Spectrum Requirement Planning inWireless Communications

Wiley Series on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

Series Editors: Dr Xuemin (Sherman) Shen, University of Waterloo, CanadaDr Yi Pan, Georgia State University, USA

The “Wiley Series on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing” is a series ofcomprehensive, practical and timely books on wireless communication and network systems.The series focuses on topics ranging from wireless communication and coding theory towireless applications and pervasive computing. The books offer engineers and other technicalprofessionals, researchers, educators, and advanced students in these fields with invaluableinsight into the latest developments and cutting-edge research.

Other titles in the series:

Misic and Misic: Wireless Personal Area Networks: Performance, Interconnections andSecurity with IEEE 802.15.4, January 2008, 978-0-470-51847-2

Perez-Fontan and Espineira: Modeling the Wireless Propagation Channel: A SimulationApproach with Matlab, August 2008, 978-0-470-72785-0

Ippolito: Satellite Communications Systems Engineering: Atmospheric Effects on SatelliteLink Design and System Performance, September 2008, 978-0-470-72527-6

Myung: Introduction to Single Carrier FDMA, October 2008, 978-0-470-72449-1

Qian, Muller and Chen: Security in Wireless Networks and Systems, May 2009,978-0-470-51212-8

Stojmenovic: Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks: Algorithms and Protocols for ScalableCoordination and Data Communication, July 2009, 978-0-470-17082-3

Spectrum Requirement Planningin Wireless Communications

Model and Methodology for IMT-Advanced

Hideaki TakagiUniversity of Tsukuba, Japan

Bernhard H. WalkeRWTH Aachen University, Germany

John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSpectrum requirement planning in wireless communications : model and methodology for IMT–Advanced /edited by Hideaki Takagi, Bernhard H. Walke.

p. cm.Includes index.ISBN 978-0-470-98647-9 (cloth)

1. Wireless communication systems–Standards. 2. Cellular telephone systems–Standards. 3. Mobile communicationsystems–Standards. 4. Radio frequency allocation–International cooperation. I. Takagi, Hideaki.II. Walke, Bernhard.

TK5103.2.S74 2008621.384–dc22

2007049351British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-0-470-98647-9 (HB)

Typeset by Sunrise Setting Ltd.Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, England.This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least twotrees are planted for each one used for paper production.

Contents

About the Series Editors xi

Preface xiii

1 Introduction 1Bernhard H. Walke and Hitoshi Yoshino

1.1 Trends in Mobile Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.1 Mobile applications and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Radio interface technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1.3 Standardization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.2 Trends in Spectrum Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.2.1 Physical properties of radio spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141.2.2 Spectrum allocation and identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.2.3 Flexible use of spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.3 Spectrum Allocation: Why and How . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.3.1 Requirement estimation for allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.3.2 Method of estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 Utilization of Radio Frequencies 21Hitoshi Yoshino, Naoto Matoba, Pekka Ojanen and Bernhard H. Walke

2.1 Spectrum Usage Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.1.1 VLF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.1.2 LF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232.1.3 MF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232.1.4 HF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.1.5 VHF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.1.6 UHF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.1.7 SHF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.1.8 EHF band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.2 Spectrum Management by ITU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262.3 Radio Communication Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.3.1 Mobile service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.3.2 Broadcasting service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.3.3 Fixed service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.3.4 Fixed and mobile satellite services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

vi CONTENTS

2.4 Radio Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.4.1 Cellular systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352.4.2 Wireless local area networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402.4.3 Terrestrial broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.4.4 Short-range communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3 Spectrum Requirement Calculation for IMT-2000 45Hideaki Takagi

3.1 Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.1.1 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.1.2 Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473.1.3 Direction of links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483.1.4 Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493.1.5 Flow chart of methodology for IMT-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.2 Input Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493.2.1 Geographic parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.2.2 Personal traffic parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533.2.3 Radio system parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563.3.1 Calculation of offered traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573.3.2 Erlang-B and Erlang-C formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603.3.3 Determination of required spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.3.4 Weighting and adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

3.4 Sequel to the Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4 Spectrum Requirement Calculation for IMT-Advanced 73Marja Matinmikko, Jorg Huschke, Tim Irnich, Naoto Matoba, Jussi Ojala,Pekka Ojanen, Hideaki Takagi, Bernhard H. Walke and Hitoshi Yoshino

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744.1.1 Limitation of methodology for IMT-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744.1.2 Development of methodology for IMT-Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . 754.1.3 ITU preparation for WRC-07 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764.1.4 Flow chart of methodology for IMT-Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.2 Models and Input Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794.2.1 Service categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794.2.2 Service environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824.2.3 Radio environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824.2.4 Radio access technique groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.3 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844.3.1 Calculation of traffic demand from market data . . . . . . . . . . . . 854.3.2 Traffic distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864.3.3 Calculation of offered traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.3.4 Required capacity for circuit-switched service categories . . . . . . . 924.3.5 Required capacity for packet-switched service categories . . . . . . . 944.3.6 Spectrum results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

4.4 Summary of Methodology for IMT-Advanced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

CONTENTS vii

5 Calculation Tool Package 101Marja Matinmikko, Jorg Huschke and Jussi Ojala

5.1 Description and Use of Software Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015.2 Front Sheet of Software Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025.3 Inputs to Software Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055.4 Intermediate Calculation Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075.5 Outputs from Software Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6 Market Data 113Marja Matinmikko and Mitsuhiro Azuma

