soma as nelumbo as shown by david l. spess

A Botanical Perspective on the Identity of Soma (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) Based onScriptural and Iconographic RecordsAuthor(s): Andrew McDonaldReviewed work(s):Source: Economic Botany, Vol. 58, Supplement (Winter, 2004), pp. S147-S150+S51+S152-S173Published by: Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4256916 .Accessed: 14/12/2011 07:50

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A BOTANICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE IDENTITY OF SOMA (NELUMBO NUCIFERA GAERTN.) BASED ON SCRIPTURAL AND ICONOGRAPHIC RECORDS'

ANDREW MCDONALD

McDonald, Andrew (University of Texas at Austin, Plant Resources Center, 78712; e-mail [email protected]). A BOTANICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE IDENTITY OF SOMA (NELUMBO

NUCIFERA GAERTN.) BASED ON SCRIPTURAL AND ICONOGRAPHIC RECORDS. Economic Botany 58(Supplement):S147-S173, 2004. An examinationi of the mythic and artistic records of India and Southeast Asia indicates that the famous psychotropic of the ancient Aryans was the eastern lotus, Nelumbo nucifera. Vedic epithets, metaphors, and myths that describe the physical and behavioral characteristics of the 'soma' plant as a sun, serpent, golden eagle, arrow, lightning bolt, cloud, phallic pillar, womb, chariot, and imnmortal niavel, relate individually or as a whole to the eastern lotus. Since most Hindu and Buddhist gods anld goddesses trace their origins from the Vedas and have always shared close symnbolic associations with Nelumbo, there is reason to believe the divine status of this symbolic planit derives from India's prehistoric past.

Key Words: India; lotus; narcotic plants; Nelumbo niucifera; somna; Vedas.

Asian historians have long been intrigued by the religious customs of ancient Aryan peoples and their celebrated habit of using a narcotic plant to achieve spiritual revelations. Long before the advent of civilization, these famous no- madic warriors were renowned for their sha- manistic approach to the practice of religion, and for their success in spreading their spiritual beliefs from the shorelines of the Caspian Sea to the headwaters of the Indus and Ganges Rivers. Distant communities of their itinerant clans were ultimately assimilated into civilized states that arose in northern India and Iran, the sacerdotal classes of which, remaining true to their prehistoric traditions, proved intent on conserving the archaic rites of their spiritual forebears. As a re- sult, early Aryan priest guilds played a critical role in the establishment of Brahmanic and Zo- roastrian schools of religion, and in conveying their prehistoric modes of religious thought into the realms of human history.

Numerous written documents that descend from early Aryan civilizations pertain to the traditional use and worship of a specific psychotropic plant. Communities who spoke in dialects of Indian origin, such as Sanskrit, referred to this

' Received 17 January 2003; accepted 18 May 2003.

plant as soma, whereas those who spoke in lan- guages of Persian origin, such as Avestan and Pahlavi, referred to the plant as homa. But they all spoke with the same sense of awe and rev- erence for the same vegetative entity which they believed was responsible for the creation of life and the governance of natural forces. Hence many modern scholars (Doniger 1967; James 1966; Zaehner 1961) are given to conclude that much of what is believed and practiced by Brah- manic and Zoroastrian communities in modem times derives in no small part from the anti- quated traditions of an ancient drug cult.

Most of what historians know about the role of soma in the religious lives of early Aryan peoples derives from an ancient text that is ar- guably the oldest known written record of Indo- European origin. Known as the Rg Veda, this famous Sanskrit hymnal traces its origin from around the turn of the 8th century BCE (Doniger 1967), during an age in which the practice of literacy began to spread throughout India. Not- withstanding the antiquity of this historical doc- ument, it is also widely believed that the contents of the Rg Veda are of a much older age, as there is widespread agreement that most Ve- dic songs date from India's prehistoric past. Many scholars date the Vedic verses from before

Economic Botany 58(Supplement) pp. S147-S173. 2004 (? 2004 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

S148 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 58

the turn of the second millennium BCE (Parpola 1995; Witzel 1995), when Indo-Aryan clans depended on oral forms of communication to maintain their 'sacred lore' (or 'Veda'). While these rough estimations of the Rg Veda's historical age elicit little disagreement in scholarly cir- cles, they are at variance with the traditional perspectives of modem Brahmanic communities, whose conservative members have always main- tained that the Vedic hymns descend from the immortal gods, and therefore trace from the dawn of creation. In their point of view, the ancient songs embody the eternal truth (dharma or rta) of the Aryan cosmos, and accordingly defy any attempt to assign them a specific time or place of origin. Brahmanic traditionalists insist that the Rg Veda and its derivative texts-the Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda (known collectively as the 'Vedas' )-are the root-source of all that is believed and practiced by Indo-Aryan peoples and their direct descen- dants. And they place equal credence in early philosophical commentaries on these chants, such as those that are found in the Upanisads (known collectively as the Vedanta) and Brah- manas.

Vedic hymns were originally composed by prehistoric priest guilds to pay gratitude and rev- erence to a host of gods and goddesses during the 'sacrifice' of their sacred plant. As officiat- ing priests prepared the milky juices of the soma plant for ingestion, they chanted their traditional hymns in unison to convey their appreciation for the annual revival of their vegetative sacrament. Most Vedic hymns were dedicated to specific divinities that ruled over various forces of nature, such as those that caused the sun to shine (Sirya), lightning to strike (Indra), rains to fall (Parjanya), or rivers to flow (Sarasvati). The concerted efforts of these naturalistic powers made possible the annual recurrence of the sacred plant. Most of these Aryan gods and goddesses belonged to one of two fundamental classes of deity, including those that inhabited the heavenly realms of the material world, known as the Devas or 'Shining Ones', and those that belonged to the chthonic realms of the cosmos, known variously as Vrtras ('Encompassers' or 'Pervaders'), Druhs ('Deceivers'; Gonda 1959; Lahiri 1984), or Asuras2 (i.e., 'Demoniacs'; Macdonell 1995; Panikkar 1977). The Asuras generally represented the powers of the earth, and sought to retain the invigorating properties

of soma within the underworld of Earth. And the Devas, in direct opposition to the Asuras, represented the powers of the heavens, and sought to liberate the plant from the bowels of the earth. Since both classes of gods depended mutually on the invigorating properties of soma to maintain their immortal lives, they were des- tined to wage pitched battles against each other on an annual basis, thereby insuring that both parties receive their yearly allotment of soma's immortalizing nectar. These episodic conflicts resulted in the perpetuation of cycles of plant growth in the Aryan world, and therefore the perpetuation of life itself.

Vedic hymns were sung to celebrate the past victories of the heroic Devas and to encourage the heavenly host in their yearly assaults on the Asuras, for without an annual triumph of the sky-gods, the Aryan clans would be unable to share in the treasures of soma. Prominent among these gods was a solar-bodied spirit that inhabited the stalks of the Aryan sacramental plant- namely Soma, the 'Lord of Plants' (Vanaspati, Ksetrapati, Virudhpati) and 'Lord of Divine Speech' (Vdcaspati)-whose golden body was filled with the 'essence' (rasa'; Bosch 1960) of living creation. Around 120 hymns of the Rg Veda are dedicated exclusively to this vegetative spirit, the remaining of which, amounting to around 900 songs, were devoted to a host of supportive celestial gods. Soma, as both a vegetative spirit and demiurge, was praised in Vedic refrains for his willingness to sacrifice his vegetative body on behalf of the gods and mortals alike, such that both parties might share in his invigorating essence and enjoy everlasting life.4 But just as Soma was deemed to be the source of immortal life for the gods, the gods were also instrumental in maintaining the immortal life of Soma. Hence Soma was identified as both the cause and effect of the Aryan cosmos: both the father5 and the child6 of the Aryan pantheon.

The practice of the ancient soma-sacrifice was as beneficial to the Aryan gods7 as the Aryan priest caste,8 since both parties enjoyed a height- ened sense of strength,9 vitality,'0 joy,11 intelli- gence and wealth12 when they imbibed the vi- talizing virtues of the divine plant. Indeed, Vedic hymns often proclaim that adept members of the soma cult attained omniscience,'3 perfection,'4 and immortality'5 while under the sway of the plant's inebriating properties, which was tanta- mount to saying that they had become as gods.

2004] McDONALD: THE IDENTITY OF SOMA S149

One of various Sanskrit terms that was used to distinguish an 'immortal' god from a mortal creature, amrta,'6 or 'non-death' (a-mrta), was also employed as a nominative to refer to the intoxicating beverage (also known as 'soma') which Aryan priests prepared from the milky saps of their famous plant. Thus, Aryan bards used the same terms to refer to the beverage and the experience of bliss; for to know the plant was to know the nature of the gods; and to know the nature of the gods was to be a god. This general theme is reflected in an oft-quoted Vedic refrain- "We have drunk soma, we have become immortal; we have gone to the light, we have discovered the gods" '7-which generations of Vedic bards once chanted as they convened for their ecstatic revelries. This divine state of being was described in terms of "a vision in a dream,"18 or as a transcendental experience that transported the soul to a land devoid of hunger, sorrow and strife.'9

Vedic bards composed and chanted their ancient hymns with the expressed intention of con- cealing the identity and secrets of their holy sacrament.20 They accomplished this objective by holding their sacramental rites in closed quarters and by developing codified forms of speech to describe the material character of their divine plant in cryptic and symbolic terms. Soma was often identified with a variety of planetary orbs or charismatic animals in order to confuse in- dividuals who were not versed in the mythic lore of the priest caste. The plant was often identified, for example, as the sun and moon, clouds, lightning bolts, or a variety of animals, including a serpent, eagle, lion, or commonly, a bull. The interplay of these symbolic images in Vedic mythology proved effective in obscuring the vital source of Aryan inspiration, both in ancient and modem times, as the secret of soma's botanical identity remains a mystery to modem students of Asian religions and history. While numerous linguists have tried their hand at cracking the esoteric codes of ancient Aryan bards (Brough 1971; Falk 1989; Flattery and Schwartz 1989), along with mythologists (Doniger 1967; Mala- moud 1991), anthropologists (Emboden 1972; Furst 1972), and popular commentators (Mc- Kenna 1992; Wasson 1967), the enigmatic identity of the Aryans' sacred plant has yet to be resolved.

