.2 Backgrounds

12.2.1 The colonial heritage

dpt Brt lnal rul, lnal languag ply wa nt ply

pr-engl but r plx tan tn au ( spnr 1971).

T varu lnal antratn tr t rgulat al languag

u n tr trrtr an t uually nvlv tr typ languag:

() t lal trbal tr tngu, () t Aran lngua rana (uuallyKwal, nly anally Lugana) an () engl, r lal, ntratr-

rtral an ntrnatnal unatn rptvly. otr agnt play

a rl a wll: t ur, r ntan, a nru nfun nt nly

n ur languag but al n l languag. T tr Brt n

t (t Unvrt mn t cntral Aran, t cur mn

sty an t Lnn mn sty) nt u engl r van-

glatn. T Gran nary Krap (w wrk r t cur

mn sty) prpagat a Latn pllng yt r Kwal, w

a bn tratnally wrttn n Arab rpt, n aw Kwal

a t t ultvat alt an a a ky t t nlan languag.Prttant n n gnral avur (n martn Lutr tratn) t

languag t ppl, .. t tn languag, but al t Aran lngua

rana, Kwal. T catl cur uually u Latn n t rv

an Kwal r prang.

Atr Wrl War i, t Brt antratn n Tanzana nt ntr-

u engl wlal atr takng vr t rr Gran lny. Ratr,

ty ar t nt Gran antratn yt, w arng

t a rprt r 1921 a t pbl t unat n wrtng wt vry

akida an vllag aan, an n turn t rv r rprt wrttn

n Kwal. Tu engl wa tabl nly n ltt rl wn t

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Standards of English in East Africa 231

lnal pwr tr t rgulat unatn wtn t antratv,

lgal an uatn yt. T nratn uar n a rprt by

t Plp-stk un ( s 1991a: 15) prp a baally tr-

lngual languag ply wt t tn vrnaular r lal una-tn an ba uatn, Kwal n tnally x ntr an engl

r t gt untn n antratn, law an uatn. T l t

t unatn t intrtrrtral Languag ctt n 1929, w

latr vlp nt t eat Aran swal ctt, rpnbl r

tanaratn, rtgrapal rr an xpann n t ba t

Zanzbar varty KUnguja (an nt t Kmvta mbaa). engl wa

t languag ntrutn anly n t w prtgu nary l,

.g. at Kng cllg, Bu, Ugana, t l r n n Tabra

r Allan hg n Narb, an ur at t rt eat Aran unvr-

ty, makrr, un a a tnal l n 1922 an a a unvrtyllg n 1949.

Tu lnal languag pl tabl nt an anglpn, but a

tral r trlngual yt wt (a) engl a t lt an ntrnatnal

languag, (b) t rgnal lngua rana an () t trbal languag r

vrnaular r lal unatn. T xpann engl wn t

al rary bgan nly at t n lnal rul wt t rata-

tn an xpann uatn tat wa t prpar Aran r npn-

n ( s 1991a: 18). Atr npnn, urprngly w ang

urr; altug lp-rv wa uually pa t Aran languag, nly

Tanzana a grat prgr twar xpanng t untn Kwalat t xpn engl an lal Aran languag.

12.2.2 The range o variation in English in East Arica

on t brat atgratn t engl u n Ara n gnral

uggt by Angg an hank (1980: 71), w tngu t l-

lwng typ arng t pakr:

(a) natv engl Aran-brn wt an xpatrat;

(b) natv engl lally brn Aran;() nn-natv engl pkn funtly a a n languag;

() nn-natv engl pkn prtly a a rgn languag.

T rt atgry, Wt Aran engl, rlatvly ngnant n

eat Ara tay, altug t nfun t arly Brt an sut

Aran ttlr ay av bn nrabl vnty yar ag, wn vr

2,000 a t t Wt hglan nrt munt Knya an at

munt elgn. T tr typ (Blak) Aran engl nttut a

ntnuu engl r, w rang r eNL t esL an eiL

(Natv/sn/intrnatnal Languag) vart. it wrt ntng tat

t atgr wr rgnally u t llutrat rn btwn ntr

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232 Josef Schmied

natn, pally n t pr vlpng (ypttal) natnal var-

t engl. hwvr, wn t t analyng languag r

w ar atually u n Ara, ntranatnal an ntraprnal varatn,

t nvual pakr lngut bakgrun an t atual p-at tuatn ut b takn nt nratn. At t nvual lvl, t

typ engl pkn by Aran pn largly, .. w gnr pal

xpur t engl tr trug prnal aquantan r t rn

a a, n tw atr: (a) n tr uatn, .. t lngt an gr

ral uatn n engl, an (b) n tr upatn, .. t n-

ty r an aunt engl u n vryay l. in t bra ptru,

t brrln btwn tanar an nn-tanar uag nt ay t raw.

T lar vlatn tanar uually lk wn upn a a gn

lttl uatn an, pally n Knya, rul n ltrary txt r plt-

al apagn, .g. n artn n t aly nwpapr.T rang varatn n eAe lar t tr Nw engl (

Platt, Wbr an h, 1984 an hky 2004). Bau ty ar esL var-

t, an a u nt trantt rtly va natv pakr, uag

r anly trug t u ntrutn n l an rn-

r ut l. T esL vart ar u n publ untn n

t natnal uatnal, lgal an antratn yt. intrtngly

nug tug, t tr Nw engl rarly u n eat Ara, prb-

ably bau ste wt eAe prnunatn r a a ypttal npnnt

eat Aran stanar nr r apprprat.

12.2.3 The sociolinguistic situation today

Bau t, t n ultural bakgrun ak t lngut

tuatn ratr lar. T ajr rn t tatu Kwal. in

Tanzana, t t tru natnal languag, n t pkn natnw a

a lngua rana, larnt n a rlatvly gnu r (t all

Gvrnnt swal) n all prary l an u n t natnal

untn nlung uatn n t nary l. in Knya,

Kwal lng t aatn wt t at r wt lwr al p-

tn. in Ugana, Kwal unrtunatly tll aat wt t l-tary an t trubl t t 1970 an 1980. T lav r r

r engl an t tr eat Aran languag n Knya an Ugana.

T al tatu engl n gvrnnt, parlant r jurtn

nt alway ay t tabl, a nftng law, rgulatn an prlaa-

tn n npnn ty yar ag ntrat a tr. Wra t

larly t languag natnw plt n Ugana, t rarly u n

t untn n Tanzana.

engl nt rally aat wt wt ttlr any r: Altug

tr tnt ant an tll b ar, ty ar t b un ut t

gnral natnal nr. T ultlngual uat Aran lt nvt larg

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u ny n g uatn an g engl. T Aan n eat

Ara ar uually qually ultlngual, pakng nt nly tr natv lan-

guag, anly Gujarat r Panjab, but al tr wn vrn Kwal

an engl.Knwlg an atual u engl ar ba n rug tat, n

n natnw nu ata ar avalabl1 an t lat languag urvy wa

pnr by t r unatn r tan rty yar ag. T ay, r

ntan, tat engl pkn by 30 pr nt n Ugana, 20 pr nt

n Knya an nly 5 pr nt n Tanzana pl nrabl nubr

pakr n t tr untr av alt 35, 40 an 60 lln

nabtant rptvly. hwvr, all t tat ut b trat wt

grat autn. But at lat, t gv an natn t (tral) r-

n n uatn, urbanatn, rnatn r ntrnatnalatn.

sn knwlg engl prtgu, nrant l-valuatn arunrlabl an natnw prny tt r natnal rtat u-

atn ar tn appntng. T at tat vn unvrt av tart

xtnv ur prgra n cunatn skll, r r xpltly

Ral engl, rval t prbl n t gt lvl. T

un an b llw n t ntrnt tay n varu ntrbutn

nlung nuru lttr-t-t-tr n ajr natnal nwpapr

(.g. mUK nr engl r all n The New Vision. Ugandas Leading

Daily13/01/02). T ky prbl tat engl u a t languag

ntrutn r uppr prary l nwar (n Ugana) an tu t

ba r all urtr uatn. T un l abut tang englprprly tan tang (tr ubjt) n engl prprly.

in Knya an Ugana engl tll, an n Tanzana t agan, a rult

an a ybl g uatn an tu, rtly r nrtly, a prrqu-

t r wll-pa jb wt ntrnatnal lnk n tra an tur. T

tn rft n ppular bat n languag atttu n eat Ara.