6.1 Collection of Market Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146.1.1 Questionnaire on services and market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146.1.2 Example of envisaged applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166.1.3 Overview of future mobile telecommunication market . . . . . . . . 119

6.2 Use of Market Parameters in the Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206.2.1 User density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206.2.2 Session arrival rate per user . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216.2.3 Average session duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216.2.4 Mean service bit rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216.2.5 Mobility ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.3 Analysis of Collected Market Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.3.1 General process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.3.2 List applications and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246.3.3 Specify traffic attribute values for services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246.3.4 Specify market attribute values for services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246.3.5 Map services into service categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246.3.6 Calculate market study parameter values for input to methodology . . 126

6.4 Example Input Market Parameter Value Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

7 Radio-Related Input Parameters 133Marja Matinmikko, Pekka Ojanen and Jussi Ojala

7.1 RAT Group Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337.1.1 Justification for RAT group approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347.1.2 Definition of RAT groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1357.1.3 Usage of RAT groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7.2 Use of Radio Parameters in the Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367.2.1 Cell area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377.2.2 Application data rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377.2.3 Spectral efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1387.2.4 Minimum spectrum deployment per operator per radio environment . 1397.2.5 Number of overlapping network deployments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1407.2.6 Other radio parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1407.2.7 Relations of radio parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

viii CONTENTS

7.3 Example Input Radio Parameter Value Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427.3.1 Radio parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427.3.2 Population coverage percentage and traffic distribution ratio . . . . . 145

8 Numerical Examples 149Tim Irnich, Marja Matinmikko, Jussi Ojala and Bernhard H. Walke

8.1 Packet Size Statistics and QoS Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1508.2 Traffic Demand Derived from Market Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8.2.1 User density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518.2.2 Session arrival rate per user . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518.2.3 Average session duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1528.2.4 Mean service bit rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538.2.5 Mobility ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

8.3 Traffic Distribution Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1548.4 Offered Traffic per RAT Group and Radio Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 1568.5 Required System Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1588.6 Required Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

9 Capacity Dimensioning to Meet Delay Percentile Requirements 167Tim Irnich and Bernhard H. Walke

9.1 Delay Percentile Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1689.2 Service Time Distribution in IP-Based Communication Systems . . . . . . . 1709.3 Waiting Time Distribution in M/G/1 Queues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

9.3.1 Waiting time under multi-modal service time distribution . . . . . . . 1729.3.2 Influence of nonpreemptive priority discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749.3.3 Waiting time approximation based on degenerated hyperexponential

distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789.3.4 Waiting time approximation based on gamma distribution . . . . . . 179

9.4 Delay DF Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809.5 Accuracy of Gamma and H2 Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

9.5.1 Approximation for high priority class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819.5.2 Approximation for medium and low priority classes . . . . . . . . . 184

9.6 Impact of Percentile Requirements on System Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

10 Epilog: Result of WRC-07 193Hitoshi Yoshino

Appendices 199

Appendix A Derivation of Formulas by Queueing Theory 201Hideaki Takagi

A.1 Erlang-B Formula for a Loss System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202A.2 Erlang-C Formula for a Delay System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

CONTENTS ix

A.3 Multidimensional Erlang-B Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207A.3.1 Two classes of calls with single server occupation . . . . . . . . . . . 207A.3.2 Several classes of calls with multiple server occupation . . . . . . . . 211

A.4 M/G/1 Nonpreemptive Priority Queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Appendix B Example Market Study Parameter Values 219

Appendix C List of Acronyms and Symbols 227C.1 Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227C.2 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

Appendix D ITU-R Documents and Web Sites 241D.1 ITU-R Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241D.2 ITU-R Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242D.3 Other ITU-R Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242D.4 Web Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

Bibliography 245

Index 247

About the Series Editors

Xuemin (Sherman) Shen (M’97-SM’02) received a B.Sc degree inelectrical engineering from Dalian Maritime University, China in 1982,and M.Sc and Ph.D degrees (both in electrical engineering) fromRutgers University, New Jersey, USA, in 1987 and 1990, respectively.He is a Professor and University Research Chair, and the AssociateChair for Graduate Studies, Department of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, University of Waterloo, Canada. His research focuses onmobility and resource management in interconnected wireless/wirednetworks, UWB wireless communications systems, wireless security,

and ad hoc and sensor networks. He is a co-author of three books, and has publishedmore than 300 papers and book chapters in wireless communications and networks,control and filtering. Dr Shen serves as a Founding Area Editor for IEEE Transactions onWireless Communications; Editor-in-Chief for Peer-to-Peer Networking and Application;Associate Editor for IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology; KICS/IEEE Journalof Communications and Networks, Computer Networks; ACM/Wireless Networks; andWireless Communications and Mobile Computing (Wiley), etc. He has also served asGuest Editor for IEEE JSAC, IEEE Wireless Communications, and IEEE CommunicationsMagazine. Dr Shen received the Excellent Graduate Supervision Award in 2006, and theOutstanding Performance Award in 2004 from the University of Waterloo, the Premier’sResearch Excellence Award (PREA) in 2003 from the Province of Ontario, Canada, and theDistinguished Performance Award in 2002 from the Faculty of Engineering, University ofWaterloo. Dr Shen is a registered Professional Engineer of Ontario, Canada.