While modem commentators have argued en- ergetically in favor of a number of competing

hypotheses regarding soma's botanical identity, consensus has not yet been achieved as to what specific Asian plant was the object of early Ary- an devotions. Many plant species that have been proposed thus far as possible soma candidates have proven unable to elicit psychoactive re- sponses in human beings, such as rhubarb (Rheum), grapes (Vitis), pomegranates (Punica), moonseeds (Cocculus), ironweeds (Vernonia), hops (Humulus), ginseng, and various milk- weeds (Doniger 1968; Flattery and Schwartz 1989; Nyberg 1995). But various plants that are known to produce psychoactive properties, such as marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.), Ephedra, opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.), Syrian rue (Peganum harmala L.), ginseng (Panax), and the fly-agaric fungus, Amanita muscaria (Fr.) S.F Gray (Doniger 1968; Falk 1989; Flat- tery and Schwartz 1989; Mahdihassan 1981; Nyberg 1995; Spess 2000), continue to provoke heated debates and discussions among linguists and students of the ancient Orient. Such a di- verse assemblage of plants and fungi might suggest to the casual observer that the pursuit of soma's historical identity is bound to prove fu- tile. Indeed, this conclusion has been reached by a number of modem commentators (Brough 1971; Eggeling 1978; Keith 1989; Macdonell and Keith 1982), some of whom suggest that the plant may have gone extinct, or that early intro- ductions of substitute and imposter herbs has ob- scured the issue beyond redemption (Brough 1971; Doniger 1968). These pessimistic viewpoints are not, however, without their detractors, as it is difficult to imagine that a plant which once extended from the Caspian Sea to the Gan- getic plains of northern India could have been driven to extinction. Nor does it seem likely that such a wide variety of cultures in ancient India and Persia could have easily lost or forgotten the primary object of their religious devotions. Since historical records indicate that the practice of the soma sacrifice endured well into the classical and medieval periods (500 BCE-1500 CE) of Indian and Persian history (see below), students of the ancient Orient can only surmise that the vegetative source of early Aryan poetry and mysticism is still living among us.

Some modem Sanskritists attribute their lack of success in determining the botanical identity of soma to difficulties that they encounter in translating archaic forms of Sanskrit. Perhaps as much blame can be attributed, however, to the


fact that a detailed botanical inquiry into the matter has never been undertaken. Nyberg (1995) is perhaps the only 20th century botanist who evaluated the issue from a strictly biologi- cal perspective, but he confesses to a speciali- zation in plant chemistry, and therefore bases his viewpoints on the psychotropic properties of the plant. Like many modern linguists, Nyberg con- cludes that soma was probably one of various species of Ephedra, owing largely to the historical use of this stimulating plant in the medicinal traditions of Asian cultures. This popular perspective was recently challenged, however, by a microbiologist (Spess 2000), who argues that the mystery plant of the Vedas was probably the eastern lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) and the Egyptian lotus (Nvmphaea nouchalii Burm. f.). Spess supports this argument by recognizing the divine reputations of these plants in the mythic and religious traditions of Egypt and Eurasia, their use as symbols for gods of ecstasy and immortal life, and their psychoactive properties. Neither of the aforementioned scientists have presented, however, a critical review of the mor- phological issues that surround the question of Soma's enigmatic identity, and it is here that most discussions on the enigmatic identity of soma have ended in a draw.

To more fully explore some of these outstand- ing issues, the present discussion analyzes soma's physical nature from a botanical perspective. Information is drawn as liberally from the Vedic record as from mythical accounts of the plant during post-Vedic periods of Indian history (800 BCE-1000 CE), including assess- ments of the plant in the Brahnianas, Upanisads, epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) and Pura- nas. Since various schools of art in India and Southeast Asia also portray mythic themes that have a direct bearing on Vedic identity of the soma plant, these too are considered in detail, drawing from a variety of iconographic traditions throughout India and Southeast Asia.

BOTANICAL ATTRIBUTES OF SOMA IN THE RG VEDA

Although modern publications rarely cite the pioneering works of Alfred Hillebrandt, Max Muller, and Hermann Oldenberg, early discussions of these 19th century Indologists often provide a more comprehensive perspective on soma's botanical character than do treatments of the 20th century. Hillebrandt (1990, 1:121-266)

begins his insightful commentaries by examin- ing a perennial controversy that continues to provoke debates, namely the question as to whether soma was an upright or creeping plant. Although classical descriptions of soma often suggest that the plant was a 'creeping' herb- i.e., sornavaliT or somalata (Brough 1971; Don- iger 1967; Wasson 1967; Wujastik 1998)- most Vedic verses describe Soma Pavamana ('Soma Clear-flowing', Panikkar 1977) as a lustrous "pillar of heaven" (divo dharunam21) or a 'prop' (skambha22) of the sky. Many translators assume that the ascendant stems of the plant grew to considerable heights, as some verses describe the plant as either a 'tree' (vrksa)23 or a shoot (amsu) that reaches high into the heavens.24 But other commentators are inclined to agree that soma lacked woody growth, owing to descrip- tive allusions to the plant as an herb (i.e., vfrudh, 6sadhi; Doniger 1967). The latter assumption is certainly supported by frequent descriptions of soma as either a reed25 [vand26 (Hillebrandt 1990) or nada27 (Macdonell and Keith 1982)] or pointed arrow28 (Hillebrandt 1990); for Soma stood like an arrow among plants29 when he raised his sharpened point into the heavens.30 Moreover, since Vedic bards employed a variety of different Sanskrit words for 'arrow' in this illusionary context (isu, s'arya, saru, and bana; Macdonell and Keith 1982), it may reasonably be assumed that the plant produced narrow, straight, ascendant, un-branched stalks. We may also surmise that soma's stalks grew as solitary shoots, since the image of an arrow hardly calls to mind the figure of a branching tree.

While many modern commentators have em- phasized the fact that the pillared character of Vedic Soma is inconsistent with post-Vedic characterizations of the plant as a creeper (Don- iger 1968), this viewpoint does not preclude the possibility that soma may have produced erect and procumbent shoots. Although this distinct prospect was dismissed emphatically by Wasson (1967) and Doniger (1967) in their compelling and provocative study, Soma the Divine Mush- room of Immortality, they did so in support of a hypothesis that identified soma as a narcotic fungus (Amanita muscaria). While both of these au- thors insist that the Rg Veda never alludes to the creeping nature of soma's stems, a critical review of the Vedic record suggests otherwise. To be sure, the creeping nature of the soma plant is only implied in metaphorical terms, but as al-


ready noted, this is standard fare in the Vedic hymns. For example, one hymn refers to Soma as an immortal serpent that slips from his ancient skin when he raises his brilliant pillar into the heavens,3' presumably implying that the plant produced an erect stem from a prostrate runner. Such an interpretation is certainly consistent with various hymns and commentaries of the ancient Satapatha Brahmana32 (ca. 8th c. BCE) that specifically identify Soma as a Vedic serpent known as Vrtra33 (Lahiri 1984), a chthonic god whose primary role in Indo-Aryan mythology is to imprison soma's invigorating pillars within his coiling body. Vrtra was recognized as a powerful underworld spirit that is vanquished by the powerful thunderbolts of the Devas (see below), strikes from which provoke the serpent to release the plant. And since Vedic verses refer to Vrtra as a creeping plant34 (vratati; Macdonell and Keith 1982), there is little reason to question the relevancy of classical allusions to soma's natural creeping habits (i.e., Srautasuitra Samhita; Wujastik 1998:176). In- deed, the Aryans occasionally described the Ve- das as the 'wisdom of a serpent' (sarpa-vidya).35

A critical examination of various refrains reveals that the plant probably produced procumbent shoots with prominent nodes and inter- nodes, as numerous verses refer to the 'jointed' character of the soma's stems36 (i.e., pdrvan, pd- rus; Falk 1989). Other hymns describe the distinctive nature of the plant's natural growth habit: i.e., "joint by joint, knot by knot"37 (Hille- brandt 1990). Although allusions of such type are clearly inconsistent with descriptions of soma's arrow-like (un-segmented) shoots, they may well apply to the plant's decumbent rhizomes or stolons.

Although stem characteristics have limited use in identifying a plant at a generic or species level, we are fortunate that numerous Vedic verses make repeated references to a plant structure that is much more useful in this regard, namely the 'flower', or adndhas38 (= anthos Gr., anthus L.). Hillebrandt (1990) was justified in assuming that soma was an angiosperm, as there can be no doubt that the flower belonged to the sacred plant (somasya andhas39) and had 'mad- dening' properties (anhaso made40). While it is difficult to understand why this particular feature of the mystery plant has been afforded so little attention by linguists, such has always been the case. In fact, Wasson (1967) was emphatic in

rejecting the possibility that soma was a flowering plant, as it naturally weakened his hypothesis that the 'soma plant' was a fungus. Never- theless, the Vedic record speaks for itself, and required of Wasson that he at least recognize that the bards made frequent reference to the plant's flowers: i.e., "It is as though the Aryans called Soma the (sic) flower" (Wasson 1967).

The flourishing boughs of soma were appar- ently colorful to the Aryan eye, as Vedic hymns often reach a lyrical crescendo when they proclaim the wondrous beauty of soma's golden4' (ha'ri, hiranya-rupa) and ruddy42 (aruna, arusa, phalguna) radiance. These specific hues do not call to mind, of course, the image of a photo- synthetic or woody stem, but there is widespread agreement that they relate to aerial portions of the plant's ascendant shoots. Soma's golden radiance established a basis for the god's intimate mythic and symbolic association with a Vedic sun-god by the name of Sarya,43 whose golden and ruddy orb mirrored the mythic image of the plant (Bhawe 1957). Vedic hymns frequently identify Soma as either a child of the sun44 or as the sun-god himself45 (Hillebrandt 1990; Wasson 1967), as he exhibited the aspect of a sun46 when he raised his golden eye upon an arrow's shaft47 and adorned his resplendent body with brilliant rays of gold48 (Wasson 1967). Poetic allusions of this type make no sense, of course, if one attempts to envisage the plant in terms of a pho- tosynthetic stem; but they do call to mind the image of a golden and red flower that has been raised upon a pillared shoot. Given the proba- bility that soma was an angiosperm, former identifications of the mystery plant as either a fungus or cone-bearing plant (i.e., Amanita and Ephedra; Nyberg 1995; Wasson 1967) are doubtful. There is also reason to doubt the relevancy of various narcotic plants that have en- tered into the debates, such as marijuana, Syrian rue, or ginseng, since none of these plants produces reed-like or creeping stems with milky la- tex,49 or resplendent, sun-like flowers.

Since the original composers of the Vedic hymns lived in temperate-montane regions of northwestern India, there is also reason to reject most of the tropical plant candidates that have been proposed over the years. Vedic verses make clear that the homeland of the Indo-Ary- ans was located in the Punjab of modem India and Pakistan (i.e., the panch-ab, or land of the 'Five Rivers'), where five major tributaries of


the Indus River convene to form the northwestern boundary of the Indian subcontinent. While it is generally acknowledged that the soma plant was likely a native plant of the Himalayan mountains (Hillebrandt 1990; Wasson 1967), and was specifically associated with montane habitats,50 Brough (1971) was correct in emphasizing that Soma must have lived in the valleys of the Indus, Sarasvati, Ganges and Jumna Riv- ers. Falk (1989) agreed that the soma plant must have grown in aquatic habitats, since hundreds of refrains refer to soma's habit of dwelling alongside river-banks,51 or indeed, within the waters of the Punjab's rivers,52 streams,53 and lakes,54 such as Lake Saryanavan55 ('Lake of Ar- rows' or 'Lake of Reeds'). Hence Soma was occasionally recognized as a 'child of the waters' (apam napat),56 a babe of the proverbial 'seven rivers',57 or a Lord of Rivers58 (Bhawe 1957). Vedic hymns also specify that Soma was the child of the mighty Sindhu59 (Indus River), a river whose name derives from the Sanskrit term for a 'drop' (indu) of soma.60 And as Brough (1971) would note, yet other rivers of the Punjab were named in honor of the sacred plant, such as the Amsumati River,6' whose name translates as 'River of Soma shoots', and the Rasa River,62 whose name refers to the 'essence' or 'juices' of the plant of the gods.