12.2.4 Language attitudes today

Atttu twar languag an uag n Ara an b nrr r any

bat, but ytat tu ar rar an ult. T gnral atttutwar ung engl n eat Ara av t b tngu r t pra-

tal atttu twar p eat Aran uag a an aptabl natnal

r trannatnal tanar.

T trtyp ntn engl (uul, ntrtng, t.) ar nrally

vry ptv. Ty ay, wvr, av lttl t n atttu t atual

languag u an uag n eat Ara. Apart r t anal lgal

1 T 2002 Tanzana Ppulatn an hung cnu ak 25 pr nt nvual rprvat ul vr v yar ag, ty ul ra an wrt n Kwal nly,

engl nly, bt Kwal an engl r n any tr languag(), an t rult arnlu n t al cnu publatn.

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234 Josef Schmied

bat n lngut pral n aa rl, languag anly

vw n xtrly pratal tr, n t t bvu tat engl t

ntrnatnal languag n an tnlgy an wrlw un-

atn. Tu ntrnatnalt argunt n avur engl ar al unn-trvral. evn t grat upprtr an tranlatr Kwal, Prnt

Nyrr Tanzana, pa t prtan engl allng t t

Kwal t wrl. T ral u t u (an uag) engl n

ntranatnal unatn, pally n Aran l. Altug t

rt-languag prnpl (ba n UNesco rnatn n t

1950) nrally apt by Aran uatnalt, natnally n

Tanzanan upprt t u Kwal r t rt ay at l,

wra ntrnatnally n parnt n Ugana avat a at trak

t engl, w a bn n at npnn. T tag wt-

ng t engl uually atr lwr prary l (ur yar) n Uganaan atr nary l n Tanzana, wra n Knya t at t bgn-

nng t ur yar nary l at t latt. T bat t

at n Tanzana, wr n t n an n rnt yar any nw pr-

vat nary l av avrt engl a a u ntrutn,

wra n t tr an vn unvrt av prp tang

n Kwal. T a argunt pr an ntra av bn u r -

a ( s 1991a: aptr 7) an ty an b al tt n rnt

nwpapr bat (.g. nln n www.ppa.).

in ntrat t t bat n pratal languag u, atttu twar

Aran vart engl ar rarly u ut larly rl.Aptng Aran r arly pnly att xpt n prnunatn,

wr apng t Brt n a gly unnatural. Graar n partular

nr t glu tat l t vrgng vart engl tgtr;

an ntrnatnal ntllgblty ablutly ntal a t ajr

at t ntrnatnal languag ut nt b jpar. stanar

engl wt Aran prnunatn ay b apt a an ntranatnal

nr, but Uganan, Knyan an Tanzanan engl a a wl ar tll nt

nr npnnt vart n tr wn rgt. Nvrtl, t t-

rtal Brt nr nly upl n bk an rarly xprn n u

n prnt-ay Ara. T pat twar npnn an aptan nw natnal tanar a t b u n rnt lvl languag

rptn.

12.2.5 The current status o codication and standardisation

Altug a lar plant tratn an zprn rpany

btwn al an pratal tanar ar rprt r t eat Aran

untr a r tr esL untr, Knya, Ugana an Tanzana ar

nt ay t pla n t urrnt trtal l. Karu (.g. Karu,

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Karu an Nln 2006) Knya an Ugana a utr rl an

Tanzana ratr a xpanng rl, snr (2007, 2008) rr t a-

nal all r an nnratv rntatn an nr t pr n

Tanzana a alt. in t a t pla r tanaratn ar rlat tuatn (.g. Kb-sur 2003).

dpt t nubr unvrt wt lngut an t Pd t

wrttn n t l, tr n prnv ata lltn an n -

prnv publatn n eat Aran, Knyan, Tanzanan r Uganan

engl. T pl tat tr n al tnary eat Aran

engl (a tr r sut Aran engl, r xapl), n unal

tnary (a r Ngra r carn, r xapl), n xtn ll-

tn uag pnna (lk Jwtt 1991 r Ngra), an n tal rrr

lt wt t xptn hkng (1974), w rb an ntan

Knyan engl ntrlanguag wtut pyng tat n t ttl.Altug all untr av natnal languag nttut, t uu-

ally nntrat n Aran languag, pally Kwal. Tr al

n natnal tnary prjt r ata platn prjt a ar a engl

nrn. T w t al pt (by pltan) twar

tanarng engl at natnal lvl an lav r r a n eat

Aran ntatv t tanaratn bat a arly bgun.

Tu vryay n n al an -al engl uag ar

lgat t t gr tr n nwpapr, t nr jurnalt n t

nwr, t nr rrtr n natnal xanatn unl, t n-

vual tar at all lvl uatn, t. A rrn wrk nlungnatnal r eat Aran guln twar a tanar wul b uul r

prnal languag ur an any tr.

sn n n atn annt b ba n ntutn aln, a

trat ata lltn uat engl wul b rabl. But u

an al ataba nt xt, xpt ICE-EA (an tat wa pl

n 19906). Altug tr ar any appra t t tanaratn

Nw engl (.g. Bagb 1998), ytat ata lltn t

ba r atn, valuatn, aptan an nally al publatn.

Tay t ntrnt an r an pprtunty r any t partpat n a

un ru n p eat Aran, Knyan, Tanzanan r Uganantrutur, a lt blw, tat wul g ar byn t tratnal lttr-

t-t-tr.

r a trtal prptv, t prur ul gv u an ngt

nt w (r-)nptualatn ay la t gnty n uag an

aptan a nnratv tablatn an nally tanaratn. T

tablnt a uag nr t rt tp twar tanaratn, an

t wy t urvy xplr lngut ubyt tat ay rv a a

tartng pnt r tanaratn n t lng run r r t rgntn

tn alt w ar t lat tag plx varty ratn.

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236 Josef Schmied

12.3 Standardisation processes in EAfE subsystems

12.3.1 Towards acceptability in subsystems o pronunciation

T pnlgy eAe partular prtan bau (nn-tanar)prnunatn atur t b t t prtnt n Aran vart,

.. ty ar rtan vn n t p t t uat pakr. in

any languag. prnunatn t b t t fxbl lnt, w

an b u (ubnuly) t xpr ubtl lngut ag

pakr ntty an tan r r larty wt t ltnr. engl

appar t b partularly fu at t lvl, bau vn t upp

nr n Brtan av v ar away r t nttutnal wrttn

r tat t grap yt annt ybl t vrgng pn

yt any r (altug tak n t r pnt pllng allw

nlun abut t prnunatn r wrttn txt).T atur aratrng Aran prnunatn engl an b

un at ubpn, pn an uprapn lvl. drn at

t pn lvl ar prtant bau r rn lxal an-

ng ar antan. T an b llutrat (an lt) n nal par

lk ram an lamb, beatan bit, r show an so. many Aran wul nt

tngu larly n prnunatn btwn t lnt u par.