Dr Yi Pan is the Chair and a Professor in the Department of ComputerScience at Georgia State University, USA. Dr Pan received his B.Engand M.Eng degrees in computer engineering from Tsinghua University,China, in 1982 and 1984, respectively, and his Ph.D degree in computerscience from the University of Pittsburgh, USA, in 1991. Dr Pan’sresearch interests include parallel and distributed computing, opticalnetworks, wireless networks, and bioinformatics. Dr Pan has publishedmore than 100 journal papers with over 30 papers published in variousIEEE journals. In addition, he has published over 130 papers in refereed

conferences (including IPDPS, ICPP, ICDCS, INFOCOM, and GLOBECOM). He hasalso co-edited over 30 books. Dr Pan has served as an editor-in-chief or an editorial

xii ABOUT THE SERIES EDITORS

board member for 15 journals including five IEEE Transactions and has organized manyinternational conferences and workshops. Dr Pan has delivered over 10 keynote speechesat many international conferences. Dr Pan is an IEEE Distinguished Speaker (2000–2002),a Yamacraw Distinguished Speaker (2002), and a Shell Oil Colloquium Speaker (2002).He is listed in Men of Achievement, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in AmericanEducation, Who’s Who in Computational Science and Engineering, and Who’s Who of AsianAmericans.

Preface

People drive cars without knowing the mechanics and electronics inside. Likewise peoplewill exchange video mails over mobile phones without bothering about digital coding,channel assignment, routing, and so on by taking advantage of the ever progressing wirelesscommunication technologies. However, there is a certain group of people behind the sceneswho are concerned and working hard to maintain and develop the systems for the sake of allother people. Are you interested (technically) in knowing what roads and highways for voiceor data messages from your cell phone use to reach your friends, though you do not see anyapparent passageway out of your phone? Then this book is for you!

Due to the continuous development in semiconductor technology, processing units andmemory are no longer bottlenecks in computers. Similarly, the explosive growth in thecapacity of optical fiber, the bandwidth of wireline communication is virtually unlimitedin communication networks. Unfortunately, this is not the case in wireless communicationnetworks. The propagation medium of electromagnetic waves used for wireless communi-cation is the atmosphere endowed by Nature. The spectrum bandwidth that can be used forpublic terrestrial and satellite communications is restricted for physical reasons (attenuationof propagating radio waves, absorption of radio signal energy by gases, water vapor andrain, absorption by multipath propagation and reflection of waves at obstacles) as wellas for manmade reasons (e.g. reservation of spectrum for radio broadcasting or militaryuse). Only a few communication channels are available at a given time and place from agiven frequency band. While considerable efforts are being dedicated to exploring higherand higher frequency spectrum for mobile use, we have to divide the available spectrumbandwidth, which is a limited resource, among the services (e.g. mobile radio, broadcasting,public authority, military, radar navigation and surveillance). Today the worldwide usageof radio frequencies is administered by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), aUnited Nations organization. The set of Radio Regulations of the Radiocommunication sectorof ITU (ITU-R) is a binding intergovernmental treaty governing the use of radio spectrum.

We are now (the year 2008) in the Third Generation (3G) of mobile communicationstandards and technology. The 3G mobile services started around the early 2000s toserve voice and Internet access. Initially the mean user date rate was 384 kbit/s, andit has been substantially increased to a few Mbit/s. Two notable examples of 3G radiointerface are wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) or Universal MobileTelecommunications System (UMTS) developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project(3GPP) and cdma2000 developed by 3GPP2. International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) is the 3G mobile system specified by ITU-R. The 3GPP/3GPP2 havedeveloped their evolutional systems, which are referred to as future development of IMT-2000

xiv PREFACE

in ITU-R documents. The Fourth Generation (4G) systems, called ‘systems beyond IMT-2000’ in some early ITU-R documents, are now called IMT-Advanced. We will use the ITUterminology IMT-2000, future development of IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced in this book.

IMT-Advanced systems are currently being specified by the ITU-R. Until October 2007,IMT issues were under the responsibility of the Working Party 8F (WP8F) of ITU-R. Thisbook addresses part of the work of the WP8F. IMT-Advanced systems are expected to bein operation around the year 2015. They will support a rich variety of mobile services andapplications with a peak user data rate of 100 Mbit/s for highly mobile terminals and up to1 Gbit/s for slowly moving terminals in metropolitan areas. These extremely high data rateswill require much additional frequency spectrum, compared to the current allocations forIMT-2000 mobile services. Therefore, the question ‘how much spectrum will be needed inIMT-Advanced systems’ is the main subject of this book.

The ITU has developed approaches for estimating the spectrum requirements of wirelesssystems. The ITU methodology for estimation of spectrum requirements for IMT-2000systems is given in Recommendation ITU-R M.1390. Report ITU-R M.2023 provides theestimate of spectrum requirements for terrestrial components of IMT-2000. The resultswere used as input to the World Radiocommunication Conference 2000 (WRC-2000),which identified additional spectrum bands for IMT-2000 systems to complement thespectrum identified initially for IMT-2000 by the World Administrative RadiocommunicationConference 1992 (WARC-92). The methodology in Rec. ITU-R M.1390 considers a singlenetwork with service delivery based on a circuit-switched radio network. However, accordingto the framework and objectives for IMT-Advanced shown in Recommendation ITU-RM.1645, the service delivery in the future is based mainly on broadband packet-switchedradio networks supporting the Internet Protocol (IP). The seamless interworking betweendifferent radio access systems, namely Pre-IMT, IMT-2000, future development of IMT-2000and IMT-Advanced systems, as well as such wireless systems as specified by IEEE Project802, is required as they are expected competitively to offer their services to users in the samelocation. It appears to be extremely difficult to predict the frequency spectrum needs of sucha scenario what with all these mobile and wireless systems requiring a share of the spectrumin order to be able to generate business.

