SOCIETAL ISSUES IN COUNSELING

Paul Pedersen University of Alabama at Birmingham Dept of Human Studies

1.1 The culture-centered premise of counseling

behaviors are learned and displayed in a cultural context

accurate assessment, meaningful understanding and appropriate intervention are context dependent

the cultural context of counseling is complicated

1.2.  The cultural context

1.3.   Multiculturalism  has evolved from a method to a theory

emphasizing both the parts and the whole

the generic application of culture making all theories culture-centered

1.4.  The broad definition of culture ethnographic, demographic, status and

affiliation within-group differences exceed between-

group differences emic and etic are two perspectives of the

same reality culture is the complex totality of the

environment culture is dynamic according to what is

salient

1.5.  The culturally encapsulated counselor

defines reality according to one set of assumptions

is insensitive to cultural variations among individuals

protects unreasoned assumptions without proof

seeks technique-oriented short-term solutions

refuses to evaluate contrary viewpoints

1.6.  Defining balance in the client's cultural context

the rule of opposites reconciles discord in harmony

reflects the organimic systems of holistic health

1.7.  Examples of balance in counseling positive implications of negatives negative potentials of positives tolerance for ambiguity resist simple solutions sensitivity to complicated collective forces sensitive to changes in the client sensitivity to changes in the counselor ability to adjust interviewer influence ability to maintain harmony in the interview

1.8.  Implications of balance in counseling knowledge must go beyond rationality to include

feelings relationships are important westernized perspectives are incomplete change is not inevitably positive we do not control our environment recovery skills get us out of trouble training of counselors must become more inclusive more emphasis on culture is need among counselors research has failed to develop  multicultural  theory

1.9.  Underlying assumptions of culture-centered counseling culture controls behavior each culture interprets counseling differently values are constructed by cultures behavior is displayed in a cultural context the same cultural context is experienced differently cultural patterns give meaning to cultural contexts aggregate data can lead to stereotyping as the cultural context changes behaviors also change only when the context has changed will individuals

change meaning is constructed in each cultural context

1.10.  Describing cultural identity

2.1.  Managing culturally learned assumptions people are both similar and different at the

same time culture is complex and not simple behaviors are not meaningful data not all racism is intentional we are vulnerable to cultural encapsulation inclusion is balanced with exclusion medical model is balanced with educational

model clients depend on their own internal

dialogue first

2.2.  The cross-cultural trade off for conflict management

3.1.  The historical context of culture

began in  17th  and  18th  century Europe to defend colonialism

distinguished civilized people from savage primitives

3.2.  The recent popularity of culture in the social sciences awareness of consequences of development need for a  postcolonial  perspective social sciences have been internationalized national liberation movements have increased cross cultural psychology has developed activist social scientists of the  60s  are in power interdisciplinary cooperation has become more

popular new forms of cultural diversity have emerged educational exchanges have increased a growing interest in indigenous psychology

3.3.  The "racial" context race has been discredited as a scientific construct race continues important as a sociopolitical construct as few as 3 races and as many as 37 have been

suggested Philippe  Rushton 's (1988) Asian-Blacks-Whites Arthur Jensen's (1992) intelligence research Hernsteins  (1994) bell curve racism is prejudice plus power to impose it Pinderhuges  (1984) on the nature of powerlessness

3.4.  The Contact Hypothesis

when groups come together under favorable conditions positive consequences occur

when groups come together under unfavorable conditions negative consequences occur

most spontaneous group contact is under unfavorable conditions

3.5.  High Context cultures and Low Context cultures

some cultures put more emphasis on context than others

most developed cultures are low context

HC  is where the information is internalized concrete

LC is where information is in the depersonalized abstract

3.6.  The five stages of culture shock and the U-curve

initial contact honeymoon stage disintegration and self blame reintegration and anger integration of similarities and

differences biculturalism

3.7.  The ideological context of "explicit" moral exclusion biased evaluations with unflattering comparisons derogation disparaging and denigrating fear of contamination expanding the target to legitimize victimization accelerating harm doing in destructive acts approving and condoning destructive behavior reducing moral standards to accept harmful behavior blaming the victim self-righteous comparisons desecration to demonstrate contempt

3.8.  The ideological context of "implicit" moral exclusion

group think  transcendent ideologies to glorify the group deindividuation  and anonymity moral engulfment to replace ethics psychological distancing technical orientation double standards unflattering comparisons

3.8.  The ideological context of "implicit" moral exclusion (continue)

euphemisms displacing responsibility to higher

authorities diffusing responsibility to the collective concealing the effects glorifying violence normalizing violence temporal containment by making

exceptions

3.9  The future context alternatives

authoritarian future chaotic future pluralist future learning the facility for our own

survival chaos and complexity theory of

nonlinear self-organizing dynamics

4.1  The Westernization of counseling counseling is spreading from west to east with

modernization and urbanization a one directional approach to reduce pain

Western is a political not a geographical term Westernization is also scientific acculturation Western are more  idiocentric  and competitive Non-Western cultures more  collectivistic  the dangers of  pathologizing  mystical experiences the rise of " Easternization "