12.3.1.1 Towards standardisation in EAE vowel systems

A parn t engl pn yt wt tat t eat

Aran languag w tat t ajr rn ar nt t nnant

but t w vwl ntrat. Tu t vwl yt eAe vat y-

tatally, vwl tn t rg, bau t xtr rang t engl

vwl ntnuu nt vr by t unrlyng Aran yt t

Bantu languag, r ntan. on t wl tr ba gnralatn ay

b a r engl vwl:

(a) Lngt rn n vwl ar lvll an nt u pnally;

tu fleece an kit, goose an foot, thought an north, a wll

a bath, strut an trap tn t rg. T nt nly a quanttatv,

but al a qualtatv t, a uually rt vwl n eAe ar lngran r prpral tan n RP, pally // tn twar /./, //

twar /u./, // twar /./ an // an // twar /a./.

(b) T ntral vwl, strut, nurse an letter, ar av an tn

twar al-pn r pn ptn lk bath an, l tn, dress.

T nr t t tnny twar r xtr artulatry p-

tn t tngu n gnral. it la (tgtr wt yllabl-tng)

t t pnnn tat vwl n ull yllabl tn t b unrr-

ntat wl t n untr n ay b vrrntat; tu

t rn btwnpoliceman anpolicemen r btwn t ux

-ance an -ence ay b larr tan n tanar engl.

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() dptng tn t av nly argnal tatu an t b nptng.

in t rt lng ptng mouth an partularly face t n

lnt arly ar n any Aran vart (a n stlan; tu

nng alt wt t dress vwl). dptng wt a lngr glar prrv, but ty ar nt rally prnun a allng ptng, ..

wt l pa n t n lnt tan n t rt, but ratr a

ubl nptng (.g. //, /a/). All t ntrng ptng (near,

square, cure) tn t b prnun a pnng ptng r ubl

nptng (/a, a, ua/; . tnny (b) abv).

T t an rgr t l r any Aran vart tat

t annt b ntrprt rly a a prut tr-tngu ntrr-

n. T ay al b t ran wy ty ar rarly rtz an wll

b nlu n an apt tanar pt t pbl pn anntllgblty prbl.

An ntrtng ngl paratr n t rpt t vatn t RP

lng ntral nurse vwl: t tn twar a bak vwl // n Wt Aran

vart, twar a rnt vwl /a/ n eatrn an twar // n sutrn

Aran vart, but t tnn ar nt unr n all rgn, n-

tr ar all tn grup, nr ar t lxn. in Tanzana girltn

twar a rnt artulatn (dress) an turn twar bak prnunatn

(start) bau pllng prnunatn.

12.3.1.2 Dierentiation in EAE consonant systemsLk t vwl yt, t engl nnant yt p a bg prbl

t eat Aran ur. sn nnant ar nt a unr n t uag

nr a t vwl, but rntat t (tn) ubnatnal yt, ty

annt b part wr tanaratn. T lqu /r/ an /l/ ar a par-

tularly nau par r any Bantu pakr, bt rnr a n an

t a, tn ntrat un btwn /ll/ an /rr/ nta /

lr/ lorry, r ntan. in Knya, t par a lar ubnatnal ntr

(s 1991b), n vn uat Gkuyu larly tn twar /r/

an t ngburng ebu twar /l/. oanally t t v an

vl ratv arun t alvlar rg /t/ // an //, an //,// an /z/ ar nt tngu larly tr. otr prblat n-

nant ar // an //, w tn vat n t rtn // an

/t/ r, t, /z/ an //, rarly /v/ an //. mt t va-

tn ar rgtr by eat Aran a ubnatnal pulart. Altug

t pn rgr nt nangr t nnant yt a a wl,

ty ay b larly ntabl an tgat an ar nt part natnal

tanaratn. T rntatn r alng languag-typlgal

ln: Nlaaran grup r Nrtrn Ugana an Knya (.g. Al

an Lu) w lar vatn, a ty ar n by tr grup, n

tr ratv.

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238 Josef Schmied

12.3.1.3 Standardisation o suprasegmental patterns on a pan-Arican level?

otr prtant atur Aran engl ar uprapn, .. rlat

t pn qun, wr tr, ntnatn an gnral ryt pat-

trn. many t pnna ar ult t rb, but xaplr tr partularly trkng apt ay u: t avan n-

nant lutr, t r rgular wr tr an pal ryt.

cnnant lutr ar a ajr pntat prbl n eAe, a any

Aran languag av a rlatvly trt nnant-vwl yllabl trutur

(tn cVcVcV). nal nnant ar rpp wn tr ar tw r

r n a qun, .g. n [nk] r nextan [n] r [an] r hand. But

t tnny al ur n natv-pakr engl an t rquny

t vary a lt. T gnral rul appar t b tat plv ar pr by

ratv, ty ar rpp n wr-nal ptn; ty ar pr by

tr plv r ur n nn-nal ptn ty ar plt by vwl nrtbtwn t nnant. A lar pnnn ur wn nal vw-

l ar a t l yllabl (.. yllabl nng n nnant). T

vwl nrt r a ar nrally [] r [], pnng n t ur-

rn palatal r vlar nnant n t nvrnnt (.g. [ptal] r

hospitalr [prn] rspring) r n vwl arny (.g. n [bk] r book).

A partularly trkng atur t Aran tnny twar r rgu-

lar tr ryt. Agan, t prbl l tn wt t engl tnny

t antan partly t Ran prnpl wr tr n t pnultat

yllabl n ntrat t t gnral Gran prnpl trng t t.

T la t rn n wr tr btwn tylgally bvulyrlat wr wn prx an ux ar a. Tu admire nt

tr n t a yllabl a admiration an admirable; r eat Aran

ar tpt t tr [aarabl] an t vn [aarn] jut

lk [aaa]. o ur, t prbl a wl r untr ylla-

bl ntrn t Brt stanar engl; vn Aran engl a -

nary tr rgularly n wr lksecretary. Tu t nal wr tr n

ux lk ize an partularly ate ay nt b tat urprng n pra-

t. T tnny nt ytat, n n t a t rquny an

alarty wr upprt t rrt Brt engl prnunatn,

n tr a bttr knwn, tylgally rlat r lar wr ay

rv a analgal l. T ra t prbl tat tanar engl

u tr t nat wr la; n eAe t tr tntn btwn t

vrbprotest, alternate, attribute an t nun protest, alternate, attribute

rarly antan.

T t trkng atur Aran engl t tnny twar

yllabl-t ratr tan tr-t ryt. Tu eAe pakr tn

t gv all yllabl r r l qual tr an nt pat qun

vral untr yllabl tgtr nt n tr unt a pakr

Brt engl . T unrlyng pattrn aunt r t uprag-

ntal pattrn n eAe ntn abv (.g. t gv t u wgt t

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untr yllabl) an t t unalar ryt. it ay al au

unrtanng n ntrultural unatn, wn eAe ay b

jug a unrnly an-gun r r l ng-ng. it an

ntrtng qutn wtr t lp unatn wt ranpnAran, w p al yllabl-t.

3.2 Stigmatisation o variation in infectional morphology

in ntrat t ntnatn, nftn larly n ste, tat rrr

ar larly tgat. inftnal nng ar nt alway a n eAe,

but t gnral, rgular r unark r ar u nta. T appl

t t rgular nng t tr-prn ngular prnt tn an t

pat tn an t rrgular vrb r a wll a plural. sn u va-

tn r t (Brt) nr ar tgat, uat eat Aran nlyu t n pal a. s a a pl xpann t Brt

nr, wr a unt an b n a a wl r a vral p.