Since the soma plant was probably an aquatic angiosperm that bore the aspect of a sun, we may reasonably reject all but one of the aforementioned plant candidates that have been identified as soma candidates over the last two centuries. The eastern lotus East, or Nelumbo nucifera, as proposed by Spess (2000), is the only plant species that satisfies all of the mythical and metaphorical attributes of the Aryan's mystery plant in the Vedas, Brahmanas and Upanisads. Moreover, this is the only plant candidate proposed thus far that can claim a sacred status among Brahmanic and Zoroastrian communities. In short, the eastern lotus is a robust, aquatic that produces erect, lactiferous stalks (Fig. la, c). The plant's submerged rhizomes are decidedly jointed in character (Fig. Id) and bear a close resemblance to a creeping serpent, especially during the beginning of each growth cycle (Fig. lc). The plant's budding shoots exhibit the distinct aspect of an emergent arrow when they rise from their aquatic substrates (Fig. la), and each of these shoots eventually develops into a golden and ruddy blossom that bears the distinct as-

pect of a sun (Fig. lb). Lotus flowers are unique- ly distinguished in the plant kingdom by their presentation of an expanded, golden-pigmented receptacle that is brightly 'adorned with rays' of golden stamens inside a white, cream, or ruddy perianth. And to be sure, all of these characteristics are consistent with Aryan descriptions of soma.

Although our present understanding of the chemistry of Nelumbo nucifera is only cursory, preliminary investigations reveal that this plant species produces a variety of psychoactive com- pounds. Among these constituents are benzyli- soquinoline alkaloids, such as aporphine, proa- porphine, nuciferine (Gibbs 1974; Shamma 1972), which are structurally similar to opiate alkaloids of the poppy family: i.e., morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Aporphine invokes a variety of physiological reactions in animals, including emesis and euphoria in humans (Sham- ma 1972), and reduction of blood pressure in cats (Shamma and Moniot 1978). It is also noteworthy that apomorphines are thought to be the psychoactive agents in Nymphaea, several species of which have been employed for entheo- genic purposes by the Mayans of Mexico, Egyp- tians, and various peoples of the Near and Mid- dle East (Diaz 1975; Emboden 1981; McDonald 2002). Hence a preliminary chemical profile of Nelumbo is consistent with the hypothesis that Soma is the eastern lotus.

Nelumbo nucifera has a natural distribution that extends from the Volga River delta on the shorelines of the Caspian Sea to the eastern shores of Asia. This range encompasses and sur- passes the historical domains of prehistoric Ary- an communities. Furthermore, the plant is presently a dominant element in riparian and marshy vegetations of the Punjab, much as it was in the prehistoric past, as indicated in early Vedic scriptures63 and symbolic renderings of the plant species on ancient seals that trace from the Indus River civilization around the turn of the 2nd millennium BCE. There can be little doubt, therefore, that the plant played some sort of mythical and/or religious role in the distant past. More- over, the age of these seals correlates with the precise time and place of Indo-Aryan bards in the Punjab. One of these small but elaborate ob- jects of art portrays the sacred lotus in a highly stylized manner (Fig. 2a), emphasizing the plant's pillared stalk, reflexed petals (or persistent stamens following anthesis), and flattened,


Fig. 1. Morphology of the lotus. a. Like soma of the Vedas, the eastern lotus is an aquatic plant that produces upright, reedy, lactiferous, flowering stalks. Its large and showy flowers exhibit red and white petals, an expanded golden receptacle, and numerous golden stamens. Pokhara, Nepal. b. A full-blown lotus flower suggests the image of a radiant sun. c. Upright lotus stalks grow from a network of serpentine rhizomes. Modem Kashmiri natives harvest long runners of the plant to make starch-based glues. Dal Lake, Srinagar, India. d. The thickened, segmented rhizomes of Nelumbo suggest the 'nodes' or parva of soma.

orbicular receptacle with numerous ovarian pro- tuberances (Fig. la, b). We note that the plant shares a close symbolic relationship with a pair of horned dragons, the general character of which is consistent with mythical descriptions of dragons in Vedic64 and Zoroastrian mythology (see below). It is also noteworthy that these same prehistoric symbols, including the seven- leaved fig tree that overshadows the pillared lotus (Fig. 2a), are standard symbolic motifs in various Hindu and Buddhist schools of art and

mythology, the origins of which are traced directly from an early Aryan heritage (Coomar- aswamy 1928, 1931, 1979).

SOMA MOTIFS IN BRAHMANIC AND BUDDHIST ICONOGRAPHY

The botanical determination of soma as Nel- umbo nucifera is bound to have far-reaching im- pacts on our current understandings of eastern religion, as it is widely acknowledged that the image of the lotus has long served as a versatile


_;1_~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

Fig. 2. Symbolic and Metaphorical Attributes of Soma. a. An Indus River seal portrays the lotus plant as a pillared floral motif with a dimpled pericarp (Fig. lb) and reflexed petals (or possibly persistent stamens following anthesis). A seven-leaved fig tree forms a canopy over the plant. Two homed dragons extend from the plant's stalk in a symbolic context that is consistent with Vedic imagery. Indus River valley, ca. 2000 BCE. (National Museum, New Delhi). b. Buddhists adopted the image of a lotus pillar to symbolize the ancient Vedic concept of dharma. Note that the enlightening stalk produces a sun-like flower and two opposing serpentine tendrils. Sanci, N gate, Madhya Pradesh, India 110 BCE. c. A pyrogenic shaft with a three-tipped arrowhead symbolizes the divine powers and 'truth' (dharma) of the Hindu trinity. Note that the cosmic arrow emerges from a lotus flower and produces a blossom at its apex. Mulchok Temple, Patan, Nepal. 17th c. d. Ancient


and important religious symbol in the mythic and iconographic traditions of the East. Since the advent of literacy in India,65 the plant has symbolized the human achievement of spiritual enlightenment (bodhi), bliss (ananda), and tran- scendence (brahman or nirvana). Moreover, the plant has symbolized a host of Vedic gods and goddesses in the mythic traditions of the Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists. Given that the latter religions trace their origins from early Indo-Aryan traditions, we can only assume that this pre-eminent symbol of immortal life and spiritual emancipation derives from a common prehistoric source. This proposition is supported by the many and various ways in which disparate religious traditions of classical India have integrated the lotus into their mythic and iconographic traditions, and by the consistent manner in which the plant has been depicted as a flaming arrow, radiant pillar, solar orb, and immortal serpent over the ages.

To fully appreciate the close iconic and mythic connections between the lotus and soma, it is important to note from the outset that Brahmanic communities have never recognized a distinction between Vedic and 'Hindu' traditions of religion. Brahmins have always acknowledged the Vedas are fundamental to everything that they believe and practice.66 Furthermore, it is equally important to recognize that the soma-plant con- tinued to play an essential role in myths of the classical epics and Puranas in post-Vedic India (Panikkar 1977). For example, a popular section of the Mahabharata known as the Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Creator', ca. 1 st c. CE) makes clear that Visnu, the Vedic Father of the Hindu pantheon, was none other than Soma himself.67 Just as Vedic verses recognize Visnu as a lover of Soma68 and a revealer of the Vedas,69 the Ma- habharata (ca. 1st c. CE) recognize Visnu as a drinker of Soma70 and the primal source and material embodiment of the Vedas and the Upani- sads.7' Indeed, Visnu is explicitly identified as the "poured oblation" 72 which soma-drinkers seek to enter into paradise.73 Thus we can be

sure that the ancient gods and religious practices of the Vedic period were relevant to Indian my- thographers during the turn of the 1st century CE.

As a general rule, the gods of classical India are as intimately associated with the sacred lotus as the Vedic pantheon is associated with soma. This is clearly revealed in Puranic and epical tales that date from around the 5th century BCE, and no less so in the arts, which begin to leave their most revealing traces across the Indian landscape around the turn of the 2nd century BCE. It has long been recognized that Brahman- ic communities did not leave a substantial iconographic record of their gods until the Andhra and Gupta Periods (lst-5th c.; Lee 1994), and that the earliest known depictions of the Vedic pantheon occur initially among monastic caves and funerary mounds of Buddhist communities from the 3rd-lst centuries BCE (Harle 1987:26- 31; Lee 1994:87). The domination of Vedic gods among Buddhist sanctuaries at Sanci, Bharut, Mathura, Bhubaneswar, and Bhaja underscores the fact that the Aryan pantheon was no less relevant to Buddhist and Jain communities than it was to Brahmanic communities. This point of fact is also revealed in the oldest known bio- graphical accounts (2nd-Ist c. BCE) of the latest and most famous of Buddhas, Siddhartha Gota- ma, whose mythic character and pedigree is explicitly defined as Aryan. Siddhartha was born to the Saka clan (the Sacae of whom Herodotus speaks74) under the patronym of Gotama, indicating that he was a descendant of an important Aryan lineage that was responsible for the com- position of hundreds of Vedic hymns (i.e., the Gotamas; Macdonell and Keith 1982). One of the oldest known accounts of Siddhartha's fabulous life in the Buddhacarita (1st c. BCE) makes clear that the Prince's father was both a drinker of soma and a knower of bliss;75 hence the birth of the sovereign's divine son was likened to that of a Vedic god,76 both literally and figuratively (Coomaraswamy 1979). Numerous doctrinal texts of the same canon acknowledge

devotees of Suirya envisaged their sun-god's solar chariot wheel as a lotus flower. Konarak, Orissa, India. 13th century. e. The vajra or 'thunderbolt' of various Indian gods is symbolized by opposing lotus flowers. The perianths emit a three-dimensional trident from opposite ends of the bolt. Patan, Nepal. Medieval Period. f. Himalayan painters frequently associate lotus flowers with billowy clouds. Gods of Brahmanic and Buddhist traditions often drink the elixir of immortality on their floral throne. Kathmandu, Nepal. 20th c.


that Siddhartha lived in close contact with 'thir- ty-three' Devas and Asuras,77 and that the whole of the Vedic pantheon bore witness to the sage's 4great awakening' (mahasambodhi) on the day that he climbed upon his lotus-throne (i.e., the golden 'Wheel of Awakening', or bodhi-manda) to achieve enlightenment (Majjimha Nikaya 1.21; Bhikku Nanamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi 1995). Since that wondrous and auspicious day, the Buddha has been recognized by both Brah- manic and Buddhist traditionalists as an Aryan 'god of gods' (devati-deva).78

While many modern historians are inclined to recognize Siddhartha Gotama as an historical figure that reformed Brahmanic traditions by an atheistic approach to religion, such an outlook misses the spiritual significance of the famous sage on both mythic and historical grounds (Coomaraswamy 1979). It has been widely acknowledged, for example, that early 'aniconic' schools of Buddhist art employ Vedic themes, symbols and mythic imagery to illustrate the life-stages and spiritual achievements of Sid- dhartha's mystical life. This fact is clearly ex- emplified by the four famous gateways to an ancient Buddhist stupa at Sanci (1st c. BCE), which are covered with images of Vedic gods and goddesses and surmounted by numerous lotus columns (Fig. 2b). The latter images represent the abiding truth (dharma) and awakened mind (bodhi-citta; Foucher 1994; Harle 1987; Lee 1994) of an attained master of the universe (cakravartin). One observes two superimposed tridents (trisulas) upon the floral 'wheel of awakening', both of which symbolize the three fundamental principles of Buddhist tradition (i.e., triratna, or 'triple jewel'): namely the Bud- dha, his Truth (Dharma), and the Buddha's Mo- nastic Order (Sangha). Hence the image of the pillared lotus at Sanci is meant to embody the whole of early Buddhist beliefs and doctrines.

