Socrates and the Socrates and the Socratic TurnSocratic Turn

SocratesSocrates

Not interested in questions about Not interested in questions about the nature of realitythe nature of reality

Instead he asked questions about Instead he asked questions about ‘the state of one’s soul’‘the state of one’s soul’ What is courage?What is courage? What does it mean to be a good person?What does it mean to be a good person? What is justice?What is justice? What is piety?What is piety?

Socrates IISocrates II

This is called ‘the Socratic Turn’This is called ‘the Socratic Turn’ Symbolically: Socrates ‘turning away’ Symbolically: Socrates ‘turning away’

from nature and to the selffrom nature and to the self First time that the human mind and First time that the human mind and

condition becomes the target of condition becomes the target of philosophical inquiryphilosophical inquiry

Examples:Examples: No one knowingly does evilNo one knowingly does evil Justice is not ‘might makes right’Justice is not ‘might makes right’

EuthyphroEuthyphro

Brief Review of Story in context of Brief Review of Story in context of life and death of Socrateslife and death of Socrates

11stst attempt: “Doing what I am doing” attempt: “Doing what I am doing” This is an example not a definitionThis is an example not a definition

What all examples have in common

And

Having that in common makes them examples

Euthyphro IIEuthyphro II

22ndnd attempt: “Loved by the gods” attempt: “Loved by the gods” 33rdrd attempt: “Loved by ALL the gods” attempt: “Loved by ALL the gods”

Divine command theoryDivine command theory

Euthyphro QuestionEuthyphro Question Does God command it because it is good, Does God command it because it is good, or is it good because he commands it? or is it good because he commands it? Intrinsic vs. relational propertiesIntrinsic vs. relational properties

Male vs. BrotherMale vs. Brother Weight vs. MassWeight vs. Mass

Not the way we think loving worksNot the way we think loving works If relational then morality is completely If relational then morality is completely

arbitrary arbitrary E.G. should God command us to murder E.G. should God command us to murder

children it would be morally permissible to do children it would be morally permissible to do so so

PlatoPlato

Greek PhilosopherGreek Philosopher

Knowledge of the GoodKnowledge of the Good

Socrates claimed that the virtuous Socrates claimed that the virtuous person is one who knows the Goodperson is one who knows the Good

It is then of the utmost importance to It is then of the utmost importance to figure out how one can actually know figure out how one can actually know the Goodthe Good This is the project that Plato takes upThis is the project that Plato takes up His goal is to try and show how knowledge His goal is to try and show how knowledge

of the Good is possibleof the Good is possible But in order to answer that he must first But in order to answer that he must first

answer the more general question: how do answer the more general question: how do we know anything?we know anything?

What is Knowledge?What is Knowledge?

I parked my car in the lot, do I know I parked my car in the lot, do I know where my car is?where my car is?

Knowledge requires certainty Knowledge requires certainty Object of knowledge can’t changeObject of knowledge can’t change

If what can be known can’t change, If what can be known can’t change, then physical world can’t be an then physical world can’t be an object of knowledgeobject of knowledge It is in a constant state of flux It is in a constant state of flux

(becoming)(becoming)

What is Knowledge? IIWhat is Knowledge? II

So, if we are to have real knowledge it So, if we are to have real knowledge it must meet the following requirementsmust meet the following requirements UnchangingUnchanging Non-physicalNon-physical eternaleternal

Plato’s strategy is to look for an area Plato’s strategy is to look for an area where there is some knowledge where there is some knowledge already and then try to figure out already and then try to figure out what is going on therewhat is going on there Geometry/mathematicsGeometry/mathematics

The Argument from The Argument from MathematicsMathematics

How is it possible that we know that How is it possible that we know that 2+2=4 or that A2+2=4 or that A22+B+B22=C=C22

Mathematical truths do not changeMathematical truths do not change 2 is prime, and will always be prime2 is prime, and will always be prime 2 is even and will always be even2 is even and will always be even

2 2 is that the number two?is that the number two? NO! It is a representation of the number NO! It is a representation of the number

twotwo Cat Cat is that a cat? No!is that a cat? No!