Therefore, ITU-R has developed a new methodology to calculate the radio spectrumrequirements for IMT-Advanced systems based on market survey data predicting the trafficload for the year 2010 and beyond. The new methodology was approved as RecommendationITU-R M.1768 in June 2006. By using the new methodology, ITU-R has calculated thespectrum requirements for IMT-Advanced as shown in Report ITU-R M.2078. These wereprovided to the World Radiocommunication Conference 2007 (WRC-07) held in October–November 2007 in Geneva, Switzerland. There, a set of new spectrum allocations for MobileService and identifications for IMT-Advanced was determined by taking the needs of variousregions in the world into account (some of which have a predominant need for satellite-basedcommunication). The calculation algorithm embedded in the methodology is complex withdetailed equations, and it is implemented only in a tool package whose structure and contentsappear rather complicated. Thus it is difficult to know the internal model and methodologyused in the calculation. It will be very hard for outsiders to understand the reasons for thedecisions made at WRC-07.

This volume presents a self-contained handbook of the model and methodology usedfor the spectrum requirement calculation for the IMT-Advanced systems and also reports on

PREFACE xv

the methodology used for the previous IMT-2000 system. It shows the underlying theoreticalmodels as well as the derivation of the mathematical formulas, which do not appear explicitlyin the above-mentioned ITU-R documents. Therefore, the reader can learn how the spectrumrequirement is calculated for real systems, which will prevail worldwide in the forthcomingera of ubiquitous computing and communication. In addition, the authors hope that the bookprovides the base camp possibly to develop a further advanced methodology to be appliedfor WRC decisions in the years 2011 or later. The contributors to the book are the membersof the mobile IT Forum (mITF) in Japan and the WINNER project partners in Europe (seebelow) who, themselves, actually developed the new methodology for WP8F of ITU-R.

Although there are ten authors, this handbook is not just a disorderly collectionof independently contributed chapters. Instead, the editors have tried to correlate thechapters consistently and unify the notation of symbols throughout. Readers are expectedto read the book through to understand the main characteristics of the worldwide leadingmobile/wireless communication systems and the methodology for spectrum requirementcalculation systematically, mathematically and historically.

WRC-07Result of

Chapter 10�

ExamplesNumericalChapter 8

�

IMT-AdvancedMethodology for

Chapter 4�

Radio FrequenciesUtilization of

Chapter 2�

IntroductionChapter 1

Market DataChapter 6 ��

PackageCalculation Tool

Chapter 5�

�

IMT-2000Methodology for

Chapter 3�

Input ParametersRadio-Related

Chapter 7� �

MethodologyPercentile-Based

Chapter 9�

Appendices A–D

This book consists of ten chapters and four appendices. The relationship between thechapters is shown in a flow chart style above. The main stream starts with Chapter 1 and goesthrough Chapters 2, 4, 8 and 10. Among them Chapter 4 is the core of the book. Chapters 3,5, 6, 7 and 9 and Appendices A–D provide supplementary but useful information.

We begin in Chapter 1 with an introduction to the recent trends in mobile communicationsystems with respect to applications and services as well as radio interface technologies.We also touch upon relevant standardization activities by various organizations. Chapter 2

xvi PREFACE

presents a basic knowledge of the utilization of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves forcommunication systems. This chapter helps the reader to understand how the spectrum andradio services/systems are managed by ITU-R. We mention both terrestrial services (fixed,mobile and broadcasting) and satellite services (fixed and mobile). We then explain technolo-gies for radio communication systems such as wireless local area networks, terrestrial digitalbroadcasting and short-range communications, e.g. Bluetooth. In particular, cellular systemsare described in detail as they offer a seamless service to mobile users, and their spectrumrequirement is the principal topic of this book. These two chapters should be useful as thebackground to the spectrum requirement planning in wireless communications.

In Chapter 3, we review the spectrum requirement calculation methodology for 3Gmobile systems denoted as IMT-2000, focusing on the years from 2000 to 2010, as given inRecommendation ITU-R M.1390. Numerical examples of calculation are shown in parallelfrom Report ITU-R M.2023. At the time of this estimation (late 1990s), main applicationsof mobile communications were voice, facsimile and some multimedia applications. Themethodology was based on the conventional Erlang-B and Erlang-C approaches for circuit-switched traffic. The methodology and numerical results were presented at the WRC-2000,where the additional spectrum bands were identified for IMT-2000.

The spectrum requirement calculation for IMT-Advanced is given in Chapter 4, whichexplains a new spectrum estimation methodology developed by ITU-R, focusing on the years2010 and onwards. This chapter, the core of the book, is based on Recommendation ITU-RM.1768. After an overview of the development story, we introduce models and input param-eters used in the methodology such as service categories, service environments and radioenvironments. Service environments are combinations of teledensities (dense urban, subur-ban and rural) and service usage patterns (home, office and public area). Radio environmentsrefer to types of cell such as macro cell, micro cell, pico cell and hot spot. Our algorithm startswith the calculation of traffic demands from market data for different service categories indifferent service environments and its distribution to radio environments for each radio accesstechnique group. We then proceed to calculate the system capacity (bit/s) so as to satisfythe requirement of the quality of service (QoS), which is given in terms of the maximumallowable blocking probability for circuit-switched service categories or in terms of themaximum allowable mean packet delay for packet-switched service categories. To do so, weuse the multidimensional Erlang loss model for circuit-switched service categories and theM/G/1 nonpreemptive priority queueing model for packet-switched service categories. Thesemodels enable category-dependent treatment and statistical multiplexing of different servicecategories. The capacity requirement per cell (bit/s/cell) is simply divided by the area spectralefficiency factor to give the spectrum requirement (Hz). The resulting spectrum requirementsare then aggregated and necessary adjustment is made to yield the total spectrum requirement.