(1) K.. 33,500/- was [ste wr] ra urng ur pr-wng

(ice-eA: s1Bce05K)

(2) it t cty inptrat w assigns t cty Akar. (ice-eA:

s1B066K)

Wr nptual ratgratn pbl, t a wll nt

n gnral aptan a an (al) tanar ( stn 12.3.3 blw).

A g xapl r prv by ajtv nng. in eAe, a nany tr esL/eiL vart, ajtv tn t b u a avrb. T

unark avrbal r rrt n vry w a n ste (hard,rst, high,

n rtan ntxt r ayng lk Take it easy, t.; but nt n Do it proper),

but t ur nt nly n Aran, but al n natv engl vart.

stll, n eAe t arly apt.

12.3.3 Towards standardisation and recategorisation o grammar

eat Aran tnn n rplgy an yntax an tn al b un

n tr part Ara an vn byn, n -all Nw engl( hky 2004), an vn n rt-languag vart n Brtan,

Ara r Autrala. Partly, at lat, engl vart all t vlp

n lar rtn, a r ntan n tr platn an rgu-

laratn. rquny, ntny, ytatty an t vlpntal,

rgnal an al trbutn vr varu pkn an wrttn txt typ

ar a attr r urtr rar. T qutn platnal rar-

n rquny an aptablty an nly b u n t ba.

hwvr, t lar tat u wpra ratgratn ar a g

pral ba r argung n avur tanarng nw pattrn nt

nly n eat Ara.

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240 Josef Schmied

T rt rptn ubyt ratgratn graar wa by

Platt, Wbr an h (1984: 529). Ty aw a pltly rnt y-

t artl n Nw engl: wra tanar engl u t n-

t/nnt yt (known/not known) a t ba tntn, t Nwengl prr t u t p/nn-p (particular/not particular)

yt, a n t tanar engl trnr par certain any. in t

yt, nn-p rrn xpr by n artl (a n Give me beer,

w gv t typal prn an eAe ru tyl) an p r-

rn by the. T tnny ttng trnr al appl t nn-

t, pv an ntratv prnun.

(3) stanng ay, tug pr qualty, r anal nutrnt

rqur r __ antnan tr by ntn (ice-eA:

W2B033K)(4) Tr __ n r vlpnt all, an-rvn an

(ice-eA: W2B033K).

many eAe graar atur av ultpl xplanatn (lk tranr

r Aran languag an vrgnralatn ntralanguag pattrn),

but t t ntrgung analy gntv an ultvarat. T appl

t t graatal a npt, .. t untnn-unt tntn,

w a rprun r plural ratn a wll a r trnatn,

altug wt rnt rqun (t plural advices l rqunt tan

an advice). Ratgratn nt ur ntntly a t a n-trutn u an ar vry tn appl t ubyt, w ar arly

allng, an tu rprnt g anat r t apt tanar-

atn Nw engl uag.

12.3.3.1 Towards standardising extended continuous orms

T u xpan r (be + verb + -ing ntrutn) rqunt an

nt narly ply ste (prgrv) anng. su ntnuu

r rprnt a ark vrbal yt n ntrat t t unark -

pl tn yt tat an b u t xpr t prgrv, but al any

tr ntxtual anng (nlung pakr atttu). T at t

tntn btwn t nn-tatv an t tatv u vrb an appl

partularly t vrb tat ar u wt -ing r nly n ark,

p anng, partularly have. T an tn nly b nt n lar-

gr ntxt, pally wn t anng rtanly nt tprary but

ratr abtual:

(5) s u ay tnk tat wn alway ar avng a lt

tng t (ice-eA: s1BiNT13T)

(6) it rally vry tx t t ur bau t pru a lt

k avy k an t llng (ice-eA: s1BiNT13T)

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12.3.3.2 Towards accepting nominal recategorisation

T tnny t xtn plural rp t nn-unt nun qut -

n n Nw engl an tn apt, n t bvuly gntvly

tvat: altug ty an b n a lltv unt, vral nvualp an b tngu, .g. wt luggages,urnitures,rewoods rgrasses.

st t tnny nfat r r l ubtl ant rnta-

tn n tanar engl, u a t btwn oodoods, peoplepeoples,

t t rly rgular (tral) rplgal ste rrgulart

(shes). eat Aran uag baally gnr t graatal tntn

unt v nn-unt nun, w nt alway rrpn t t an-

t n. in ste plural -s nt a t nun tat ar nr abtrat r

lltv/a an tu nn-unt (discontents, inormations). But vn n

ste, t nn-untabl ay ur n t plural n pal anng

(.g. works) r n tr ntxt (.g. experiences). cnquntly, r-n ar tn a qutn ntrprtatn an rquny.

(7) T advices ar ng bau tyv alray tu all

u (ice-eA: s1BiNT12T)

12.3.3.3 Towards accepting prepositional variation

engl prptn ar plyu an at. Bau a lak

nftnal rplgy, prptn ar partularly prtant n engl

an ste pular n tat t u prptn tn x an tr

pnnt n t prng vrb, nun, ajtv r avrb r t llw-ng nun. T at prptn ay llw ant, r-

plgal r vn tratnal Latn rul. T atng prptn t

vrb, nun, ajtv r avrb trr ntr ay nr lgal t a

n-languag ur.

Gnrally t t rqunt engl prptn o an in (at t

xpn t r pal into) ur gnantly r rquntly n eat

Ara tan n Brt engl ( mwang 2003), w ay b xplan

a a aty tratgy. mr p pl prptn (lk or across)

ar u l tn. T t n a unrrntatn n ste,

.g. rgarng t tntn btwn rtrt ptn an xtnptn (at Nairobi u rgularly n Knya, vn wn t nt ug-

gt a pnt n a glbal prptv, but an xtn pla wr in Nairobi

larly prrr n ste). sn t prptnal yt n engl ar

u r plx tan n Aran languag, r gnral prptn

tn t b n (.g. in r into) an analgy play an prtant rl. Rar

prptn (lk underneath, patal past, r down) ar u vn l n

eAe. Antr a platn t nglt tntn btwn

latv beside an ntratv besides (b.).

slarly, rqunt plx prptn (lk because o, according to

an due to) ur r rquntly, l rqunt an r plx n

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242 Josef Schmied

(lk in ront o, in avour o, by means o, in the light o) l tn n pkn

eAe.

(8) Wat t an ran of[steor] t ra prutn?

(ice-eA: s1B041T)(9) many ppl ar jut ng in (to) t untry. (ice-eA:

s1A018T)

Praal/prptnal vrb ar partularly prtant n engl wr

ratn; ang partl r prptn atr t engl vrb a tyl-

p altrnatv t prxatn, pally wt Gran t (.g. go

about= bgn,go ahead= pr,go back = rturn,go down = ra,

go on = ntnu,go up = nra). T altrnatv an pal praal/

prptnal uag unknwn n Aran languag. epally r praal

vrb, t rrpnng prptn nt ay t nptual r nn-natv pakr, n t anng ar guratv. sltn rtra ay b

xtnn r gntvly lar praal vrb r r tylgally

rlat nun n engl, lk talk about > discuss about r discussion about

> discuss about. Wtr a pra ul b nr tautlgu nt

ay t . in t n, t rn btwn Brt an eAe tn

a attr rquny, .. discuss aboutur n wb pag n t Knyan

an (.k) abut tr t a tn a n t rrpnng UK pag.

in ral rptv atgr, prptn ay b tt (t wll-

knwn I will pick you [ste up] at eight; crop [ste up], provide [with]),

r ubttut (.g. attach with [ste to], concentrate with [ste on], con-gratulate or [ste on], participate with [ste in], result into/to [ste in]), r

a, w t b t t rqunt a (.g. advocate or, mention

about, join with). Partl ar tt wn ty appar bvu (protest

[ste against]). T ubttut partl ar tn ntnt wt t pr-

x rp (.g. deprive rom nta deprive o) r lly rlat n

anng (.g. outan o, a n switch out the light [ste o], put o [ste

out] the re). T atnal partl ar tn lgally pbl, but ar

nr runant wt t vrb arng t ste nr but ar u

atr t rrpnng nun (.g. emphasise on < N emphasis on; larly,

demand or, request or, stress on). B analgy, ntrrn r Aranlanguag pbl, n tr prptnal yt rlatvly -

pl an tu plyu. r ntan, n ba latv prptn n

Kwal, n n mwituni, an b tranlat a at, to, in/inside, by/near/

next to anrom the orest.