4.2.  Non-Western assertions reincarnation individual self and cosmic SELF de-emphasize individualism with

social relationships constructive dependency interdependence in parent-child

relationships Japanese emphasis on obligation and

self-sacrifice

4.2.  Non-Western assertions(continue)

parents model social behavior patterns personality patterns learned from roles paradoxical personality patterns the constructive role of rigid authority experience as well as logic provide data life is dialectical balance of opposites everything is political

5.1.  The spiritual counselor inside the person

counselors with a secular orientation are disadvantaged

inside the person resources are important

globally talk therapy is the exotic choice

5.2.  The rationale for counselors knowing about religion

a high percentage of the population is religious

people in crisis tend to rely more on spiritual

therapy is not exclusively a secular process

therapists are typically less religious than clients therapists are typically not well informed about religion

5.3.  The role of alternative therapies based on spiritual sources

50% of U.S. 75% of Europe and 80% of world relies on alternative therapies

healing is following the straight path illness is being "tangled" requiring

"straightening" self-righting mechanisms conventional and alternative

therapies complementary

5.4.  The cosmology of the Toba Bataks

cosmos includes underworld, middleworld  and upperworld  time has quality as well as quantity

space is not neutral the symbol is the thing it symbolizes all things have religious/spiritual

meaning the need to take care of one's  tondi 

6.1  Counseling the international student neither overemphasize nor underemphasize

differences orientation is a continuous process

learn the culture-specific skills of students students may bring in a companion for

counseling peer support is extremely important help students monitor their own culture

shock follow up students after their return home

7.1.  Family therapies across cultures

interlocking pathologies when problems are entangled

fusion occurs when family members can not act independently

pseudomutuality  refers to loss of boundaries

7.2.  Major theories of family therapy

Object Relations Theory Bowen Theory Structural Family Therapy Communication Theory

7.3.  Increased problems for families working mothers experience guilt conflict in redefining responsibility wife's career outside the home is

demanding media-driven pressure successful families experience pain in

mobility increased conflict and legal problems in

families parental roles increasingly differentiated

7.4.  Alternatives for multicultural families

single parent families increasing blended families are reconstituted

through divorce extended or joint families with

relatives and in-laws augmented families include nonrelatives 

nonfamily shared households nonfamily sole person households homeless

7.5.  Factors to consider in bicultural families

issues of racism and poverty value conflicts between majority and

minority most minority families are bicultural many minorities have experienced

oppression common bounds of language

symbolize belonging class differences complicate cultural differences

7.6.  A racial/cultural interaction model for family therapy

within group and between group differences important dynamic changes at all levels

racial/cultural identity role of the counselor

cultural issues when minority clients are matched with majority counselors

7.7  The five most frequently used models of ethnic identity dominant majority model transitional model moves toward dominant

culture alienation model seeks to make

adjustments multidimensional model presumes

multilevel transition bicultural model presumes joint membership

the orthogonal model presumes multiple memberships

7.8.  Characteristics of the orthogonal model cultures may associate without competition or

isolation minority cultures need not be eliminated or absorbed a permanent  multicultural  society need not be a

melting pot value conflicts are not insurmountable cultural conflict may be a positive force people less militant when survival not the issue interaction of majority and minority may be

constructive economic advantages of cooperation existing models of orthogonal relationships

7.9.   Ho'oponopono  family gatherings pule or prayer of opening kukulu   kumuhana  reaching out to the

disruptive person hala  is describing the problem mahiki  is untangling ho'omalu  is the sanction of silence mihi  where the wrongdoer asks forgiveness kala where the wrongdoer is brought back

into the group pani  is the religious prayer of closing

8.1.  Complexity in culture-centered counseling clear and separate identification of counselor views clear and separate identification of client views see the other's actions from the other viewpoint listen and store information for later shift topics label feelings identify support systems identify alternative solutions define criteria for evaluation generate new insights

8.2.  Varieties of training models

classroom model attribution training cultural awareness training cognitive behavior modification experiential training interactional  training with resource

persons

8.3.  Barriers to skill training comparability and  generalizability  is difficult clients are fitted to the technique transfer from the laboratory to the real world defining the limits of skills skills training is Westernized focuses on changing the individual rather than the

context can violate rights of privacy hard to identify reinforcing events or rewards too expensive