The spectrum requirement calculation methodology for IMT-Advanced has been imple-mented into a tool package on MS Excel worksheets, which is described in detail inChapter 5. The tool is now publicly available on the ITU web site ‘http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/study-groups/docs/speculator.doc’. Chapter 6 reports the analysis of market data collectedfrom responses to the questionnaire on services and market for IMT-Advanced and otherradio systems distributed worldwide on the basis of Report ITU-R M.2072. It also detailsthe calculation of market study parameter values for the input to the spectrum calculationmethodology. Chapter 7 explains radio access technique group (RATG) approach and radio-related parameters used for the traffic demand and distribution calculation (cell area,

PREFACE xvii

application data rate, etc.) and those for the spectrum requirement calculation (spectralefficiency, number of overlapping networks, minimum deployment per operator, etc.) in themethodology. This chapter is based on Report ITU-R M.2074.

Chapter 8 presents numerical examples of the spectrum estimation, based on ReportITU-R M.2078, by using the calculation tool described in Chapter 5, the example inputmarket parameter values shown in Chapter 6 and the example input radio parameter valuesshown in Chapter 7. This illustration should help readers to gain a clear view of themethodology. Chapter 9 gives a possible extension to the current methodology to meet theuser requirement with respect to the delay percentile for packet-switched service categories(the user requirement assumed in the methodology of Chapter 4 was the mean packet delay).This extension is not included in the ITU-R documents, but it may suggest future researchdirection. Finally, Chapter 10 tells you what the methodology has finally brought us. Theresult of WRC-07 in terms of spectrum identification for IMT-Advanced is reported.

We provide several appendices for the convenience of the reader. In Appendix A, wederive queueing theory formulas used in the methodologies for IMT-2000 (Chapter 3) andIMT-Advanced (Chapter 4). Appendix B shows an illustrative set of market study parametervalues which was actually used by ITU-R for the preparation of WRC-07 (errors in numericalvalues in Report ITU-R M.2078 have been corrected). Appendix C provides a list ofacronyms and symbols used in the book. Appendix D lists relevant ITU-R documents andweb sites. The bibliography is limited to those books, technical papers and ITU-R documentsthat are directly related to the topic of this book. The subject index refers only to key wordsfor the methodology.

The target readership of this book is engineers of mobile communication operatorsand vendors and of national and regional radio regulators of the Administrations whoare not familiar with teletraffic and queueing theory and its applications. These engineersshould know and are expected to appreciate the simple underlying models and mathematicalformulas used in the software package that produces numerical values for their system design.Other groups may be researchers of queueing theory who are not familiar with practicalapplications, and graduate students in the fields of applied probability, operations research,telecommunications and networking engineering. Queueing theory specialists would bedelighted to find that the basic classic formulas are useful in modern communication systems.

This book is realized through the joint efforts of the following ten co-authors:

Mitsuhiro Azuma, Fujitsu Laboratories, Japan

Jorg Huschke, Ericsson, Germany

Tim Irnich, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Marja Matinmikko, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Finland

Naoto Matoba, NTT DoCoMo, Japan

Jussi Ojala, Nokia Corporation, Finland

Pekka Ojanen, Nokia Corporation, Finland

Hideaki Takagi, University of Tsukuba, Japan

Bernhard H. Walke, RWTH Aachen University, Germany

Hitoshi Yoshino, NTT DoCoMo, Japan

xviii PREFACE

In each chapter, the names of contributors to the chapter are listed. The chapter editor comesfirst, followed by other contributors in alphabetical order of their last names (our apologyto Dr Yoshino who always comes last). These authors not only contributed the manuscriptsbut also helped the editors to put them together into a complete book. We are also happyto announce that doctoral degrees were awarded to Mitsuhiro Azuma (2007) and Tim Irnich(2008) and a licentiate degree to Marja Matinmikko (2007) while they were working on thespectrum requirements of IMT-Advanced.

The work of the European contributors was mostly carried out in the Wireless WorldInitiative New Radio (WINNER) and the WINNER II projects, which were partiallyfunded by the European Union. The WINNER project partners participated in the ITU-R preparations towards the WRC-07 on the spectrum requirements of IMT-Advancedby preparing a number of contributions via the European Conference of Postal andTelecommunications Administrations (CEPT) with a view to forming common Europeancontributions to the ITU-R. A number of contributions were also submitted directly tothe ITU-R. Many of the WINNER contributions were targeted to the development of thespectrum calculation methodology as well as defining the different input parameters to themethodology. In essence, most parts of the spectrum calculation methodology originate fromthe WINNER project, including the software tool that was used to derive the final spectrumrequirements. The work of the WINNER project partners was done in close cooperation withthe mobile IT Forum (mITF) from Japan.

Funding towards developing the methodology by the Federal Minister of Research andEducation in Germany in project 4GSpectrum is worth noting. The long-term researchfunding of VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland on 4G systems is also acknowledged.