12.3.3.4 Towards accepted variation in (non-nite) verb complementation

A vrb plntatn uually a attr nvual lx ratr

tan rul, llatn an trutur wul av t b lt (larnt an

taugt) wt nvual vrb. rquny an alarty al trn w

tgat t xprn . Agan, Aran tn try t lv apparnt

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rrgulart by applyng gntvly unrtanabl rtra, tu allow

him go analgu t let him go an made him to do paralll torced him to

do, but ty nt rrpn t Brt nr. st tw lar

ntrutn ar nu (a wt decide to + infinitive an decide on +-ing). T ubtl tntn btwn nntv an grun ntrutn

(.g. btwnstop to do anstop doing) tn t b nglt an t

ran. Altug t ay b vw a unnary platn,

t uually ult t argu n avur antanng u nr tn-

tn n a brar tanaratn pr.

(10) Wul yu n to tll u u a br bakgrun abut icAc

an u wat u ar yu gng t u n Arua (ice-eA:

s1B041T)

(11) a nat t want t tp to lvr wat a (ice-eA:

s1B031T)

12.3.4 Towards fexibility in word order, ocussing and complementation

mr tan n tr ara graar, t ult t a pa a

rgt r wrng. it nr napprprat nly n rtan a n

t prntatn nratn ran fxbl t a larg xtnt. otn,

wvr, t qutn wtr an unuual ntrutn pl pal

pa r ntrat ult t .

Tpalatn trug rntng an rrpnng ntnatn rar nste, but n n any engl vart (.g. ir engl). ste a

vlp pal r lk lt an pu-lt ntrutn nta,

w ar agan t plx r esL ur.

in gnral, wr rr n eAe u r fxbl an an b u t

xpr pa an u r raly tan n ste (n t rpt t an

b n a lr t llqual pkn engl).

inrt p w u t wr rr rt p ul b ntr-

prt a rrt n pkn engl wr n annt tngu btwn

t rt an nrt vrn t ark by rnt ntnatn an

a brak arkng a qutn ark. Tat ay b t ran wy t aturur al n nn-tanar natv-pakr engl.

(12) i wul lk t knw a t wr an wn are you going t

av yur lbratn an w wll b t gut nur

(ice-eA: s1BiNT13T)

(13) Ar tr any tr atvt yur gng t w n t wk r

yull b nly nrng t publ abut t tw ntrnatnal

nrn n Arua (ice-eA: s1B041T)

mantanng t wr rr question word verb subject t ntra-

t antr tnny, .. t rtan t nral rrsubject verb object

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244 Josef Schmied

wrvr pbl, but t ut b ntrprt a a platn r rgular-

atn t ratn rul r all typ qutn, rt an nrt.

(14) Already appal av bn nt ut t nvual, unatn,

an tr rganatn t lp ntrbut (ice-eA: W2B009K)

A pal a nratn prng ubl prnun r prnun

apptn, .. a prnal prnun nt av t uual anapr un-

tn lnkng ntn but rpatng a nun (pra) n t a n-

tn. T uag a partular ur tratgy n w t t a

ntn rnt wt t prnun a a plalr r t nun pra

w wa xtrat by t rntng pr. in ste, prnun apptn

prtly aptabl wn t prvu nun pra ntru by as

or, as ar as NP is concerned(s1a/b), t. Wn pakr t tat

r av lt t tra tr ntn pyng a prnun ay lp tltnr t pr t ag; eAe t b r lbral a ar t

rul ar nrn, at lat n p.

(15) A r t alu n bn, t play tw prtant rl (ice-eA:

W2B030K)

(16) A r an y u, w lar war n pvrty (ice-eA:

W2002K)

Prnun pyng ur pally n ral engl atr lng an -

plx ubjt, nvlvng prptnal ntrutn, nntv r rlatvlau. Runant prnun an b un wtn rlatv wn prnal

prnun tak up t a a rlatv ntrutn (a abv) an wn

pv prnun pry t a a rlatv ntrutn (.. t

pv prnun an t rlatv lau ubjt rr t t a prn,

a n my book that I read).

(17) s uan bng n t rt t xtn he un tat

wa t t wrk (ice-eA: s1B004T)

(18) tr ur glu w w ar gttng them nar (ice-eA:

s1B047i)

12.3.5 Towards national standardisation o additions in the lexicon

T lxn eAe pr ur t r lxn tanar

engl an p eat Aran, w wul nt b ntrprt a-

ly r qually by t nn-ntat, .g. rar/ltnr nt alar wt

engl uag n eat Ara. dpt ultural, pally pltal,

rn btwn Knya, Ugana an Tanzana, t u (Kwal)

lan, t ant xtnn ste lx an a g gr at

fxblty ar n an apt atur.

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12.3.5.1 Loanwords rom Arican languages

Lxal eat Aran nt vral layr: l Aran tat

vlp urng lnal ay an ran n u n eat Ara (nt

nly n ntrnatnal l, lk daktari), pt-npnn Aran(anly n plt, lk ujamaa) an rnt Aran (lk mitumba r

u/n-an lt, but t tranrr t n-an

n gnral, a n mitumba cars r vn mitumba mentality). on all tr lv-

l, natnal tanaratn apt, pally n ultur-p ara

wr any ant xpann lx r eurpan engl wul

gv a ttally wrng favur.

Vry l brrwng, u a askari(soldier/guard), baobab(adansonia),

bwana(Master/Mr.), rsaari(travel), anly n t nvrnntal l,

av alray bn nrprat nt gnral engl an ar tu n

gnral larg tnar wrl engl, r ntan, t Oxord EnglishDictionary wt t upplnt. Tr rang trann Aran engl

by ar, an av vn bn ntgrat nt tr eurpan languag.

T brrwng ar, wvr, rtrt t Aran ntxt (.g. travel

in Arica) an tu av a r p anng n gnral engl tan

n t partular rgnal varty engl. A wll-knwn xapl t

Kwal wrsaari. in eat Ara t nt any jurny (journey l-

u, pbly bau prnunatn ult). r eurpan

turt t alway rr t a all xptn t an t ga (n

lnal ay wt a gun, nwaay uually wt a ara), nrally n

natnal park. intrtngly nug, saari n tanar engl an alrr t t grup ppl ttng ut n u a aar, a ant xpan-

n w nt pbl n Kwal. Vry w Aran av u a

ur xtn n gnral engl, t t bng argnal an nly

u t rnr anng n an Aran ntxt.

T b unrtanabl wn n xan t ara l r

an n w t eat Aran ur. s (1991a: 801)

w a w xapl anly r Kwal, grup arng t t

ajr an Aran. A an b xpt, t Aran nvrn-

nt naquatly rft n t tanar engl lxn an up-

plnt by Aran na r aratrt lanap, plant r anal.

