Springs, seen and interpreted Springs, seen and interpreted in the context of groundwater in the context of groundwater

flow-systemsflow-systems(a suggested hydrogeological (a suggested hydrogeological

approach to approach to subsurface soundingsubsurface sounding))

J. TóthJ. Tóth

““50 Years of Hydrogeology at GSA: Looking Back 50 Years of Hydrogeology at GSA: Looking Back and Looking Forward”and Looking Forward”

GSA Annual MeetingGSA Annual MeetingOctoberOctober 118-8-21,21, 2009 2009

Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.

KEY POINTS OF THE TALKKEY POINTS OF THE TALK(not an “Outline”)(not an “Outline”)

Looking Looking backback:: Hydrogeology Division and Hydrogeology Division and Groundwater Flow SystemsGroundwater Flow Systems;;

Looking Looking around,around, I seeI see: Flow Systems without : Flow Systems without Springs and Springs without Flow Systems;Springs and Springs without Flow Systems;

Looking Looking forwardforward, , I suggestI suggest:: the “Virtual Spring”, the “Virtual Spring”,

or,or,

Springs in the context of Flow Systems, Springs in the context of Flow Systems, becausebecause::

““Virtual Spring” + Flow Systems =Virtual Spring” + Flow Systems =

Subsurface (Hydrogeological) SoundingSubsurface (Hydrogeological) Sounding

Hydrogeology Division and Flow SystemsHydrogeology Division and Flow Systems

Looking back:Looking back:

The founding of GSA’s Hydrogeology Division The founding of GSA’s Hydrogeology Division (1959) and the recognition of gravity-driven (1959) and the recognition of gravity-driven

groundwater flow-systems (early 1960s) were, groundwater flow-systems (early 1960s) were, closely timed. A fortuitous and fortunate timing.closely timed. A fortuitous and fortunate timing.

Fortuitous:Fortuitous: the two events were totally the two events were totally independent.independent.

Fortunate:Fortunate: The O. E. Meinzer Award drew The O. E. Meinzer Award drew attention to the concept, and high caliber attention to the concept, and high caliber

researchers kept developing it further. It has researchers kept developing it further. It has thus turned out to be the starting point for many thus turned out to be the starting point for many new fields of hydrogeologically related inquiry.new fields of hydrogeologically related inquiry.

““Drainage ditch” Drainage ditch” (line sink: in thalweg)(line sink: in thalweg);;

“The Unit Basin”:“The Unit Basin”:(area-sink: all lower half)(area-sink: all lower half);;

“Composite basin”:“Composite basin”:(multiple sinks:(multiple sinks:

local depressions)local depressions) (Hubbert, 1940, Fig. 45. (Hubbert, 1940, Fig. 45. TóthTóth, 1962, , 1962,

Fig. 3; 1963, Fig. 3, courtesy T. Winter)Fig. 3; 1963, Fig. 3, courtesy T. Winter)

FLOW SYSTEMS FLOW SYSTEMS withoutwithout SPRINGS SPRINGS(“system concept” was born (“system concept” was born

within 3 to 4 years from creation within 3 to 4 years from creation of GSA’s Hydrogeology Division)of GSA’s Hydrogeology Division)

Acting Chairman Stan Acting Chairman Stan Lohman, of GSA’s Lohman, of GSA’s

Hydrogeology Division Hydrogeology Division presents the Division’s first presents the Division’s first O.E. Meinzer Award given O.E. Meinzer Award given for the theory of gravity-for the theory of gravity-driven groundwater flow- driven groundwater flow- systems systems (without springs!)(without springs!),,

Kansas City, November 6, Kansas City, November 6, 1965.1965.

M. King Hubbert liked it. M. King Hubbert liked it. After all, it all started withAfter all, it all started with

ФФ = gh = gz + p/ = gh = gz + p/ρρ..