The Argument from The Argument from Mathematics IIMathematics II

In the same way, this is In the same way, this is not a triangle, it is a representation of not a triangle, it is a representation of oneone

Triangles and numbers do not exist Triangles and numbers do not exist physicallyphysically No one has ever seen the number twoNo one has ever seen the number two Triangles are made of lines, which are made Triangles are made of lines, which are made

of points, which have no dimensionsof points, which have no dimensions But they MUST existBut they MUST exist

For otherwise mathematics would not be For otherwise mathematics would not be about anything and so would be falseabout anything and so would be false

The Correspondence Theory The Correspondence Theory of Truthof Truth

For a sentence to be true is for it to For a sentence to be true is for it to accurately represent realityaccurately represent reality

So the sentence ‘the cat is on the So the sentence ‘the cat is on the mat’ will be true ifmat’ will be true if There is a catThere is a cat There is a matThere is a mat And the former is on the latterAnd the former is on the latter

The Argument from The Argument from Mathematics IIIMathematics III

The same is true of mathematical The same is true of mathematical statementsstatements

For 2+2=4 to be true there must beFor 2+2=4 to be true there must be The number twoThe number two The number fourThe number four They must be related in the way the They must be related in the way the

sentence sayssentence says For AFor A22+B+B22=C=C22 to be true there must be to be true there must be

Right trianglesRight triangles

Theory of the FormsTheory of the Forms So, numbers and geometrical shapes So, numbers and geometrical shapes

exists as non-physical, eternal, and exists as non-physical, eternal, and unchanging objects that are the objects unchanging objects that are the objects of knowledgeof knowledge

We get in touch with these objects via We get in touch with these objects via the use of reasonthe use of reason Plato is a rationalistPlato is a rationalist Knowledge can only be achieved via the use Knowledge can only be achieved via the use

of reasonof reason These non-physical objects are called These non-physical objects are called

FormsForms

Theory of the Forms IITheory of the Forms II

From the Greek ‘eidos’From the Greek ‘eidos’ Means idea, but not in the way that we Means idea, but not in the way that we

use the worduse the word These Ideas exist outside of the mind, These Ideas exist outside of the mind,

outside of time and space outside of time and space The mind is able to ‘grasp’ these formsThe mind is able to ‘grasp’ these forms

Two more arguments for FormsTwo more arguments for Forms Degrees of perfectionDegrees of perfection One over ManyOne over Many

Degrees of PerfectionDegrees of Perfection

Degrees of Perfection IIDegrees of Perfection II

How do you know that the triangles How do you know that the triangles are not perfect unless you know what are not perfect unless you know what the perfect one is like the perfect one is like And you are able to compareAnd you are able to compare

This, says Plato, is true of everythingThis, says Plato, is true of everything You know that some actions are not You know that some actions are not

perfectly justperfectly just But how could you know this unless there But how could you know this unless there

was Perfect Justice and you knew it?was Perfect Justice and you knew it? That is the Form of JusticeThat is the Form of Justice

Those are trees

The Form of Tree

One Over ManyOne Over Many The Forms explain why it is that we The Forms explain why it is that we

categorize certain objects as male but not categorize certain objects as male but not othersothers There is a Form for every thing that objects There is a Form for every thing that objects

have in commonhave in common When you see that an object is, say, a desk When you see that an object is, say, a desk

you are grasping the Form of that objectyou are grasping the Form of that object The objects are said to ‘participate’ in the The objects are said to ‘participate’ in the

FormForm An object can participate is many Forms at An object can participate is many Forms at

the same timethe same time

Human The Beautiful

The Divided LineThe Divided Line

Metaphysics Epistemology

Images

Intelligible World

Visible World

Knowledge

OpinionImaginati

on

Sensible Obj

Perception

Lower Forms

Reasoning

Higher Forms

Reasoning

The Good