Aran lan lutr arun Aran an jut a engl lan lutr

arun eurpan an. it ntrtng t tat t ant xpan-

n stanar engl lx ay rat prbl tntn a n

t a potatoes, wr Aran tn av t py Irish/European

potatoes rsweet potatoes. in gnral, t prrr tapl arly

vr tranlat: Knya/Tanzana ugali Ugana posho (r lnal

englportion, w wa allat t wrkr), t tratnal az

(wat lkpolenta n italy).

T l prbably ultur-p vrywr, but n any

Aran untr tr a ark ntrat btwn eurpan an Aran

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246 Josef Schmied

(an atng abt) bau eurpan n eat Ara av tn nt

t apt Aran , n ntrat t t Brt n ina. s ar

al ark by tnty r rgn, lk githeri r a Gkuyu ban r

vitumbua r atal r-ak. s ar, ur, larly prt rAa lk bajia (an inan ptat ) an chai(ta, uually blak). All ar

apt tug nt narly n n u vrywr.

A wllknwn, any Aran wr r kn rlatn n t ntat

aly an byn ar rtan, pally wn u a a r ar

(lk Babu r granatr). Wr Aran ltng tll wrn t ,

ur, rrr t by Aran na. otr Aran ut, w av

t b rnr n Aran wr, ar nrn wt tratnal ut r

pat (.g. lobola br-pr), r wt rul pltn (lk habari

grtng).

An prtant an Aran tay plt. A Aran lan-guag av tn play a ajr rl n blng t a, vn br

uhuru (npnn) wa ra, an harambee (pullng tgtr) an

nyayo (x-Prnt m llwng n t ttp Knyatta) wr

natnal lgan n Knya an ujamaa (aly) an kujigetemea (l-

rlan) n Tanzana. it lar tat t t tr av t b n n

tr pltal ntxt, trw ty ay njur up wrng nnta-

tn. many pltan w t ntrat tr lal rt by nlung

Aran vabulary n tr p vn wn ung engl, tr n

altrnatv t natnal atn t t tratnal engl lxn.

A r prnv tnary ntry wul av t a typal l-latn an apl ntn (n a nly a ptur ay xplan

attr t t nn-ntat). Tu a tnary ntry r t au eat

Aran matatu (nlung nftn an ntatv an nntatv

anng) tylgy an llat) ul b:

matatu pl ~ N lltv tax n eAr., p. Knya uu. ln r x

rut publ tranprt, but fxbl, ty lav wn ty ar n-

r ull; nau r rkl rvng an vrrwng; ty. < swal

tr, rg. 3 llng ar; llat: N rvr, tut, pratr, pangr;

loc. park, tan, tag, tp; prep n, n bar a ~; verb ntr, bar a ~

Matatu al w ntrtng natnal rn an t avantag a

g, urrnt n-ln nylpaa:

T rrn t t swal tr matatu a bn rv r t ntry

n tax t av nun. T tr NoT wly u n Ugana a

an quvalnt tax. it wa wly u n t 1970 t rr t pkup

truk tat wr t arry pangr; t av bn upplant

by nvan n an t tr nw rarly ar n Ugana. Kgng

(talk) 15:21, 24 January 2008 (UTc) ttp://n.wkpa.rg/wk/

Talk:Uganan_engl (06/08/10)

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T al wn n t WPc agra r matatu an t Tanzanan an

gnral quvalnt wn n Tabl 12.1. T ablut gur r matatu n

t UK urprngly g, but by ar t t rr t a Knyan ntxt.

T tabl al w tat taxi(r minibus), t rrntal quvalnt t

matatu an daladala (r dollar n Tanzana), rlatvly rar. But t

rrn t rat t n r a nw wr r tax n Ugana, w

ll byspecial (hire) n t pra We take aspecial hirei we have enough

money, w al w t xptnal natur t an tranprt.A rlat a r Ugana an Knya t yl tax boda-boda,

w xplan a llw by t UganaWk:

T wr u t rr t t tryl an byl tat ngag n

t bun tranprtng pangr. st t an rr t t r-

r t tryl Prbably rgnat r t brr btwn

Knya an Ugana at Bua, wr tr a 1k trt n an lan.

entrprng yung n wul arry pangr n byl/tryl

vr t lan, an wul b ar allng r pangr brr-brr.

(www.uganawk.ug/Ba-ba)in t ant l lal tranprt natnal tr av vlp,

w ak eAe arnatn twar a trannatnal tanar r

ult tan n tr l.

nally, a w xapl Uganan (agan r UganaWk), a a

WPc qury (Tabl 12.2) larly w, an b gvn. An xapl wt an

engl lxal ba detoother, a gold-digger(.. by a a xual rla-

tnp wt a br t ppt x, uually asugar-daddy, prarly

r atral gan). T wr al u a a vrb a n She has detoothed

many men in this town. Bau tr nntatn anng n t l

ar l wpra an tn t b rpla n (yut) jargn aly.

Tabl 12.1 Distribution o Swahiliatatu generated by WbPracunt

matatu daladala taxi

k 7,160,000 ablut: 30,900 1 21,800rlatv: 0.432% 0% 0.304%ntrat ar: 58.6% 0% 41.4%

tz 971,000 ablut: 10,400 3,210 1,850rlatv: 1.071% 0.331% 0.191%ntrat ar: 67.3% 20.8% 12%

ug 1,100,000 ablut: 608 2 10,300rlatv: 0.055% 0% 0.936%ntrat ar: 5.6% 0% 94.4%

uk 839,000,000 ablut: 1,990 151 2,700,000rlatv: 0% 0% 0.322%ntrat ar: 0.1% 0% 99.9%

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248 Josef Schmied

T tratnal Bagana arrag rny kwanjula (al a a vrb,

vn wt nftn lk kwanjulering, kwanjulad) lgally ully rgn

tay. it prat larly by tr tn grup n Ugana, but t

tr a nt pra nt gnral eAe.

T rn xapl kyeyo (lt. br), t u n to do kyeyo r to be

on kyeyo anng t arn n lvl n a rgn untry an un

n rlat pun (lk kyeyo liestyle r kyeyo behaviour). T vrb

nkuba kyeyo (t u t br) an tu nkuba kyeyos ar Uganan -

n rug, w av tr wn pal try n i An ay.

A ur xapl mbu, a p at arkr lk ste that, but wtptal vrtn (nti upp t b r nutral). sn t r

Lugana, t nt u n Knya an Tanzana.

12.3.5.2 Standardisation o semantically changed lexemes o StE

in Ara, any engl wr r ur n lgtly rnt ntxt

tan n Brt stanar engl, tu uually xpanng tr rrntal

anng. T t trkng xapl t ar knp tr. evn t

t aual vtr t Ara nt tat Aran t av vry any

brtr an tr r vn atr; t an nt nly b attrbut t

t g brt rat an t xtn aly trutur. Knp tr arxpan a rrn an ar tr, bau ty g ar byn t

Brt r anng rlat t t blgal atur nangunty,

gnratn an x an ar rlat t t al atur nrty (ag),

larty, atn an rlrlatn. Tu, all t tr -wv r

tr ay b ar a mother, any lrly n a atheran ppl

r t a vllag wtut rt bl rlatn a brothers and sisters.

A t vry prtant t w rpt t lr ppl n gnral, vn lr

tr ay b arb t gr tatu auntie. T upprt by -

rnt knp atgratn n Aran languag, wr nrty t

prtant.