(Photos: courtesy GSA, 1965)(Photos: courtesy GSA, 1965)

Looking aroundLooking around (i. e., the present): (i. e., the present):SPRINGS without FLOW SYSTEMSSPRINGS without FLOW SYSTEMS

Studies of various spring Studies of various spring attributes abound attributes abound (rock type, (rock type, orifice morphology, volume, orifice morphology, volume, temperature, discharge rate, temperature, discharge rate, periodicity, flora, fauna, etc.) periodicity, flora, fauna, etc.) Their purpose is chiefly Their purpose is chiefly utilitarian and management utilitarian and management issues issues (water supply, water (water supply, water balance, health, recreation, balance, health, recreation, mineral water, mineral mineral water, mineral resource, etc.)resource, etc.). . They do not pay attention They do not pay attention to the feeding (i.e. parent) to the feeding (i.e. parent) flow-systems. Yet…!flow-systems. Yet…!(E.g., Stevens and Meretsky, 2008)(E.g., Stevens and Meretsky, 2008)

YET: SPRINGS + FLOW SYSTEMSYET: SPRINGS + FLOW SYSTEMSThe “Effects of the Hydrogeologic Environment on springs” The “Effects of the Hydrogeologic Environment on springs”

depend on the springs’ parent flow-systems, i.e., depend on the springs’ parent flow-systems, i.e., the springs the springs bear imprints of their subsurface environmentbear imprints of their subsurface environment....(Tóth(Tóth,, 1971 1971, , Fig. 2.)Fig. 2.)

frequent rainfall eventsfrequent rainfall eventsrare rainfall eventsrare rainfall events

Looking forward, I suggest:Looking forward, I suggest:

“The Virtual Spring”“The Virtual Spring” a conceptual entity defined as:a conceptual entity defined as:

All discharge phenomena All discharge phenomena considered together as one single considered together as one single

entity in the terminal area of a entity in the terminal area of a groundwater flow-systemgroundwater flow-system

(Springs +: phreatophytes, all plant types ,soil/rock (Springs +: phreatophytes, all plant types ,soil/rock mechanics, soil salinity/mineral deposits, swamps and their mechanics, soil salinity/mineral deposits, swamps and their

water chemistry, well-water temperature, etc.)water chemistry, well-water temperature, etc.)

EEffects and manifestations of regional ffects and manifestations of regional groundwater flow: “The Virtual Spring”groundwater flow: “The Virtual Spring”

(modified from (modified from Tóth, 1980)Tóth, 1980)

Virtual springs

““VVirtual spring”, Norris Geyser Basin, Yellowstone Park, irtual spring”, Norris Geyser Basin, Yellowstone Park, comprising:comprising:

springs, seeps, steam, salts, gases, mud-boils, high pressure, springs, seeps, steam, salts, gases, mud-boils, high pressure, heat, phreatophytes, minerals (iron, travertine, etc), bacteria;heat, phreatophytes, minerals (iron, travertine, etc), bacteria;all, plus others, due to groundwater discharge. all, plus others, due to groundwater discharge. (Photo: (Photo: Tóth, 1967)Tóth, 1967)

The flow-system concept used to explain the The flow-system concept used to explain the place of provenance of thermal spring water place of provenance of thermal spring water

from environmental isotope composition, from environmental isotope composition, Montecatini Terme, ItalyMontecatini Terme, Italy

(One of, if not, the first explicit applications of the flow-(One of, if not, the first explicit applications of the flow-system theory combined with isotopes; Fritz, 1968system theory combined with isotopes; Fritz, 1968))

regional flow system

local system

Field of geothermal heat modeled without and with Field of geothermal heat modeled without and with groundwater flow, Tongue Creek watershed, Colorado:groundwater flow, Tongue Creek watershed, Colorado:

note dependence of springs’ temperature on flow-system order note dependence of springs’ temperature on flow-system order (Lazear, 2006, Figs. 14, 16)(Lazear, 2006, Figs. 14, 16)

Areal distribution of spring-water temperature fits flow-systems contextAreal distribution of spring-water temperature fits flow-systems context

↑↑ Modeled changes, Modeled changes, (“anomalies”) in (“anomalies”) in

temperature due to temperature due to groundwater flow;groundwater flow;

←← Spring locations vs. Spring locations vs. flow patterns: i) at flow patterns: i) at

change in slope below change in slope below ridges, ii) at ridges, ii) at

concentration of flowconcentration of flow (Lazear, 2006, Figs. 18, 12)(Lazear, 2006, Figs. 18, 12)

Simulated groundwater flow-systems, calibrated to: springs, Simulated groundwater flow-systems, calibrated to: springs, phreatophytes, runoff, Grote-Nete drainage basin, N.E. phreatophytes, runoff, Grote-Nete drainage basin, N.E.