This ancient motif is essentially indistinguishable in form and function from early Brahmanic (or 'Hindu') symbols of dharma (Fig. 2c, 3b), the most popular of which portrays a pillared, blazing arrow that occasionally sustains itself within a full-blown blossom. It may be noted that this lotiformed pillar of truth sustains a full- blown flower as well, and that its general aspect is reminiscent of Soma's mythic nature as an arrow-like pillar of dharma (Fig. 2c). Since the flower also exhibits the symbolic brilliance of a sun, we are given to suspect that the sacred lotus

shares a close mythic and symbolic relationship with Soma. These undeniable connections are further reflected in the etymological relationship between the Sanskrit words for 'pillar' (dharu- na) and 'truth' (dhanna), both of which share the same word-root, dhr, meaning to 'prop' or 'support': i.e., Soma's sun-like prop of the heavens.

In classical Hindu mythology, Siva stands out among the Brahmanic pantheon as the principal wielder of the lotiformed trident (pillar of dharma). He employs this spiritual weapon to create and destroy delusions of the material world, thereby revealing the mysteries of his immortal soul (Brahman) and the Vedas. Indeed, various myths specifically identify the three-pronged weapon of Siva as a pillared sun, as soma, or indeed, as the lotus itself79 (Fig. 3b). Other tales identify Siva's flaming arrow as a 'phallus', or linga, whose cosmic shaft produces a 'semen' (retas) of cosmic proportions that bums with the energies of natural creation. Since classical texts specifically state that the retas of Siva is the seed of Soma,80 the consumption of which reveals the mystical secrets of the Vedas,8" we can be sure that the seminal essence of Siva is equivalent to the seminal essence of Soma.

When Siva wields this flaming trident as a weapon against the Asuras in classical Indian mythology, he often goes by the name of Sarva, or 'Archer'. And we can be sure that Siva's vegetative character derives in part from the mythic and organic nature of Soma, since soma-plants were occasionally called Sarva82 in the Vedas. Soma once shared his vegetative arrows with a variety of Vedic gods, the most pre-eminent of which, Indra,83 was identified as both a storm- god and sun-god. Indra would employ his triply- tipped shafts84 (trikakubh; Coomaraswamy 1979) to pierce the bodies of dragons, thereby liberating Soma from the underworld of the serpent-demons. Yet Indra's three-pronged shafts were also said to arise from the earth in a jointed configuration85 and to glitter in the air,86 in a manner that smacks of Soma's physical nature.87 Indeed, one hymn draws no distinction between these two gods (i.e., Indra-Soma88), and therefore leads us to assume that Indra's potent trident must relate in some way to Soma's immortalizing stalks. This assumption finds support in various Brahmanic schools of art, which conventionally portray the arrows of Indra, Siva, and Soma as stylized lotus stalks (Fig. 5b, 2c,


3b, 4b, respectively). And in the case of Indra, one notes that the god's three-pronged arrowhead is a stylized lotus flower, and that the floral prongs of the brilliant weapon impale the body of a three-headed Vedic dragon known as ViK- varapa (Fig. Sb). By this cosmic act, Soma's golden flowers are released from the bodies of diabolical serpents that haunted the banks of the Punjab's rivers89 (Lahiri 1984).

The vegetative arrows of Indra and Soma are often shot from an elixir-laden chariot that belonged to a famous Vedic sun-god: Surya.90 This mythic theme relates, no doubt, to the fact that Soma was a child of this eminent sun-god, and that both of these deities shimmered in gold when they ascended from the dark recesses of the Earth on a vegetative axis.9' This sun-and- flower relationship is further developed by identifying Soma as the chariot itself,92 a theme which seems to imply that the vehicle of the sun was a plant structure. This allusion is certainly consistent with artistic impressions of Suirya's golden chariot at the famous temple of the sun at Karnak (Orissa, Indian), where the celestial vehicle of the Aryan pantheon is fashioned in the image of a lotus-hubbed wheel of creation (Fig. 2d, Sa).

The sun is only one of various celestial bodies that share close symbolic associations with Soma in Vedic mythology. Other hymns describe Soma as a lightning bolt (vajra or vid- yut),93 whose shafts of gold were shot into aquatic dragons94 to provoke the release of soma's invigorating shoots.95 Variations on this mythic theme pervade the Rg Veda, and have long been the source of conjecture and contentious discussions. Indeed, it has been widely recognized that this same motif is a standard theme in the mythic traditions of Semitic and Indo-European cultures from Europe to southern Asia. While most Vedic commentators interpret this mythic image as an allusion to the opening of rain-clouds, or perhaps the swelling of meandering (i.e., serpentine) rivers (Hillebrandt 1990; Lahiri 1984; Mac- donell 1995; Oldenberg 1993), neither of these explanations accounts for the integral role of Soma in this cosmic act. Nor do they explain the peculiar manner in which Soma's bolt emerges from rivers and lakes,96 or how a lightning bolt could possibly spill forth ambrosia (amrta).97

One can only assume, nevertheless, that the golden vajras of Soma and Indra relate in some obscure way to the plant of the gods.98

Although the physical attributes of a lightning bolt do not readily call to mind the image of a flower, this is precisely how Brahmanic and Buddhist schools of art have portrayed the vajras of Soma, Indra, and various Buddhas. Ico- nographers of both religious traditions depict the lightning bolt of Aryan gods as a double-ended lotus blossom, the opposing perianths of which produce either three or four99 rays of light (Fig. 2e, 5b). This motif seems to mirror the mythic image of Indra and Soma's triply-tipped shafts of vegetative light,100 and therefore implies that the cosmic arrow, invincible bolt, and sacred flower are homologous attributes. Since lightning bolts are normally associated with clouds and storms rather than rivers and lakes, we might expect soma to share some sort of mythical relationship with these specific atmospheric forces. Indeed, the Vedas assert that that Soma was born from clouds,101 or that he robed his golden body in clouds when he attained his lofty fame.102 In so doing, he fecundates the Earth with a generous outpouring of amrta.103

As might be expected, only one plant has ever been associated with clouds in the arts of Hindu and Buddist peoples, the sacred lotus. This association is commonly encountered in lotus mandala paintings of Brahmanic and Buddhist communities in the Himalaya Mountains, both of which traditions portray Indra (Vajradhara, or 'Bearer of the Bolt') and other Aryan sun- gods as lotus-throned, cloud-born Devas (Fig. 2f). Indra often displays a golden bolt in one of his hands and a bell in the other, so as to identify his floral throne as both the source of the bolt and the cosmic womb of creation (respectively). The physical union of the bolt and bell, like the conjugal union of the god and goddess, results in a copious outpouring of lotus nectar and the creation of life on earth. While Indra attains bliss through the release of his seed into his consort's flower, the goddess attains bliss by drinking a cup of her god's invigorating seed (i.e., the nectar of the gods). Although this fertility symbol is most frequently encountered in medieval and modem paintings of Himalayan communities, it clearly traces from the Atharva Veda, which originally recognized Soma as a bolt-bearing,'04 celestial spirit that spilt his cosmic seed into a golden 'womb of plenty'. 105

The soma-laden bolts of Soma and Indra play a dual role in mythic traditions of the Aryans, in the sense that they spell doom for serpentine


r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ N _ a

Fig. 3. Artistic Renderings of Vedic Gods. a. Agni, the Vedic god of spiritual fire (tapas), is often portrayed as a brahmin with flaming shoulders. Like Indra (Fig. 5b), he displays a lotiformed trident, vanquished serpent, and a soma-vessel thiat is decorated with lotus petals. Adinath Temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. 10th c. b. Indo-malayan sculptors identified Siva's burning trident as a flaming lotus flower. Java, ca. 12th c. (National Museum, Jakarta). c. Varuna mounts a vanquished dragon (makara or vr-tra) as he displays his weapons of choice: the 'noose of Varuna' and a handful lotus rhizomes. A vessel of soma is displayed in his


Fig. 4. Artistic Renderings of Vedic Gods. a. Iconographic interpretations of Soma-Candra in India are almost indistinguishable from those of Brahma, the lotus-born Creator of the cosmos. With a soma-vessel in hand, Soma's golden body personifies the golden receptacle of a lotus flower. Orissa, India. 13th c. (British Museum). b. Brahmanic artisans of Nepal portray Soma-Candra in the image of Brahma in the Mahabharata. Soma's floral chariot is driven by a team of Vedic geese (hamsas). Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. 16th c. (Bakhtapur Museum).

Asuras and yet everlasting life for the gods of creation. In a similar vein, Soma himself serves a dual, if not paradoxical, purpose in Vedic mythology, as he is both a serpent and a serpent- slayer. These mythical characteristics recall that manner in which Soma assumed the form of an ancient serpent (sarpa or vrtra'06) in order to erect his pillar of the sun.'07 In this context, he is aptly described as an 'Asura that finds the light'.'08 But in other hymns Soma is an invincible serpent-slayer, or Vrtrahan,'09 intent on vanquishing broods of malevolent serpents that imprison his golden shoots in the underworld of

rivers and streams"0 (Lahiri 1984). In the latter context, the creeping demons are described as irreligious (dbrahman or adkarman) spirits and incorrigible opponents of the heroic Devas (dad- evayu; Hillebrandt 1990). Although many commentators have been frustrated by these contrad- ictive themes, the paradox is resolved by alternative Vedic verses that describe the vrtras as creeping plants"' (vratati; Macdonell and Keith 1982; Fig. Ic, d).

This novel interpretation of Aryan dragons is entirely consistent with visual interpretations of these serpent-gods in the arts of India and South-

lower hand. Adinath Temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. 10th c. d. Sarasvati, the riverine mother of Soma in the Vedas, is conventionally depicted as a voluptuous lotus-nymph. Note that she presents a cluster of lotus rhizomes and flowering shoot in her upper hand and a lotiformed soma-vessel in her lower hand. Pailu, Rajasthan. 12th c. (National Museum, New Delhi).