Mobile IT Forum (mITF) is a Japanese forum which has been performing researchon future mobile communication systems and services. In response to the start of ITU-R study on the methodology for calculation of spectrum requirements for IMT-Advanced,the mITF created an ad hoc group with an aim to providing technical basis for Japanesenational preparation. The ad hoc group prepared many technical documents which werefinally approved as Japanese contributions to the ITU-R. The members of the ad hoc groupactively participated in the ITU-R activity for the development of the spectrum calculationmethodology and enjoyed close interaction with WINNER colleagues. The mITF contributedto the development of a new methodology using a multidimensional Erlang-B formula forcircuit-switched service categories in addition to the refinement of the methodology using anM/G/1 nonpreemptive priority queueing model for packet-switched service categories whichwas originally proposed by the WINNER project members.

Hideaki Takagi’s work was supported by the mITF through Commissioned ResearchACA16104 and ACA17044 in 2004–2005 as well as by the Grant-in-Aid for ScientificResearch from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan in 2006–2007.

The continuous support for the development of the spectrum estimation methodology byDr Werner Mohr, Project Coordinator of the WINNER projects, is also worth mentioning andis appreciated by the editors.

Hideaki Takagi,University of Tsukuba, Japan

Bernhard H. Walke,RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

1

Introduction

Bernhard H. Walke and Hitoshi Yoshino

This chapter reviews trends in mobile communications and spectrum usage and explains whyand how we need spectrum allocation to IMT systems.

1.1 Trends in Mobile Communication

This section describes trends in mobile communications on three fronts; applications andservices, radio interface technologies and standardization.

1.1.1 Mobile applications and services

User expectations are increasing to support a wide variety of applications and services inmobile communications after the advent of broadband Internet access in wired communica-tion. In the near future, wireless and mobile technology will play a vital role in providing‘continuous connectivity’ between (end user) terminals and a variety of services. Note thatmobile systems support an application running on the user terminal without interruption,even when moving with high mobility. Wireless systems connect slow-moving terminalsto the Internet, interrupting service when switching between network access points. Ina scenario where ‘everybody and everything is always connected to access personalizedservices’, several types of ‘human to human’, ‘human to machine’ and ‘machine to machine’communication link can exist (Walke and Kumar 2003). See Figure 1.1.

The majority of presently used ‘human to human’ information exchange is voice based.A clear shift towards data services is observed. In ‘human to machine’ and ‘machine tomachine’ interaction, the volume of information exchanged is small and a short duration‘session’ at a low data rate is sufficient in most cases. For ‘human to human’ and ‘machine tohuman’ interaction for work or leisure, the opposite applies with long session duration and ahigh data rate required.

Spectrum Requirement Planning in Wireless Communications Edited by Hideaki Takagi and Bernhard H. Walkec© 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

2 SPECTRUM REQUIREMENT PLANNING IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Source

Machine

Voice communications (VoIP)Video phone/conferenceInteractive game

Chat, Blog

Visual mailAudio mailText mail

Human

Des

tinat

ion

Hum

anM

achi

ne

Video relay broadcastingVideo surveillanceHuman navigationInternet browsingInformation serviceMusic downloadPush service

Remote control

(voice, video, etc.)

Location information serviceDistribution system, etc.

Data transfer

maintenance

Real timerequired

Delaypermitted

Consumer electronic device Recording to storage device

Figure 1.1 Wireless communication applications to support real-time and nonreal-time futurewireless services.

Intelligent spaces in the future wireless world shall contain myriads of ‘intelligent’wireless devices such as sensors and actuators embedded in appliances and/or carried byhumans and interacting with each other as well as with their physical environment. There,the spontaneous information exchange may be based on dynamically configurable ad hocnetworks of very low-power transceivers located in devices with varying information-processing capabilities. The transceivers might be connected to sensors and/or actuators,such as microphones and speakers. The very high concentration of such transceivers and theneed to communicate not only in short range but also over medium to large distances wouldneed a large spectrum bandwidth. Also, some of the envisaged future wireless and mobileapplications and services will be ‘location aware’. This requires suitable new air interfacetechnology capable of combining the functions of data transmission with those of preciselocalization and position tracking.

The traffic resulting from data communication-based applications and services is similarto that known from the Internet. Accordingly, a packet-based delivery over radio isappropriate. The traffic flow may be unidirectional from transmitter to receiver terminal orbi-directional. The flow may be either symmetrical or asymmetrical, and the service requiredby an application may be real-time or nonreal-time oriented. The digitized and packetizedinformation transmission permits an integration and convergence of technologies knownfrom information science, telecommunications and contents provisioning. The wireless trafficamount resulting from all the three domains is increasing and consequently consumes everincreasing spectrum bandwidth.

INTRODUCTION 3

Moore’s law1 appears also to apply for the bandwidth consumption. The end users tendto embrace applications and services utilizing an ever faster data rate. The service data rate(offered/required) is doubling every 12 months or so. The constant increase in ‘users’ injectsfurther positive feedback into the system, thus sending the frequency bandwidth demand toan exponential increase.

This potential growth scenario requiring more and more bandwidth to allow a steadyfurther development of wireless and mobile systems can be sketched in the light of thefollowing:

• The extent of good quality radio coverage is inversely proportional to the transmitteddata rate. The cost of ‘continuous’ and ‘all time everywhere’ radio coverage increasesvery sharply with the transmitted data rate.

• The higher the service data rate, the larger is the required bandwidth and the higher isthe frequency range where some additional spectrum might be available.