Tabl 12.2 mbu, ttr, kwanjula andkyy as clear Ugandanisms on the internet

(extracted with WPC)

detoother kwanjula kyeyo Mbu

k 7,160,000 ablut: 0 32 12 516rlatv: 0% 0% 0% 0.007%ntrat ar: 0% 5.7% 2.1% 92.1%

tz 971,000 ablut: 0 0 1 2,900rlatv: 0% 0% 0% 0.299%ntrat ar: 0% 0% 0% 100%

ug 1,100,000 ablut: 56 1,090 2,020 3,090rlatv: 0.005% 0.099% 0.184% 0.281%ntrat ar: 0.9% 17.4% 32.3% 49.4%

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A au xapl a rnt uag an engl ur par-

tl, w ay au aaznt, sorry. many vtr t Ara

av nt tat tr Aran rn t aplg rquntly. Wn

Aran ay sorry, wvr, ty rly u t apprprat Aran r xprng larty r ypaty, bau t utary t xpr

ypaty wn n a an unrtunat xprn. Tu t a

wr, w xpr aplgy n tanar engl, a xpan t an-

ng t ypaty n Aran engl, bau a gap n t vabulary

t av bn lt by Aran ur. otr t ant nngrun

an b tt wn t uag xprn grattu (thank you) an

pltn (please), n rpl rrpnng t Aran You are welcome,

ar xan arully.

T lt aptabl tanaratn an b n n wr anng

wr xpann n lx la wt tr n t l. cnnuabl la, r ntan, t a wn to book u lk ste to

hire, to orget lk to lose, to reuse lk to deny, to convince lk to persuade,

to see lk to look, to reach lk to arrive, arm lk hand, guest lk stranger,

strange lk oreign an n. in t t a tr t anng

av bn xpan r r p atur (ltn rtrtn) av

bn rpp. Escort, r ntan, rgnally pl a pal guar r

at urty, but by Aran t ay b u n t r gnral n

accompany, wtut t narrwr nntatn rng prttn.

oanally anng ar rtrt, a n move with n t n g ut

wt rn r a by-/grlrn. st t ant vrlap btwnt aunt r t nun, .g. exchange inormation a rtanly a

l rlatnp wt compare, but wn Brt tunt exchange notes

t pl tat t papr ar wapp an nt rly tat notes are

compared, a wt Aran tunt. Agan prbl a ar al tg-

at n ste tyl gu: clariy an uually an rt by by

w l nratn an n a ptn t ak tng larr: I should

clariy that point rom the principalrr t an autrty r w n an

k laran r prn.

12.3.5.3 Flexibility in idiomaticitysn-languag engl aratrtally l at tan rt-

languag engl, w ay ak unatn r ult r

Aran ltnng t eurpan engl pakr tan t tr way run.

But eAe a vlp at anng, w ay nt b bv-

u at rt gt. Tu an unuptng travllr n to make a short

calln eat Ara, gt b wn t way t a tlt (r pla u r

tat purp). o ur, xtr a ar rar an t w xptn

prv t rul.

hwvr, ntxt an tyl nttutng atty r a

plx ntrplay an t pal favur an nly b tu ar largr

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250 Josef Schmied

trt autnt txt. T wy a w xapl typal vrb uag

n t pkn part ICE-EA ay u:

(19) i a a atatu rvr operating rut N. 44. (ice-eA:

s1B065K)(20) it t cty inptrat w assigns t cty Akar.

(ice-eA: s1B066K)

(21) But nvr aw anyby l; nr anyby alighting r

t pl /v g t t u. (ice-eA: s1Bce07K)

Wtr eAe rally r xplt (according to me = in my view), r

fxbl (to sail in the same boat t b a rqunt a to be in the same

boat) an r llutratv (a n big with child) an nly b n t

ba larg-al paratv urvy r nrant ntrvw an lt-

atn tt ( skanra 2003).Agan, t lt apt fxblty an b n n xpann ste

llatn. cllatn ay b l x tan , bau tr par-

tular anng ur nt nly n t at ntxt; but llat tll

xpt a tr t xtnt. in eae, bnatn ar l x

an lar wr ay rpla ste trtyp (smooth [ste plain]sailing).

otn arly gnral tr ar u nta r p llat (an

election is done [ste conducted/held] r to commit an action [ste crime]). it

nt alway t a tat llatn ar trngr r lx u r p-

ally n Brt stanar engl, bau Aran engl a vlp

t wn p r (a n I dropped [got out/down, alighted (rom the car)]near the hospital).

mt t nntatn engl lx n an Aran ntxt an

la t ntrultural prbl n ur. it ay t bvu t n-

tn tat rich ay njur up vry rnt a n a rural Aran ntxt,

but t ay al apply t travelling an holiday, vn Sunday an game,

wr aatv Aran valu an prrn ay r nrably

r eurpan tratn. o ur, u anng ar apt a tan-

ar n eat Aran ntxt.

12.4 Research issues

12.4.1 Research data and generalisations

T prbl nunt rar ata a bn ntn n varu

part t uary. Altug t ntrnt wt eat Aran nwpapr

an vn ra braat ( t apanyng cd) a a nw ata

r abl t t eurpan ar-ar rarr n Ara, lwrk

tll ntal, partly t valuat an rutn t ata avalabl, partly t

plnt u ata wt tr txt typ, tuatn an pakr. data

r nwpapr, ra, TV an tr a tn t rrr publ ral an

wrttn prutn an larly av an urban an ltt ba.

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T nly bra an trat lltn eAe t eat Aran part

t International Corpus o English (ICE-EA, rly avalabl wt anual

r t ntrnt). it wa llt btwn 1990 an 1996 an pat-

bl wt t tr part t lltv rt t rr tru engl uagn t rt an n-languag vart (prnpally a wt 1 lln

wr n 500 txt typ, al wrttn an al pkn). T putr

lltn r Knya an Tanzana allw parn wt t rt-lan-

guag vart Brtan an Autrala, but al wt t n-languag

vart ina an t Plppn, r ntan. Tu gnral pr

n-languag vlpnt an b tngu r r pal

eat Aran atur. hwvr, t z t rpu (abut 1.5 lln

wr wt nly abut al a lln wr pkn engl) ak t a

nvnnt ur r analy graar an rqunt lx, pally

a ar a tylt r txt-typ-p rn ar nrn; t ntrally unt r lxal an llatnal rar, wr a u largr

rpu wul b nary.

r u quanttatv parn an apl rtrval, t ntrnt

wt t an .ug, .k an .tz an b u. su a prur ung -

rn wb brwr prv xapl rar a u r aly nw,

altug agan t txt av t b valuat rtally, .g. wtr ty

an rally b n a uat eat Aran engl. T way, untry-

p pattrn an b tngu, .g. Kwal ar r lk

ndugu r mzee av gr t n Tanzana tan n Knya, r duka anundi

ar l rqunt n Ugana, butsodas ur n all tr eat Aran un-tr n ntrat t sut Aran minerals. nally, a pla t lk at t ata

arully apprprat:soda a wll a minerals ur blng t gnral

engl a wll, but n tr ntxt, bakng an nng, r ntan. evn

mitumba al ur n .uk wbt, but uually wt an xplt xplan-

atn n t r prr r apptn (the second-hand mitumba r

mitumba,second-hand clothes); n sut Ara t tn u wt xplt

rrn t eat Ara.

intrtngly, t p eAe lx u r ar nt un

ang t t rqunt 2,500 wr (Tabl 12.3), tat any un

abut t autny an eAe lxn pratur an lxal tan-aratn nt a prng u.