Fig. 5. Vedic Gods in the Arts of India a. Srya dnves his floral chariot with a team of seven horses. His ascent to the heavens bnings life to a pair of lotus flowers. Bihar, India. 12th c. (Victoria Albert Museum). b. In keeping with Vedic mythology Brahmanic communities of medieval India portrayed Indra as serpent-slaying storm-god. His lotiformed bolt impales a three-headed serpent known as VKvarfipa in Vedic mythology. Adinath Temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. 10th c.

east Asia; the oldest known renderings are encountered among the oldest known Buddhist sanctuaries of Sanci and Bharut (3rd-2nd c. BCE). Here the bodies of dragons are invariably depicted as lotus rhizome: i.e., with segmented stems, paired stipules, localized root scars, and erect flowering shoots (Bosch 1960; Coomaras- wamy 1931). Variations on these early interpretations of the mystical serpent are also encountered among abandoned Hindu and Buddhist temples of post-classical origin in India (Camp- bell 1982; Fig. 5), Indochina (Fig. 6a, b, 7, 8a), and Indonesia (Bosch 1960; Fig. 4, 5, 30, 31). A typical rendering of the dragon by the Khmer portrays a multi-headed cobra that disgorges a continual trail of lotus stems and flowers from

his mouth (Fig. 6b). Each hood of the dragon displays a lotus medallion, presumably to imply that a flower is born each time the immortal serpent raises one of his heads.

In classical mythology, these mysterious serpents were often identified with the ophidian aspect of Visnu, a Vedic god and close ally of Soma during prehistoric times, who eventually assumed Lordship over the Brahmanic pantheon by the turn of the 5th century BCE. Like Vedic Soma, Visnu was recognized as both a serpent and serpent-slayer, as well as a pillar of the sun, golden eye of the sun, cosmic charioteer, cosmic archer, primordial source of the sacred lotus, amrta, and so on. Hence one is inclined to assume that Visnu was recognized as a reincar-


IF.~~~~~~~F

4~~~~~~~

, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Fig. 6. Symbolic and Metaphorical Attributes of Soma. a. Visnu's 'navel of immortality' is often identified

as a flowering lotus stalk. His cosmic umbilicus supports Brahma, Visnu, and Siva: the gods of birth, existence and death (respectively). Banteay Samrei, Cambodia. 12th c. b. Mythical serpents (nagas or vrtras) that decorate the borders and portals of Khmer temples often disgorge a continuous procession of lotus shoots from their mouths. Muang Lam, Thailand. 12th c. c. Garuda is portrayed in Nepal as lotus-born sun-god. His cosmic perch is rooted in a soma vessel. Bakhtapur, Nepal. d. Garuda delivers a vessel of soma to the Devas after vanquishing a pair of dragons. Note that the famous 'bearer of oblations' ascends to the heavens on a lotus flower and that he wears a skirt that is made from lotus petals. Chusya Baha Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal. 17th c.


Fig. 7. The Khmer envisage Indra as a vajra-wielding, serpent-slaying sun-god. Note that the serpent is a lotus rhizome which is born from, and consumed by, the burning face of 'Time' (K&la). Banteay Srei Temple, Cambodia. 10th c.

nation of Soma. A large part of Indian mythology pertains to the myriad reincamations or avataras ('descents': Panikkar 1977) of Visnu, whose stories relate in one way or another to the annual appearance and disappearance of a 'lotus-cycle' (padma-kalpa). The most primordial of Visnu's incarnations is called the padma-avatara, or 'lotus-descent', in which the Lord of creation appears on earth as a cosmic flower. This vegetative incarnation is soon followed by a series of different animal avatars, including a fish, turtle, pig, lion, and man (Krisna and Rama), all of which reveal, in one way or another, the truth of the Vedas and the nature of the Creator's immortalizing nectar.'12 Following each of these material incarnations, Visnu transforms himself into a seven-headed serpent. This creature is known as Sesa, 'the Remainder', to identify this recurrent aspect as the 'residue' of a former lotus-cycle. The ophidian form of Vis-

nu is born time and again from his aquatic abyss, giving life to a host of lotiformed gods (i.e., his scions) that enter and exit the cycles of life in an everlasting 'stream' or 'fluxion' (samsdra) of material permutations (i.e., avataras). While all of these creatures and gods may come and go within the realms of materiality, the Cosmic Soul (Brahman or Atman) of the Universe re- sides eternally in the lotus groves of paradise.

This cosmic image of creation is frequently portrayed in the arts by surrounding the image of a lotus flower with lotus rhizomes or inter- linking dragons. An alternative interpretation portrays Visnu as a cosmic man with a lotus shoot emerging from his immortal navel (Coom- araswamy 1931). In Burma (Thaw 1972) and Cambodia (Fig. 6a) these three symbolic elements often convene to produce a trifurcating lotus-tree of life, each branch of which sustains a member of the Hindu trinity: namely Brahma,


Visnu, Siva. These three gods represent the basic stages of material existence-birth, existence, and death (respectively)-and therefore exem- plify the three sequential stages of a lotus-cycle. Although this particular image is far removed from Visnu's original homeland, and was elaborated almost three-thousand years after Visnu's appearance among the Indo-Aryans, it remains faithful to ancient Aryan imagery that relates to Soma. For Soma, the original Father of the gods, is also a pillar of solar light, golden and red flower, cosmic dragon, immortal navel,113 primordial man,'14 and Lord of Brahmins. 15

Cambodia's peculiar visualizations of Visnu are based primarily on a Puranic myth entitled the Padma-avatara, or 'Lotus-incarnation' .16 In this tale, Visnu separates the realms of earth and skies with his pillared umbilicus, and then brings life to the world by transforming his navel cord into a cosmic lotus. As Visnu's cosmic bud (or egg) begins to awaken at the dawn of creation, it reveals a four-headed, golden Brahmin within its perianth, the 'first-born' creator of time and living beings known as Brahma. This golden man is born with the belief that he is the Creator of the cosmos, but then becomes confused when he encounters Visnu residing at the opposite end of his lotus stalk in the form of a serpent. After a brief and heated argument, both gods recognize that they are simply different aspects of the same primeval 'Soul' (i.e., Atman), a term that originally applied to Soma in the Rg Veda."17 The tale of Brahma's discovery of his serpentine self harkens back, of course, to Vedic mythology, which identifies Soma as a primeval serpent, the separator of the Earth from the Sky,118 the first-born 'Brahman of the Gods',119 and a golden-bodied flower that gives life to the Aryan cosmos.

Mythical portrayals of Visnu in classical mythology as both a serpent and serpent-slayer are also themes that clearly trace from Vedic periods. In the latter role, Visnu often assumes the form of solar eagle known as Garuda, in which guise he seizes the writhing bodies of aquatic dragons to dispossess them of their immortalizing nectar. This classical avian figure is clearly identical to the 'fair-plumed' (suparna) sun-bird of Vedic mythology that once winged his way across the Aryan skies120 in a search for soma, namely Garutmat. And in like manner, he must also be identical to Soma, since the sacred plant of the Indo-Aryans was also likened to a fair-

plumed121 plant, or indeed, a solar-bodied rap- tor122 that extracted the nectar of the gods from the bodies of aquatic dragons.'23 Just as Vedic Garutmat perched his flaming body upon a cosmic pillar to view the Aryan world with an all- seeing, solar eye,'24 Soma placed his golden eye upon a golden pillar'25 to peer across the four quarters of the earth. Thus, Garutmat originally represented a zoomorphic aspect of Soma, whose flaming feathers are homologous with the feather-like petals'26 of Soma's sun-like eyes (Fig. la, b).

In classical and medieval mythology of India, Garuda conserved his traditional roles as a 'De- stroyer of Serpents' and 'Stealer of Elixir'"27 (Naganta and Amrtaharana, respectively; Dan- ielou 1991, but he was better known during this later period as an avian avatar'28 or 'vehicle' (va- hana) of Visnu. These mythic images are consistent in every respect with iconographic interpretations of the solar eagle throughout Asia, which customarily associate the dragon-slaying raptor with a pillared lotus stalk (Fig. 6c). In Nepal, for example, Garuda's floral perch is rooted in an 'over-flowing vessel' (purna-kumbha) of elixir (Fig. 6c; the equivalent of Vedic Soma's 'golden vessel' ;129 Hillebrandt 1990), presumably to identify the nectar of the gods with the nectar of the lotus. It is also notable that the quasi-personified raptor and his floral podium are both guilded in gold, ostensibly to imply the equivalency of the flower's petals with the bird's 'fair wings'. This same symbolic relationship is observed in a narrative rendering of the avian sun-god in the nearby temple of Chu- sya Baha of Nepal, where the famous bearer of oblations lifts off his lotus pillar with a soma vessel (the Vedic kalasa) in his hand (Fig. 6d) and two writhing dragons beneath his feet. It is noteworthy that this image pertains specifically to a detailed account of Garuda's life in the Ma- habharata,'30 but it holds just as true to prehistoric accounts of Garutmat's flights over the Punjab.

VEDIC GODS IN THE ARTS OF CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL INDIA

As mentioned earlier, the gods of birth, existence, and death in classical mythology-Brah- ma, Visnu, and Siva-share control over the Ve- dic pantheon by governing the timing of recurrent lotus cycles (padma-kalpa).'3' 'Lotus-born' (Padma-yoni) Brahma initiates each cycle of life


4

Fig. 8. Extracting Soma in Myth and Ritual. a. Devas and Asuras chum for the elixir of immortality by coiling the body of a serpent around a lotiformed mountain (Mount 'Kalafa' or 'Soma-vessel'). A vessel of amrita is observed on the back of Visnu's turtle incarnation (Kurma). Angkor, Cambodia. 12th c. (Guimet Museum). b. The mouth of Rahu disgorges soma into an 'over-brimming vessel' (purna-kumbha) of the Devas. Note that the urn is fashioned in the image of a flower and that a lotus flower floats upon the elixir of immortality. Dasavatara Temple, Deogarh, Madhya Pradesh, India. 6th c. c. Massive mortars and pestles are often placed inside the inner sanctums of Hindu temples. The pestle is symbolic of Siva's immortal phallus and his creative


by awakening his golden body from within a cosmic flower (Fig. 6a, 8a); Visnu sustains each lotus-cycle by supporting the floral womb of Brahma upon his pillared navel cord (Fig. 6a, 8a); and Siva draws each lotus-cycle to a close by annihilating Brahma's floral throne with the burning energies of his self-consuming fires (Fig. 2c, 3b), thereby setting the stage for another round of creation. Accordingly, the Hindu trinity embodies the three sequential stages of a lotus growth cycle, or three aspects (tri-murti) of a Universal Creator (Brahman or Atman). This same primordial soul, or 'creative principle', was originally recognized in Vedic verses by the name of Visvakarman ('All-maker'),'32 Hiranyagarbha ('Golden-womb' ),133 or Tad Ekam ('That One').'34 All of these titles refer to the same self-created demiurge which produced being (sat) from non-being (asat) in the form of a 'germ', 'navel', 'pillar' or 'sun'. As is now apparent, all of these attributes and roles were also shared by Vedic Soma, yet another name for the ancient 'Lord of Creation'.