• Deregulation policies of regulators, aiming at competition between operators, result infragmentation of frequency spectrum licensed to mobile operators, inversely affectingspectrum-efficient use of a radio band allocated for mobile services.

• The present users (systems and service providers) of the already allocated frequencybands would like to make the most out of their allocation. The introduction ofsophisticated mechanisms in the standardized air interfaces, e.g. space-time coding,smart antenna systems and multihop links to improve the radio coverage, appear to bea direct consequence of frequency spectrum shortage for mobile radio use.

• Although the spectrum efficiency of radio systems is continuously increasing, muchmore spectrum is required, in general. Moreover, additional frequency spectrum willbe necessary in the low frequency range in order to provide the required coverage inwide areas.

• The variety of networks for provision of seamless services in private to public and shortrange localized coverage to wide area coverage will find its limits by the demand forcost effectiveness of the corresponding business cases.

The globalization of markets requires a very wide consensus going beyond technologystandardization. Especially, the interworking of permanently established and spontaneouslycreated networks shall be fostered to improve user acceptance on mobile/wireless services.

1.1.2 Radio interface technologies

History of mobile radio systems before IMT-2000

The first generation (1G) of wireless technology, dedicated to telephony, started in the 1980swith the analog cellular phone standards. There, mobile terminals and base stations useanalog signal processing to transmit and receive the radio signals that propagate in any

1Moore’s law generally refers to a trend that the capability of electronic devices grows at an exponential rate.The observation was first made by Intel co-founder Gordon E. Moore in his paper published in 1965 with respect tothe number of transistors on an integrated circuit chip.

4 SPECTRUM REQUIREMENT PLANNING IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

generation of mobile systems as analog signals through the atmosphere. Examples are theAdvanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) deployed in the United States, the Nordic MobileTelephone (NMT) in Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands and Switzerland, RC2000 inFrance, Total Access Communication System (TACS) in the United Kingdom, and C450 inGermany and Portugal. These continued until being replaced in the mid-1990s by the secondgeneration (2G) technology that is based on digital signal processing applied in base stationsand mobile terminals. The 2G services, called Personal Communications Service (PCS) inthe United States, comprise mobile voice and narrowband data communication. The systemsuse combinations of multiplexing techniques at the air (radio) interface such as frequencydivision multiplex (FDM), time division multiplex (TDM) and code division multiplex(CDM) combined with the respective access protocols, namely frequency division multipleaccess (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA) and code division multiple access(CDMA). The 2G systems worth mentioning are Global System for Mobile communications(GSM) standardized by the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) thatreached a 75% market share worldwide, IS (Interim Standard)-95/cdmaOne according to theTelecommunications Industry Association (TIA) in the United States, and Personal DigitalCellular (PDC) specified by the Research Center for Radio (RCR) in Japan. An evolutionarytechnology called 2.5G introduced multiplexing of data packets to a common radio channelfor mobile Internet access at 128 kbit/s mean transmission rate. Worth mentioning areGSM/EGPRS (Enhanced General Packet Radio Service) and the evolution technology ofthe cdmaOne system that increased the peak user data rate to 256 kbit/s.

Capability of future mobile and wireless systems

The framework and overall objectives of the future development of IMT-2000 and IMT-Advanced are described in Recommendation ITU-R M.1645, which was approved by ITU-Rin June 2003. Figure 1.2 shows the capabilities of mobile and wireless systems, which areenvisaged in Recommendation ITU-R M.1645.

Due to the wide spread of mobile Internet access supporting a wide variety of data ratesand a wide range of mobility, current mobile systems such as IMT-2000 have evolved bythe addition of more and more capabilities. Future broadband mobile Internet access willrequire a new mobile access and new nomadic/local area wireless access technologies. It isenvisaged that those new technologies will need to support data rates of up to approximately100 Mbit/s for high mobility and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility, judging frombroadband applications currently available in wired networks. To meet the high aggregatedata rate requirements, IMT-Advanced systems will require considerably wider bandwidthsthan current mobile communications systems. Even if the spectral efficiency of the IMT-Advanced system will be considerably higher than in current systems, IMT-Advancedsystems will require bandwidths of up to 100 MHz to support aggregate data rates of upto 1 Gbit/s. Currently existing bands for IMT-2000 are too narrow and fragmented, and thisdoes not allow the implementation of 100 MHz carriers. Therefore, the deployment of IMT-Advanced systems with its fully envisioned capabilities is not possible on existing bands.

A similarity of applications and services across different wireless systems stimulates theconvergence and interwork of the wireless systems. The prevalence of IP-based applicationsaccelerates this convergence and interwork of the telecommunication systems.

INTRODUCTION 5

Mobility

Low

Peak useful data rate

(Mbit/s)

High

1 10 100 1000

IMT-2000 Development

of IMT-2000IMT-Advanced

New Nomadic Access

New Mobile Access

Figure 1.2 Capabilities of mobile systems (‘Van Diagram’).

Experience from the past has shown that the idea of a universal system able to coverall the needs of wireless and mobile applications cannot be realized. Instead, a multitudeof air interfaces has been standardized and will continue to grow in the future to cover thespecifically different needs of mobile and wireless communicating users in the various usagescenarios.