12.4.2 Research discourse

eAe unr-rar tat tr ar w ara wr ytat

pral larly wrk an b valuat. A pal a t rpu-

lngut xapl prnt r (an lwr, .g. s 1991a)

v t qutnnar-ba aptablty rult btan by Burgya

(2006). h partly u atur rb n s (1991a) a Aran

tnn, akng 188 tunt at Narb Unvrty t ll n a

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252 Josef Schmied

qutnnar. h pa: i want t la tat tat t a nw

; tat , t r [n ntxt: a lal, eat Aran r engl,

n t ttl: Knyan engl] a n vlp (Burgya 2006: 200)

an tr t ntrat tat t atur () vrgnralatn -s pluralarkr, () n artl an tr trnr an () nvar-

ant qutn tag r (isnt) ar typal Knyan engl (2006: 203).

on xapl enable them improve (2006: 207), ba n s

1991a: 69): V5: Vrb plntatn (nntv, grun, t.) var

rly. T allw u t par rult ( 78 pr nt aptablty)

wt ur uag rult r WPc (Tabl 12.4), bt w ntrbut

t t tanaratn pr.

hr nly ablut gur ar gvn, n t rlatv gur ar all

(xpt n t UK) an t varatn nru. obvuly, Burgya

rgt wn lk at t uag prrn r enable + improve, but wulw nt xpt lar uag rult r expect + do? An w w xplan

t rn btwn Knya an Tanzana, xpt by tatng n tanar

yt n gt? T xapl llutrat t plxt utur rar

n tanaratn n eAe.

12.4.3 Outlook

sn tr npnn ty yar ag, eat Aran av vlp

an ntrtng tral languag yt, wr engl a a wpra

Aran languag, Kwal, a a rval n g-languag untn n trgn (an trug t organatn Aran Unty vn n t n-

tnnt). Altug tr Aran languag play a rl n ubnatnal -

unatn an nfun engl prnunatn, eat Ara unqu

ang t engl-pakng ara t wrl prly bau t

ty. intrtngly nug, t nt tratn engl n t ara

n t l n natnal untn av bn gratly pnat by t

any ntrnatnal untn engl tat av bn prtant r eat

Aran n tr ntgratn nt wrlw unatn ntwrk

vr 100 yar ag. eAe ar any atur, pally n graar, wt

tr Nw engl, w al av parabl tnn n lxal

Tabl 12.3 East Arican lexemes in the 18+ million-word corpus o EAE newspapers

Lx manng Rank Tkn (ng.) Tkn (plural)

saari travl, trp 1895 1163 613matatu lltv tax 5773 301 98daladala lltv tax 9790 100 41wananchi llw untryn 4876 301dawa tra. mn 19257 31

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vlpnt. Tu eAe an b n n a largr rawrk, .g. n tat

t International Corpus o English a ntn abv.

T trn glbalatn wll rnr t r-rtlatn Nw

engl. T nfun Ngran engl an b larly lt n Knya

(hann 2010), r ntan, trug any Ngran l tat ar ar

n Knyan TV an av b ppular. N wnr tat tnn

urvv t rt-lv an n rtrt (yut) jargn an b part

t wr uag rprtr t nw glbal gnratn n eat Ara.

T plnt t lr atn t t Brt ba, t nfun

inan engl trug uatn, a an bun, an t nfun Aran engl trug ltary -pratn an t a (wt

Ngran Nllyw llwng Bllyw an hllyw). T ntr-

Aran xang trug t nw a an arly b auratly tat

tay n ntrnt a tll rlatvly rtrt ar t rgn.

in t lng tratn Aran ultlngual an t nw tratn

engl glbalatn, engl n eat Ara ran a anatng a

nvrgn an rntatn. T appratn natnal an rgnal

atur wll vlp an la t xplt tanaratn n ay, pully

n a n eAe ba. T an r arnatn ar u gratr

tan n Wt Ara. Untl tn, t lng-tr pr ak engl neat Ara ntrtng t wat r bt aual brvr an pal

rarr alk.

References

Angg, Ral an ian hank 1980. engl n Ara: rgng tanar r

vrgng rgnal?, English World-Wide1: 6796.

Bagb, Ay 1998. Trn btwn t nr: nnvatn n wrl engl,

World Englishes17: 114.

Burgya, Alr 2006. Graatal atur Knyan engl an tr xtnt

aptablty, English World-Wide27: 199216.

Tabl 12.4 Complementation onabl in the top level domains

ke, tz, ug and uk (using WPC)

enable them do enable them to do

k 7,190,000 3 309tz 991,000 83 3ug 1,070,000 1,670 546uk 832,000,000 248,000 200,000

enable them improve enable them to improve

k 7,190,000 85 42tz 991,000 16 19ug 1,070,000 165 25

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254 Josef Schmied

hky, Rayn (.) 2004. Legacies o Colonial English: Studies in Transported

Dialects. cabrg Unvrty Pr.

hkng, Bran d. W. 1974.All What I Was Taught and Other Mistakes: a Handbook

o Common Mistakes in English. Narb: oxr Unvrty Pr.

hann, Ta 2010. Wt Knyan engl, n danl srr, Ptr

Trugll, egar W. snr an Jry P. Wlla (.) The Lesser-

Known Varieties o English: an Introduction. cabrg Unvrty Pr,

pp. 286310.

hun-ettl, dana an J s 1999. manual t apany t eat Aran

cpnnt t intrnatnal crpu engl (ice-eA). Bakgrun

nratn, ng nvntn an lt ur txt. cntz. ttp://

www.tu-ntz./pl/ngl/ral/ara/

Jwtt, dav 1991. Nigerian English Usage. Lag: Lngan.

Karu, Braj B., Yauna Karu an cl L. Nln (.) 2006. The Handbook o

World Englishes. oxr: Blakwll.Kb-sur 2003. etablng a natnal tanar an engl languag urr-

ulu. ang n Knya, Language, Culture and Curriculum16: 197211.

mwang, sra 2003. Prepositions in Kenyan English: A Corpus-based Study in

LexicalGrammatical Variation. Aan: sakr.

Platt, Jn, h Wbr an man Lan h 1984. The New Englishes. Lnn:

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s, J 1990. Languag u, atttu, prran an lngu-

t bakgrun: a tuy engl n Knya, Tanzana, an Zaba, English

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Unvrty Pr, pp. 42034.

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WbPracunt, n Antntt Rnu an Anrw K (.), The

Changing Face o Corpus Linguistics. Atra: Rp, pp. 30924.

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(.), Corpus Linguistics 25 Years on. Atra an Nw Yrk: Rp,

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mtr (.), Varieties o English 4: Arica, South and South East Asia. Brln:

mutn Gruytr, pp. 15063.

2008b. eat Aran engl (Knya, Ugana, Tanzana): rplgy an yn-

tax, n Rajn mtr (.), Varieties o English 4: Arica, South and South

East Asia. Brln: mutn Gruytr, pp. 45171.

s, J an suann Wagnr rtng. cparng engl n t Wb,

t a icewb-eat Ara.

snr, egar W. 2007. Postcolonial English. Varieties around the Word. cabrg

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2008. Twar nnratvty? Aran engl an t yna l

t vlutn ptlnal engl, n Knnt harrw an Kztu

mp (.). Language, Literature and Education in Multicultural Societies:

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Collaborative Research on Arica. Nwatl upn Tyn: cabrg slar

Pr, pp. 283305.

skanra, Paul 2003. Drawing a Map o Arica: Idiom in Kenyan English. Tbngn:

Narr.

spnr, Jn (.) 1971. The English Language in West Arica. Lnn: Lngan.

standarts of english in africa

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