The rise of Visnu in the ranks of the Vedic pantheon during the classical period did not por- tend the obsolescence or disappearance of Soma's ancient associates. Although many new and distinctive gods and goddesses appear on the mythic scene, almost all of them descend from Vedic gods and goddesses. Soma continues to provide the Devas and Asuras with their yearly allotments of nectar in classical Indian mythology (Macdonell 1995; Mani 1975), and he continues to fulfill this role by assuming the mythic image of either a sun or moon (Sarya or Candra,'36 respectively; Macdonell 1995; Hille- brandt 1990). Indeed, iconographic portrayals of Soma-Candra in Medieval India envisage the god as a lotus-born Brahmin'37 who carries a vessel of elixir to the heavens (Fig. 4a). This perspective compares closely with Nepalese interpretations of the god (Fig. 4b), which envi- sion the vegetative Moon-god as a lotus-charioteer. We note that the god drives a team of aquatic fowl (hamsas or 'geese'), these being recognized as avian avatars of Soma in the Rg

Veda.'38 We also note that a pair of Devas have released their cosmic arrows into a labyrinth of lotus rhizome that surround the floral chariot, ostensibly to liberate a host of lotus-throned De- vas. While this particular rendering of Soma seems to mirror the mythic image of Brahma in the Mahabharata (i.e., a lotus-born god that drives a goose-drawn chariot),139 it also suggests that Nepalese artisans were well aware of a close symbolic relationship between Brahma, Soma- Candra, and the sacred lotus.

Anthropomorphic renderings of Soma on his lunar chariot are almost indistinguishable from contemporaneous portrayals of the sun-god known as Suirya, as both deities are distinguished by their floral chariots (i.e., as a podium) and the conventional habit of upholding a pair of lotus stalks (Fig. 4b, 5a). The vegetative character of their celestial vehicles maintains their ancient Aryan image, as the chariots of Soma and Suirya were originally described as one-axled, three-hubbed wheels140 that served as vessels for the nectar of immortality'41 (i.e., = three concentric rings of petals, stamens and ovoid receptacle; Fig. lb, 2b). All of these symbolic attributes are incorporated into a 12th century rendering of Suirya's solar vehicle (Fig. 5a), along with the standard team of seven horses.'42 This same solar car was also commandeered by Indra in Vedic mythology, suggesting that this famous wielder of the bolt was also a sun-god. Like Soma, Indra ascended into the heavens on the chariot of Suirya to shoot his "feathered shafts" 141 (i.e., Soma's arrows) into the mouths of dark and surly serpents. This ancient mythic image is portrayed by numerous renderings of Indra in the medieval period of India, one of which places a stylized lotus stalk in one hand of the god and a three-pronged, floral bolt in the other (Fig. 5b). We note that a three-headed dragon (i.e., Vedic Visvarapa'44) has been im- paled by the god's trident, thus affecting the release of soma from the underworld. This classical Indian image compares closely with Cam- bodian interpretations of Indra, which similarly hold true to ancient Vedic concepts of the fa-

seed (soma), while the mortar is symbolic of his consort's floral womb (yoni) of creation. The 'churning' of these organs produces the elixir of immortality. Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India. 11th c. (National Museum, New Delhi). d. Javanese Brahmins decorated their mortars and pestles with lotus flowers so as to equate the immortalizing seed of Siva with lotus nectar. Java, Indonesia. ca. 14th c. (National Museum, Jakarta).


mous storm-god. In one classic Khmer design, Indra assumes a meditative 'lotus-position' on a 'lion-faced' (simha-mukha; or 'sun-faced', sarya-mukha) god of 'Time' (Kala; Fig. 7). The face of the lion is symbolic of the sun, yet one also observes that the burning face represents the head of a lotus-bodied serpent. As Indra raises his bolt in victory, two immortal serpents dis- tend their lotus-navelled bodies in compliance to his will, and release the nectar-bearing flowers from the underworld. Indra's flaming trident emerges from each of the serpent's dangling flowers.

The Rg Veda identifies yet another important Aryan divinity with the sun and Soma, namely Agni, the god of 'Fire' (Fig. 3a). This god's mythic form and functions are essentially identical to those of Soma (Brough 1971; Doniger 1981; Keith 1989; Macdonell 1995), for he too is a cosmic archer,145 golden pillar,146 brilliant sun,'47 golden Brahmin,'48 'bearer of oblations',149 and 'child of the waters'.'50 And not unlike his vegetative ally, Agni is a vegetative (creeper' that hides within watery substrates'5' of his ancient mother, the Earth (i.e., Bhu).152 When time is nigh for his body to shine with the brilliance of the sun, he arises into the heavens with sharpened, flaming shafts,'53 and then kindles himself in the guise of a golden'54 and ruddy scion.'55 Agni is god paradox, as he lives part of his life as an 'aquatic embryo' (apam garbha'56) and another part as a burning sun.'57 None of these characteristics can distinguish him, however, from Soma, as Agni is Soma.'51' Since Vedic verses also assert that Agni hides himself in lotus plants along riverbanks,'59 we can only deduce that Soma and Agni represent deified aspects of this celebrated plant.

Like Soma, Agni is also described in terms of a golden sage (rsi) or Brahmin'60 that basks in the golden aura of his spiritual fires (tapas).'6' This archaic image is consistent with iconographic impressions of Brahma, all Buddhas, as well as Agni himself (Fig. 3a). In the latter case, we note that the ancient Aryan god of fire is enveloped by flames that arise from his pyrogenic shoulders; and like Indra, he wields a lotiformed shaft in one hand and a vanquished three-headed dragon in the other (i.e., Vi?varapa, 162 a Vedic victim of Agni and Indra). He also displays a soma-vessel (kalasa) that is decorated on its outer face with lotus petals, ostensibly to

signify his possession of lotus nectar (i.e., amrta).

Medieval conceptions of Agni in the plastic arts are indistinguishable from those of Siva during the same time period (Fig. 3b), and therefore suggest that Siva is a derivative form of Agni- Soma. This deduction is confirmed by the fact that Siva often goes by the name of Rudra in classical Hindu mythology, and that Rudra was originally recognized as an ally of Soma and Agni in the Rg Veda.'63 In fact, Rudra was specifically identified as a destructive aspect of Soma himself (Rudra-Soma'64). Derived myths of classical origin usually identify Siva-Rudra as either an agent or alter-ego of Visnu and Brah- ma, in which role he is prone to destroy Asuras with his blazing, lotiformed trident (Fig. 2c, 3b). Since Siva represents the destructive aspect of Visnu, it is not surprising that this god reveals himself in a number of animal forms, the most prominent of which is a lotus-faced serpent.'65 In this guise, Siva occasionally assumes the titles of various Vedic dragons, such as Visvaru- pa, Sarpa, Bala, and Aja-ekapad.'66 But Siva- Rudra also maintains his age-old role as a dragon-slayer,'67 in which context he is openly identified as an aspect of Soma, Agni, Sarva, and Varuna.'68

Of the latter gods, Vedic Varuna is particular- ly worthy of note, as he was originally identified as an Asuran169 (as opposed to Devic) ally of Rudra.170 Varuna is a riverine spirit that was lauded for his assistance to Rudra and yet other Devas for supporting Soma's pillar of truth"7' in the midst of rivers.172 Since Varuna sustained a vegetative summit (vanasya stupam)'73 that opened a pathway to the Sun,'74 it comes as little surprise that this famous 'Lord of Waters' (Apampati) was also identified in Vedic verses as an aspect of Soma.'75 Nevertheless, Varuna often distinguishes himself as a unique and distinctive spirit by his particular choice of weapons-the pas'a, or 'noose' '76-which he uses to bind serpent-demons in the deep as he raises Soma's pillar of truth. In classical and medieval iconography, Varuna conventionally mounts the back of an aquatic dragon (makara) to indicate his prowess over the serpent-clans (Fig. 3c). He often displays a ropy 'noose' in one hand and a cluster of lotus rhizomes in the other, so as to imply the symbolic equivalency of these weapons of divine warfare. In this specimen, he also


possesses a soma-vessel, indicating his victory over the dragons.

Varuna is not the only divinity that mounts the back of aquatic dragons, as this station is also shared by a variety of Brahmanic river-goddesses, such as Sarasvati (Fig. 3d), Ganga (Gan- ges), and Yamuna (Jumna). All of these rivers were worshipped in Vedic mythology,'77 but only Sarasvatl appears distinctly as a goddess during prehistoric times. She was indirectly recognized as a mother-figure of Vedic Soma,'78 Agni,179 and Indra,'80 in the sense that she nur- tured their divine 'germs' (garbha)'8' in her waters. Other verses imply that she bestowed immortality on these golden heroes, as her breasts flowed with the nectar of immortality.'82 More- over, she bestowed ecstasy on Aryans that practiced the soma sacrifice on her hallowed banks. Classical and medieval myths generally identify this goddess as the consort of Brahma and the mother of the Vedas (Washburn 1986), neither of which roles is out of keeping with her Vedic persona. Although most iconographic impressions of Sarasvati date from the medieval period of Indian history, these depictions invariably portray her with Vedic attributes. A 12th century rendering of the goddess in western India inten- tionally equates the contents of her voluptuous breasts with the nectariferous contents of her sacred flowers (Fig. 3d). And like Varuna during this same time period (Fig. 3c), she holds a cluster of budding lotus rhizomes in one of her hands and tablets of the Vedas in another. Her soma-vessel is decorated on its outer surface with lotus petals to emphasize a connection between the cosmic flower and immortalizing nectar. All the while, her sumptuous body is illu- minated by the golden light of a full-blown lotus flower.

THE SOMA SACRIFICE IN MYTH With the foregoing, it is increasingly apparent

that most members of the Vedic pantheon were conceived in the Aryan imagination as deified and/or personified aspects of the sacred lotus. Yet these same gods and goddesses were also perceived as distinctive agents that sacrificed the plant (their own identity) on their own behalf. This recurrent theme is embodied in the character of Soma himself, as he is explicitly identified as both the sacrifice and the sacrificer.'83 This pervasive paradox in Brahmanic mythology is at the root of all that is considered mystical

in eastern religion, and is best revealed in tales that account for the sacrifice of soma. This general theme forms the basis of a popular tale in the Puranas entitled the 'Churning for Nectar' (Amrta-manthana),'84 and describes the peculiar manner in which the Devas and Asuras once co- ordinated their oppositional efforts to achieve immortality (amrta). It is not by coincidence that the title of this myth borrows the archaic Vedic term for 'churning' (mantha; Macdonell and Keith 1982), which relates to the use of mortars and pestles by Aryan priests to extract the psychotropic saps of soma's milky stalks.'85 In a mythical context, the gods accomplish this feat by wrapping the body of a cosmic dragon (Va- suki by name, a material manifestation of Vis- nu'86) around a lotiformed mountain (i.e., Soma'87) that has arisen from the navel of Vis- nu.'88 They then churn their Creator's 'milky ocean' for ambrosia by tugging at opposite ends of the serpent's body.