Mobile systems such as GSM, shown in Figure 1.3, together with its General PacketRadio Service (GPRS) and its evolution called Enhanced Data Rate for Global Evolution(EDGE), are covering the full range of mobility from fixed to high speed train mobility. TheGSM/GPRS/EDGE is supporting low mobile data rates only and is, currently, dominating theworld in 2G systems. The CDMA 1x, another 2G system with similar throughput capacityand mobility support, is also shown in the figure. Third generation (3G) systems such asUniversal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) and its evolutions called High SpeedDownlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA), in short,High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), and a technology called CDMA EV-DO (Evolution DataOnly), offer a substantially increased throughput for the full range of terminal mobility.These systems are being planned to evolve further towards mobile broadband supportingsystems, shown in Figure 1.3 as UMTS-LTE (Long Term Evolution) and Ultra MobileBroadband (UMB). The respective standardization processes have started already. As can beseen in Figures 1.2 and 1.3, the right-hand upper corner is difficult to cover, limiting mobilebroadband use to moderate speed of terminal movement.

Cordless technology such as Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT)and Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) covers wireless telephony and low rate data,supporting only slow-moving terminals that are close (approximately 50 m) to the servingbase station. Bluetooth is specialized to cover voice and data in the personal area of a human,bridging typically up to 10 m only. Wireless systems have been standardized by Project 802of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). According to the standardIEEE 802.11, the wireless local area network (WLAN) is intended to serve nomadic terminals

6 SPECTRUM REQUIREMENT PLANNING IN WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS

Mobility/Range

Bluetooth XDSL, CATV, Fiber

GSM

GPRS

cdma

2000-1x

EDGE

UMTS(W-CDMA)

cdma2000 EV-DO

Rev. O/A

cdma2000EV-DO

Rev. B

HSDPA

WLANIEEE

802.11a/b/g

HSPA LTE

UMB

IMT-

AdvancedEDGE-11

GERAN

Evolution

IEEE802.16e

WiMAX

IEEE802.16d

High Speed

Vehicular

Rural

Ve

hic

le

Vehicular

Urban

Pedestrian

Wa

lk

Nomadic

Sta

tionary Fixed urban

Indoor

Personal Area

DECT

PHS

User data rate

Mbps1 10 100 10000.1

Figure 1.3 Terminal mobility versus peak data rate supported by wireless/mobile systems.(Reproduced by permission of c© 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

with connectivity over radio to the Internet. The metropolitan area network (MAN) standardIEEE 802.16, called the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), wasoriginally aimed to connect fixed subscriber stations via radio to a base station, but evolvedto support terminals moving at vehicular speed. The system is expected to evolve furthertowards a mobile broadband system supporting the full range of terminal mobility in thefuture according to the Task Group IEEE 802.16m.

For comparison purposes, cable-based transmission systems connecting fixed subscribersin the local loop to telecommunication networks are also shown in Figure 1.3. It is clear thatfuture wireless and mobile broadband systems are planned to reach the throughput rate ofwireline systems.

Peak data rate and spectrum efficiency

There is often a confusion when comparing performance parameters of standardized airinterfaces that results from not differentiating between mean values such as capacity (themaximum throughput available in a cell), throughput (the data rate perceived by a userterminal at its current location in the cell) and peak data rate (the maximum data rate availableto serve a user terminal under best radio conditions).

According to its technological state-of-the-art, air interfaces are also being characterizedby its spectral efficiency measured by the number of bits that can be transmitted in oneHertz bandwidth unit (bit/s/Hz). Figure 1.4 shows the performance characteristics of existingand forthcoming ‘beyond the third generation’ (B3G) and fourth generation (4G) mobile

INTRODUCTION 7

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

2.5

Sp

ectr

al E

ffic

ien

cy

Spectral

Efficiency

Peak D

ata

Rate

Peak Data Rate

0.01

GPRSW-CDMA

EDGE

cdma2000

1xEV-DORev.0

UMTS

1xEV-DORev.A

HSDPA

IEEE 802.16e

1xEV-DORev.B

HSPA

UMB

LTE

IEEE

802.16m

IMT-AdvancedIMT-2000

Narrowband Data Middleband Data Broadband Data

2G 2.5G 3G B3G 4G

Diversity and

Space Division

Multiple Access

Contributions

bps/Hz Mbps

1000

100

10

1

0.1

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Figure 1.4 Spectral efficiency and peak data rate development over time.

system standards in terms of their peak data rate and spectral efficiency at the time ofintroduction.

It can be derived from Figure 1.4 that spectral efficiency almost doubles every two years,while peak data rate doubles every year. The increase of spectral efficiency over time clearlypoints to the fact that more data will be possible to transmit in the future in a given channelbandwidth, compared to what is possible today. This is one reason why the estimationof future spectrum bandwidth needs of mobile systems is difficult to assess. The possiblecontribution by multiple antenna systems to increase spectral efficiency in future (that wouldreduce the need for more spectrum allocation to be able to carry a predicted user trafficload) is uncertain and depends, partly, on implementation cost considerations and thereforeis difficult to predict.

Roadmap of radio systems development

It is worth considering the time plans of various standardization organizations involved inthe specification and further development of wireless and mobile systems and the pace ofthe worldwide spectrum regulation to which these activities are aligned. See Figure 1.5 forthe roadmap of 3G and 4G wireless/mobile systems spanning the time interval from 2003 to2011.

There are two standardization organizations, namely the Third Generation PartnershipProject (3GPP) and Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) that both focusexclusively on mobile telecommunication systems. 3GPP represents the European and Asianregional standardization groups as far as they are concerned with the development ofWideband CDMA (W-CDMA). 3GPP2 is supported substantially by the TIA, an Americanstandardization body.