Belgium.Belgium.Legend:Legend: numbersnumbers 1-18 1-18: flow system; : flow system; solid linesolid line: flow-system boundary : flow-system boundary

(“demarcation”); (“demarcation”); gray scalegray scale: discharge areas and flow times in years (time : discharge areas and flow times in years (time determined by capture-zone modeling, increases toward lighter shades, determined by capture-zone modeling, increases toward lighter shades,

resp. <10, 10-50, 50-100, >100resp. <10, 10-50, 50-100, >100 (Batelaan et al., 2003, Fig. 10)(Batelaan et al., 2003, Fig. 10)

”” Fig. 1. Fig. 1. EpigenicEpigenic and and hypogenichypogenic karst in the context of basinal karst in the context of basinal groundwater flow.” groundwater flow.” ((Klimchouk, 2007, “Adopted and modified from Klimchouk, 2007, “Adopted and modified from TóthTóth,, 1999 1999”)”)

(Klimchouk, A.B., 2007: Hypogene Speleogenesis: Hydrogeological and Morphogenetic (Klimchouk, A.B., 2007: Hypogene Speleogenesis: Hydrogeological and Morphogenetic Perspective. Special Paper no. 1, National Cave and Karst Research Institute, Carlsbad, Perspective. Special Paper no. 1, National Cave and Karst Research Institute, Carlsbad,

NM, U.S.A.160 p.)NM, U.S.A.160 p.)

(Klimchouk distinguishes between (Klimchouk distinguishes between “epi-”“epi-” and and “hypo-”“hypo-”genic karst based on genic karst based on chemical, mineralogical and geothermal signatures found in caves and chemical, mineralogical and geothermal signatures found in caves and

attributed by him to flow systems of different order)attributed by him to flow systems of different order)

Conceptual model of groundwater flow-system Conceptual model of groundwater flow-system and geochemical processes (left) causing high and geochemical processes (left) causing high

radon content of St. Placidus spring, radon content of St. Placidus spring, Switzerland (right)Switzerland (right)

(Figs. 6.1, Gaignon, 2008; and 8, Gaignon et al., 2007)(Figs. 6.1, Gaignon, 2008; and 8, Gaignon et al., 2007)

238U

226Ra Fe, Mn

222Rn

FeOOH226Ra

238U

Eh+

Eh-

Eh+

Recharge areaRecharge area Discharge areaDischarge area

Redo

x fron

t

Redo

x fron

t

hyd

raulic m

id lin

e

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONAn expanded spring concept, the “Virtual Spring”, is An expanded spring concept, the “Virtual Spring”, is defined and proposed as: defined and proposed as: “all discharge phenomena “all discharge phenomena taken together as one single entity in the terminal areas taken together as one single entity in the terminal areas of groundwater flow-systems”;of groundwater flow-systems”;

The “virtual spring” reflects the subsurface conditions of The “virtual spring” reflects the subsurface conditions of its parent flow-system. It thus facilitates inferences of the its parent flow-system. It thus facilitates inferences of the hydrologic, hydraulic, thermal and chemical attributes of hydrologic, hydraulic, thermal and chemical attributes of the system’s rock body in one or two specific ways, i.e.:the system’s rock body in one or two specific ways, i.e.:

ii) by ) by explaining features of the virtual springexplaining features of the virtual spring from from known properties of the rock body, or/andknown properties of the rock body, or/and

ii) by ii) by inferring attributes of the rock bodyinferring attributes of the rock body from from observed features of the virtual spring;observed features of the virtual spring;

Springs can thus be seen, interpreted and used Springs can thus be seen, interpreted and used for practical and scientific purposes in the context for practical and scientific purposes in the context

of groundwater flow-systems.of groundwater flow-systems.