Per the usual, the gods must initially over- come a series of obstacles, but not without the indispensable assistance of their Creator. In this case, the massive mountain proves much too large and unwieldy for the Devas and Asuras to manage by themselves. Hence Visnu transforms himself into a turtle (kurma) to support the floral mountain upon his carapace, and then into a cosmic man (purusa) so as to steady the mountain's stalk with an outstretched arm. Once the mystical mountain has been stabilized, the gods of the earth and sky proceed to churn the milky ocean for a generous outpouring of Visnu's immortalizing nectars. As the nectar begins to flow, a banquet is prepared for the benefit of the Devas. The first gods to arrive are the Sun (Surya) and Moon (Candra), soon followed by Indra, Garu- da, and the rest of Devas. When Padma ('Lotus- lady'), the consort and feminine alter-ego of Vis- nu, arrives, along with a host of dancing lotus- nymphs (i.e., apsarases, or 'Essence of the waters'; Danielou 1991), all the gods begin to rejoice in song and dance. While a copious outpouring of elixir fills their goblets, they raise their chalices and pay obeisance to Visnu, Brah- ma, and Siva for the gift of immortal life.

Visual interpretations of this colorful tale among the famous ruins of Cambodia make clear that the immortalizing nectar of the gods is a byproduct of Visnu's lotiformed mountain (Fig. 8a). As the serpent's massive body is grasped from opposite ends by teams of Devas


and Asuras, Brahma assumes his standard 'lotus position' on top the golden mountain. The Sun and Moon ascend to heavens, and dancing troops of apsarases fill the skies to welcome the rest of the Devic host. All of these gods can be traced, of course, from prehistoric hymns, including the famous apsarases, or 'lotus- nymphs', hosts of which formerly danced with Soma in the lotus groves of the Punjab.189 And we can be sure that the gods have convened to drink lotus nectar, as a large vessel is observed at the base of the churning lotus stalk.

The long and complicated myth of the 'Great Churning' includes a number of intriguing sub- plots and allegorical themes that relate in various ways to the soma sacrifice. One of these epi- sodes describes how an underworld figure by the name of Rdhu ('Seizer') succeeds in dispossess- ing the Devas of their nectar by disguising himself as the sun. With his true identity concealed, Rahu is able to enter into the company of the sky-gods and swallow a planetary body that serves as a vessel for the nectar of the gods: the Moon (Candra). When the Devas are deprived once again of immortal life, Visnu is called upon for assistance. In this instance, the Creator of the cosmos appears on the scene with golden, blazing disk (cakra) in hand, and decapitates the gluttonous fiend with his invincible weapon. This act results in a copious outpouring of soma from Rahu's sun-like head, and the subsequent rejuvenation of the Devas. While many mythologists have interpreted this fabulous tale as a colorful description of a lunar eclipse, such an explanation fails to account for the important role of nectar in the story. Nor does this explanation take into consideration that the sun and moon traditionally served as soma-vessels in Ve- dic mythology, which clearly has little to do with movements of planetary orbs. Indeed, renderings of this mythic theme in the arts of India rarely focus on planetary bodies, but mainly on lotus flowers and nectar. In central India, for example, Rahu's sun-like face surrenders a generous spout of nectar into an 'over-brimming vessel' (purna-kumbha), while a disembodied lotus flower is observed floating upon an overflow of nectar (Fig. 8b). Thus, it would seem that Rahu's consumption of the moon is symbolic of lotus anthesis: the radiate configuration of golden ray- like stamens engulfing a golden moon-shaped seed receptacle (Fig. lb).

THE SOMA SACRIFICE IN RITUAL

Historical accounts of the soma sacrifice by early Brahmanic communities are not as obscure and mysterious as mythical accounts of the process. Vedic songs and liturgical works of the Brahmanas make clear that Aryan priests used stone mortars, pestles, and pressing boards'90 to extract the inebriating saps of soma stalks (Hil- lebrandt 1990, I). There are also indications that crude extracts were filtered with wool and possibly given a heat treatment, as numerous litur- gies refer to the use of fire altars and cauldrons during the process.19' Soma's juices were then mixed with milk, yogurt, and/or roasted cere- als'92 in specialized vessels (kalasas or dron- as)'93 and drunk soon thereafter. Judging from archeological records of India and Southeast Asia, these procedures were employed by Brah- manic and Buddhist communities for thousands of years, as massive mortars and pestles have been discovered among the ancient temples of these religious sects from the Punjab to Indo- Malaya (Fig. 8c, d). These stone implements currently serve as altars for modem Brahmanic and Hindu communities, but they are much too large to have been used for decorative purposes alone. Some of them are more than 3 m wide and weigh in excess of several tons. The foun- dations of these sacrificial altars are normally cubical, flat-topped platforms, one side of which presents an elongated spout. The altar's base is traditionally referred to as the yoni, a term which connotes the sacrificial 'locus', 'womb', or 'dwelling place' of Soma'94 in Vedic songs (Pan- ikkar 1977). A cavity is hollowed out of the middle of the yoni, into which is fitted a cylin- drical or eight-angled pestle (Fig. 8c). The pestle is called a linga, or 'phallus', and, as earlier mentioned, is associated with the virile member of various Brahmanic gods, usually the phallus of Siva. In classical mythology, the linga con- tains a 'semen' or retas of cosmic significance, namely soma;'95 hence the symbolic joining of the linga and yoni, in both a mythical and ritu- alistic context, results in the generation of nectar (amrta).

Most lingas and yonis that are observed in modem museums and ancient temple sites were elaborated after the turn of the 4th century, but they all match closely in general form with early descriptions of Aryan altars during the turn of the 8th century BCE. The Satapatha Brahmana


states explicitly, for example, that the yoni was a four-cornered, stone altar, and that it served as a mortar during the soma sacrifice.196 Into this mortar was inserted a rounded pestle that was called the s<isna'97 (phallus), a Sanskrit term that is synonymous with linga. Various chapters of this ancient text reveal that Aryan altars were often decorated in the image of the sacrificial victim,'98 which implies that they were fashioned in the image of either a flower or stalk. Indeed, to the present day, there is only one plant that is associated with these ubiquitous altars, and that is the eastern lotus (Fig. 8c, d). The yoni is conventionally surrounded by lotus petals, into which is fitted a rounded pestle, a symbolic rep- resentation of a lotus seed receptacle. Most art historians identify the lower portion of the sacrificial altar as a symbol of the Earth, or one of several archetypal earth-goddesses in Hindu mythology, such as Padma ('Lotus-lady'), the consort of Visnu, Sarasvat4, the lotus-born consort of Brahma, or Kamala ('Lotus-girl'), the consort of Siva. All of these goddesses were identified directly or indirectly as the cosmic womb of the universe, or the womb of a soma sacrifice. Since the yoni was often described in Vedic terms as the receptacle of Soma's cosmic seed,'99 or as the birthplace of the sacrificial god,200 one may identify the mortar as the material and symbolic source of the 'essence' of creation. The churning of the phallus and womb produced the nectar of the goddess and seed of the phallus.

So far as we know, lingas and yonis are no longer employed in public arenas to press out the saps of flowering lotus shoots. Nevertheless, contemporary communities of Brahmanic and Buddhist priests still make use of these altars in a manner that clearly traces from the prehistoric past. Lingas and yonis are presently anointed with milk and/or red-pigmented liquids during specified days of the year, and usually in the context of their being washed with the nectar (or seed) of the gods. Such procedures are outlined in detail in the Satapatha Brahmana,20' and were evidently practiced by Brahmanic communities during the 11th century (Fig. 8c). It is still difficult to say, of course, just when and why the practice of the soma sacrifice was abandoned in the not so distant past (at least in public arenas), but the sheer size and frequent occurrence of lingas and yonis from northern India to South- east Asia leave little reason to doubt that these

ancient altars probably served as mortars and pestles during civilized periods of Asian history.

CONCLUSIONS A close examination of the mythic and artistic

records of India and Southeast Asia indicates that the famous inebriant of the ancient Aryans was the eastern lotus, Nelumbo nucifera. Vedic epithets, metaphors, and myths that describe the physical and behavioral characteristics of soma-as a sun, serpent, golden eagle, arrow, lightning bolt, cloud, phallic pillar, womb, chariot, and immortal navel-relate individually or as a whole to the eastern lotus. Since most Hin- du and Buddhist gods and goddesses trace their origins from the Vedas (or at least share a pedigree of Vedic origin), and have always shared close symbolic associations with Nelumbo, there is reason to believe the divine status of this symbolic plant derives from India's prehistoric past. This hypothesis will require confirmation by ad- ditional chemical and pharmacological analyses, preferably based on a broad sampling of wild and domesticated lotus populations that range from the northern shores of the Caspian Sea to the Pacific Ocean. Since many populations of this plant species exist as domesticated cultivars for the production of edible seeds, starchy rhizomes, ornamental qualities, and presumably, pharmacological properties, we are likely to encounter considerable chemical variation among the races. If and when Nelumbo proves to pos- sess psychoactive constituents that live up to the reputation of Soma, our current perspectives on the origin and development of eastern religions will require a thorough re-examination. For the eastern lotus has played an enduring role in the development of religion, myth and the arts of the ancient Orient, and was likely employed by Brahmanic, Buddhist and Zoroastrian communities before and after the dawn of civilization in Asia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Drs. Beryl Simpson and Tom Wendt of the Plant Resources Center at

the University of Texas, Austin, provided critical reviews on a preliminary draft of the manuscript. Gwen Gage assisted in preparing plates for the photographs (?) J.A. McDonald 1998). Early support of this study was provided by the Harvard University Herbaria and Arnold Arboretum.