8.4.   Intrapsychological counseling introjection (like imaginary playmate) identification (imitate someone else) incorporation (bluer distinction between self

and others) cognitive therapies focus on internal

dialogue Gestalt focuses on good-me-bad-me Psychodrama focuses on alter ego Conjoint family therapy focuses on

pathogenic coalitions

8.5.  The Triad Training Model works best when: includes positive and negative feedback simulated interviews of real situations safe context train the  procounselor  and  anticounselor  feedback to trainee is immediate and continuous resource persons are articulate and authentic counselor trainee can focus on the client spontaneous and not scripted videotaped debriefing brief interview of 8-10 minutes

8.6.  The role of the  anticounselor 

forces counselor to see client's perspective

articulates the unspoken impolite messages

forces counselor to examine defensiveness

immediately identifies inappropriate interventions forces the counselor to focus attention

8.7.  Distractions that an anticounselor  might do build on positive side of problems distract or sidetrack the counselor obstruct communication annoy the counselor exaggerate differences between counselor

and client demand immediate results communicate privately with the client identify scapegoats attack the counselor's credibility

8.8.  The role of the  procounselor 

resource for the counselor to consult provider of explicit information provides a partner for the counselor helps counselor stay on track provides beneficial feedback

8.9.  Supports the procounselor might do

restate or reframe message in a positive fashion keep the interview on track

offer approval or reinforcement call attention to priority items reinforce significant client statements suggest alternative strategies to the

counselor

9.1.  The Awareness-Knowledge-Skill framework

awareness of basic underlying assumptions

facts and information of knowledge skills for taking appropriate action

9.2.  Using the intrapersonal cultural grid

identify a significant behavior or action

identify expectations behind that behavior

identify values behind each expectation

identify the culture teachers of those values

9.4.  The Three Dimensional Model 

9.5.  The interpersonal cultural 

10.1.  Three general perspectives of ethics

relativism absolutism contextual/universalism

10.2.  Philosophical premises of ethics

principle of altruism principle of responsibility principle of justice principle of caring

10.3.  Ethical guidelines for cross-cultural research

significant involvement is correct criteria for informed and free consent ultimate responsibility with the

researchers what is the benefit of the research

and to whom advisory principles rather than a strict code

continuous reformulation of guidelines

10.4.  Ethical violations are often unintentional

color blindness overly color conscious transfer good or bad feelings from

elsewhere by client transfer good or bad feelings from

elsewhere by counselor misinterpret cultural ambivalence client might see counselors implicit bias counselor might misinterpret nondisclosure

10.5.  Rest's six stages of moral development obedience, "do what you are told" instrumental egoism, "let's make a deal" interpersonal concordance "be considerate

to make friends" law and duty, "obey the law and it will

protect you" consensus building, "the duty to follow due

process" nonarbitrary  cooperation "be rational and

impartial

10.6.  Systematic biases in the ethical codes

individualism is favored client must adjust to the system or majority an elitist bias favoring the more powerful

provider oversimplification of cultural issues assumed absolute standards of right and

wrong what is good for the counselor is good for

everyone

11.1.  Culture-centered controversies is counseling culturally encapsulated? are counseling measures culturally biased? should culture be defined narrowly or

broadly? can you measure  ethno -racial cultural

identity? should similarities or differences be

emphasized? are professional ethical guidelines

adequate?

12.1.  New research is required in the following areas

accurate epidemiological data development of identity models historical influences on counseling how to control and manage prejudice the developmental progress of White

cultures a balanced perspective

12.1.  New research is required in the following areas (continue)

more emphasis on within-group differences

a bicultural or  multicultural  identity development community-based samples

primary prevention programs accurate tests and measures a balance of  emic  and  etic 

12.2.  Models of culture-centered counseling

culture-specific models culture-general models culture-free/culture-fair models culture deficit models relativism and absolutism

12.3.  Changes for the future of society demographic stable world population reduce the environmental impact of

technology economic transition to the "real" costs social transition through supranational

alliances institutional transition to focus on global

problems informational transition to educate the

masses

12.4.  Changes for the future of counseling

increased awareness of revolutionary change

generic understanding of culture pressure by minority groups separate identities for each special

interest group counseling theories adapted to

different cultures

12.4.  Changes for the future of counseling (continue)

counseling methods adapted to different cultures

counseling more globally popular more participation by non-Western cultures cultural encapsulation is challenged counseling becomes  multidisciplinary  counseling becomes more readily available counselors forced to adapt or be left behind

12.5  The culture-centered alternative for counseling tolerance of ambiguity increases a balance of pain and pleasure is accepted indigenous counseling becomes more

important counseling will focus on restoring balance

to clients individuals are seen in the collective

cultural context intuition will become a source of

information

12.5  The culture-centered alternative for counseling (continue) higher states of consciousness will be

achieved problems will be viewed in the cosmic

context social responsibility will become more

important both similarities and differences will

become important more emphasis on the historical context counselors will become more aware of their

own biases