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ENDNOTES

RV = Rg Veda (Griffith 1991); SB = Satapatha Brah- mana (Eggeling 1978); AV = Atharva Veda (Griffith 1995); TaiS = TaittirFya Sanhita (Keith 1967); MhB (Ganguli 1990); BhG Bhagavad Gita (Edgerton 1972)

1 RV IX.7.1; 35.6; 42.5; 48.4; 46.24 2 RV VII.99.5; VIII.85.9; X.138.3; X.170.2; AV

IV.10.5 3RV IX. 85.5; 61.17; 113.5 4 RV X.90.16; AV 111.8.1-3; 9.10-13; V.28.1-6;

VI.61; SB 1.1.1.13; 111.2.2.4; XI.1.1.1 5 RV IX.96.7-8; IX.42.4 6 RV IX.33.5; IX.74.3; IX.94.41 7 RV IX.106.8 8 RV VIII.48.3 9 RV IX.51.5 10 RV IX.21.2

RV IX.62.4 12 RV IX.32.6 13 RV IX.9.9 14 RV IX.4.1-10 (Panikkar 1977, p. 804) 5 RV 8.48.3

16 RV IX.9.9; SB IX.4.4.8 17 RV VIII.48.3 18 Chandogya Upanisad V.2.4-8 (Radhakrishnan 1992) 19 Brhadcranyaka Upanisad 111.5.1; Chandogya Upan-

isad VIIJ.2.5 (Radhakrishnan 1992) 20 SB 11.6.1.19-20; Svetd?vatara Upanisad VI.22;

Brhadiranyaka Upanisad 111.2.12-13 (Radhakrishnan 1992)

21 RV IX.2.5; IX.73.7; IX.87.2 22 RV 1.34.2; IV.13.5; IX.74.2; AV X.8.2-6 23 RV 11.14.2; 11.39.1; V.78.6-7; AV XII.1.24-29 24 RV IX.7.1; IX.35.6; IX.66.24 25 RV IV.24.9; IV.58.5; AV X.7.41 26 AV X.7.41 27 RV 1.179.4; 1.32.8; VIII.1.33 28 RV IX.50.1, IX.69.1; X.42.8; X.89.5 29 RV X.89.5 30 RV IX.50.1 31 RV IX.76.3; IX.86.44-46 32 SB 111.4.3.13; 111.9.4.2; IV.1.4.8; IV.4.3.4 33 SB 111.3.9.4; 111.4.3.13; 111.9.4.2; IV.1.4.8; IV.4.3.4:

TaiS VI.4.7 34 RV VIII.40.6 35 SB XIII.4.3.9 36 RV X.68.9 37 SB VII.4.2.14-15 38 RV 111.48.1; VIII.32.28; X.94.8 39 RV IX.61.10 40 RV VIII.32.28; VIII.33.4 41 RV IX.7.6; IX.8.6; IX.9.5 42 RV IX.72.1; IX.111.1 43 RV IX.54.2-3 44 RV IX.93.1 45 RV IX.54.3 46 RV IX.2.6; IX.18.1; IX.54.2; IX.84.2


47 RV IX.76.4; IX.9; IX.10.8-9; IX.97.46 48 RV 1.135.3; IX.5; IX.15.5; IX.86.32; 49 RV 11.13.2; VIII. 1.7, IX.6.6; IX.12.7; IX.54.1; TaiS

1.5.5; 1.5.10 50 RV V.43.4; IX.46.1; IX.71.4 5I RV VII.96.2; IX.67.32; X.30.12 52 RV 1.23.18-20; IX.12.3; AV XX.41.2; SB V.2.2.5 53 RV VIII.80.1 54 RV IX.54.2; IX.85.10 55 RV 1.84.14; VIII.6.38-39; IX.63.22; IX.113.1 56 RV IX.97.41 57 RV IX.86.36; X.13.5; IV.28.1 58 RV IX.15.5 59 AV XIX.44.5-6 60 RV 1.91.1; AV XIX.30.5 61 RV VIII.85.13-15 62 RV 1112.12; V.53.9; X.75.6 63 RV VII.33.11; VIII.1.33; AV IV.34.5 64 Chandogya Upanisad 111.1.1-4, 111.5.1, VIII.1.2;

Kaivalya Upanisad V.6 65 Brhaddranyaka Upanisad 11.3.6 Chandogya Upan-

isad 111.5.1 (Radhakrishnan 1992) 66 MhB 1.84,100; Garuda Purana 111.2.59-60, (Shas-

tri 1978-1980), etc. 67 BhG XV.13; MhB 1.25; XIII.149.7003 68 RV 1.154.5 69 SB V.5.5.1-6 70 MhB XIII.149.7003 71 BhG IX.17; X.22; XV.15; Subala Upanisad VI.1

(Radhadrishnan 1992) 72 BhG IX.16; MhB 1.25; XIII.149.6962 73 BhG IX.20 74 Histories IV. 113; VII.9,64 75 Buddhacarita 11.37 (Johnston 1992) 76 Buddhacarita 1.61 (Johnston 1992); Bkah-Hgyur II

(Rockhill, 1884: 17) 77 RV 1.34.11; 111.6.9; VIII.28.1; IX.92.4 78 Bkah-Hgyur II, Rockhill 1884:17; Saddharma Pun-

darika VII.31 79 MhB XIII.14 (Ganguli 1990, 10:57) 80 RV 111.31.10; IX.74.1 81 Kurma Purana 1.26.1-109 (Tagare 1981) 82 AV XII.3.58-59 83 RV VIII.116.11; X.48.9 84 RV VIII.66.11 85 RV VIII.7.22 86 RV V.31.4

87 RV 111.48.1; VIII.32.28; IX.17.5; X.94.8 88 RV VI.72; IX.63.9 89 RV IV.19.3; X.99.6 90 RV IX.38.1, 67.17 91 RV 1.164.14 92 RV IX.94.3 93 RV IX.84.3 94 RV 11.11.9; 111.32.11; V.30.6; V.32.2 96 RV IX.17.1 96 RV VI.47.27; VIII.89.9 97 RV 111.44.4-5; IX.72.7; IX.77.1; X.144.2

98 RV IX.111.3; IX.72.7; X.144.2; AV 1.13 99 RV IV.22.2

'0 RV IX.47.3; IX.72.7 101 RV IX.86.3 102 RV IX.83.5 103 RV IX.74.4; IX.89.1; V I.134.6; TaiS 11.5.2.6 104 AV XII.3.58-59 105 AV X.7 106 RV IX.86.44-46; SB 111.4.3.13; 111.9.4.2; IV.1.4.8;

IV.4.3.4 107 RV IX.86.44 108 RV X.56.6 109 RV 1.32.11; IV.18.8; VI.47.21; X.113.6 110 RV 11.11.9; 111.32.11; IV.17.7; V.30.6 "I RV VIII.40.6 112 BhG X.18; XII.20 113 RV IX.10.8, IX.24.4 114 RV X.90.6-9; AV XIX.6.4 115 RV IX.83.1 116 Linga Purana 1.20 (Shastri 1973) 117 RV IX.2.10 118 RV IX.70.2; 95.5 119 RV IX.96.5,10 120 RV IV.26.4 121 RV IX.48.3 122 RV IX.38.4; IX.66.19; IX.71.6 123 RV 1.164.46-47 124 RV IX.71.9; RV IX.112.2 125 RV IX.9.4; IX.60.1-2 126 RV IX.48.3, 71.9 127 BhG X.30; Varaha Purana 1.125.31 (Iver 1985) 128 BhG X.30; Varaha Purana 1.125.31 (Iver 1985);

Padma Purana 1.39.124-125 (Deshpande 1988- 1991)

129 RV IX.75.3 130 MhB 1.16-34; Padma Purana 11.47.41-173 (Desh-

pande 1988-1991) 131 Linga Purana 1.20 (Shastri 1973) 132 RV X.81; X.82 133 RV X.7.28, 40-41; X.121 134 RV X.129 135 RV IX.96.5,10; IX.97.40 136 RV X.55.5; X.68.10, AV X.7.2,32; XIX.19.4, SB

IX.4.1.7 137 RV IX.96.5-6 138 RV V.47.3; IX.112.2; X.144.5 139 Mhb 111.189 (Ganguli 1990, 111:566) 140 RV 1.164.2 141 RV IX.89.4 142 RV V.45.9; VI.44.24 143 RV VI.46.11,14 144 RV X.8.9; SB 1.6.3.1 145 RV 1.70.6; 11.66.4; 11.148.4; IV.4.1 146 RV X.5.6 147 RV IV.3.5; IV.8.5; IV.15.19 140 RV 1.105.14 149 RV 111.9.6; V.9.1 150 RV 1.143.1; 111.1.13; 111.9.1; VIII.63.9


51 RV 1.59.1; X.45.4 152 RV X.79.3; 1.145.4-5 153 RV 1.66.4; V.19.5 154 AV X.8.3-6 155 RV IV.15.6; AV X.8.3-6 156 RV 1.70.3; 111.1.12-15; 111.5.3 157 RV 11.2.8; VII.10.1 158 RV 1.93 159 RV VIII.1.33; TaiS IV.2.8 160 RV 1.36.3; 111.21.3; V.4.3 161 RV X.154.2 162 RV X.8.8 163 RV VI.74.3 164 RV VI.74 165 Bhagavata Purana V.25.3 166 MhB XII.285.72-208; XIII.17.1-182; Siva Purana

Satarudrasamhita 18.26-27 167 AV XI.2.2,17; SB IX.1.1.6 168 MhB XII.285.72-208; XII.17.1-182; Siva Purana

Satarudrasamhita 18.26-27 169 RV 1.151.4; VII.36.2 170 RV 1.43 171 RV 1.24.7-9; SB VII.5.2.18 172 RV VII.89.4 173 RV 1.124.7 (Coomaraswamy 1979: 8) 174 RV 1.24.7-8; VII.87.1,6; VIII.82.2 175 RV IX.95.4 76 RV VI.74.4; VII.65.3 VII.84.1-2; X.85.24

177 RV X.75.5

178 RV IX.5.8; IX.67.32; X.17.7-10 179 RV 111.23.4; VIII.38.10 188 RV VIII.21.17-18; VIII.38.10 181 RV 11.1.14; 111.1.13; 111.1.13; 111.54.13; IX.68.5;

X.184.2; AV V.25.3-7 182 RV VII.91.5-6; AV XX.123.5 183 AV VII.5 (Panikkar 1977: 357) 184 Bhagavata Purana VIII.8.1-9.22 (Tagare 1976-

1978) 185 RV 1.28.4; Chandogya Upanisad VI.6.1 (Radha-

krishnan 1992) 186 BhG X.28 187 Varaha Purana 35 (Iver 1985) 188 MhB VI.7; Vayu Purana 34.37-46 (Tagare 1987-

1988); Visnu Purana 11.2 (Wilson 1980); Siva Purana, Umasamhita 17.33 (Shastri 1970)

189 RV VII.33.11; IX.78.3; SB XIII.4.3.8 190 RV 1.28.3; AV IX.6.15; SB 1.1.1.22; 1.1.4.7 191 SB VI.5.1.26, 38; IX.5.1.7; XII.7.3.8,12 192 RV 111.52.5; IV.24.7; IX.8.5; IX.11.6; IX.11.2 193 RV IX.12.5; IX.17.4 194 RV IX.2.2, IX.70.7; 32.4; IX.39.6; IX.64.17;

IX.90.2 95 RV IX.74.1; X.94.5

196 SB VII.5.1.10, 15, 23, 38 197 SB VII.5.1.38 198 SB IX.5.1.1-23 199 AV X.7.28; SB X.4.1.2 200 RV IX.33.5; IX.74.3; IX.94.41 201 SB 111.5.2.34-35; IX.3.4.11,17

soma as nelumbo as shown by david l. spess

Documents

massive mortarsand pestles

nelumbo nucifera gaertn

5th century bce

mirrorthe mythic image

classical indian mythology

iconographic records

aryan priests

vedic verses