social aspects of urban biodiversity · social aspects – patterns of urban biodiversity •...

SOCIAL ASPECTS OF URBAN BIODIVERSITY

Sarel CilliersSchool of Environmental Sciences and Development

North-West UniversityPotchefstroomSouth Africa

Contents• What is urban biodiversity?• Benefits of urban diversity

– Ecological benefits– Social benefits

• Perceptions: value of urban biodiversity• Integrated approach in Urban Ecology• Effects of social aspects on patterns of urban biodiversity• Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation (S.A.

examples)– Cape Town (Biodiversity strategy)– Durban (Resource Economics)– Potchefstroom (Urban Agriculture)

• Summary

What is urban biodiversity?

“Biodiversity includes components, like plants and animals, as well as processes that sustain those components”Urban biodiversity:• Different from biodiversity in general, affected by alteration of natural environments and by ongoing human activity and opinion

What is urban biodiversity? (cont.)

• Pretoria is the “Jacaranda City”• Jacaranda mimosifolia is a Category 3 declared invader (Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act (no 43 of 1983)). • Monetary value of street trees based on stored carbon (Stoffberg, 2006)• 41,978 tonne CO2 = US$419 786• Total environmental, social and economical contribution

Natives vs. aliens?

Benefits of urban biodiversity

• Item1. Text• Item2. Text• Item 3

– Item 3.1. Text

Ecological benefits

Ecosystem services is used to:

• demonstrate utility value of nature to the world, and

• securing funds for conservation

(LAB, 2007)

Benefits of urban biodiversity (cont.)


– Item 3.1. Text

Social benefits


Nature experienceRecreationRejuvenates the city dwellerProvides sense of peacefulness and tranquilityReduces stressOpportunity for community developmentIncreases social integration and interaction among neighbours Public health – reduces health and well-being risks

Social benefits of green areas

3.1 Urban agriculture, community gardens, allotments and useful plants

3.2 Human well-being and the green environment3.3 Nature experience and wilderness areas in cities3.4 People participation to design and manage urban

green areas

3. Social aspects of Urban Biodiversity


“The arguments most frequently and strongly presented for undertaking biodiversity restoration in urban environments are fundamentally social rather, than biophysical.”“The arguments for ecosystem restoration are primarily about ‘us’ – humans, and how we are interacting with the environment.”“The design of the process of restoration must address how the social objectives are to be achieved. Communities have wide-ranging but significant values they attach to the vegetation and public spaces of the city.”

(Kilvington & Allen, 2005)

Social benefits of urban biodiversity restoration

Kilvington, M., Allen, W. 2005. Social aspects of biodiversity in the urban environment. In: Greening the City, pp. 29-35. Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture.

Perceptions: value of urban biodiversityIt is all about perceptions !

The planner The publisher The park maintenance people

The electricity department The developer The landscape

architect

Tensions between different stakeholders affect our ability to preserve urban biodiversity (McDonnell, 2007)

Tensions due to differences in cultural and social perceptions, philosophies and goals: scientists vs. managers vs. public (conservationists vs. industrialists)

Perceptions: value of urban biodiversity

McDonnell, M. 2007. Restoring and managing biodiversity in an urbanizing world filled with tensions. Ecological Management & Restoration 8(2): 83,84.

Development of Urban Ecology• Different views of “the city” over the years• Set of strongly interacting systems or spheres

(Marzluff et al., 2008)• Cities are:

– a new type of ecological entity,– a new level of complexity and organization,

and– must be studied as integrated systems

• Three views of Urban Ecology:– Ecology and evolution of organisms that live

within city boundaries– Biological, political, economic and cultural

ecology of Homo sapiens in the city– Cities as emergent phenomena of coupled

human and natural processes affecting evolution and survival of our own and other species – integration between social and biogeophysical proccesses

• Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research

Marzluff, J.M., Schulenberger, E., Endlicher, W., Alberti, M., Bradley, G., Ryan, C., Simon, U., ZumBrunnen, C. (eds.) 2008. Urban Ecology: an international perspective on the interaction between humans and nature. Springer

Development of Urban Ecology (cont.)

Fry, G., Tress, B. & Tress, G. 2007. Integrative landscape research: facts and challenges. In: Wu, J. & Hobbs, R.J. (eds.) Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. New York, Cambridge University Press. Pp. 246-268.

Disciplinarity Multidisciplinarity

Interdisciplinarity Transdisciplinarity

Integrated approach in Urban EcologyConceptual frameworks of integrated research:• Human Ecosystem model (Pickett et al., 2001)• Integrated model of humans and ecological processes - drivers,

patterns, processes, effects (Alberti et al., 2003)

Pickett, STA, Cadenasso, ML, Grove, JM, Nilon, CH, Pouyat, RV, Zipperer, WC, Costanza, R. 2001. Urban ecological systems: Linking terrestrial ecological, physical and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 32:127-157.

Alberti, M, Marzluff, JM, Shulenberg, EH, Bradley, G, Ryan, C, Zumbrunnen, C. 2003. Integrating humans into Ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. BioScience 53(12): 1169-1179.

Integrated approach in Urban Ecology


– Item 3.1. Text

Sub-title

Alberti, M, Marzluff, JM, Shulenberg, EH, Bradley, G, Ryan, C, Zumbrunnen, C. 2003. Integrating humans into Ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. BioScience 53(12): 1169-1179.

Structural framework of an integrated model of humans and ecological processes (Alberti et al., 2003)

Social aspects – patterns of urban biodiversity

• Socio-economics drive urban biodiversity• Bird diversity is an indicator of human social diversity (Melles, 2005)

Melles, S. 2005. Urban bird diversity as an indicator of human social diversity and economic inequality in Vancouver, British Columbia. Urban Habitats 3(1):25-48.

Social aspects – patterns of urban biodiversity (cont.)

Social studies in Potchefstroom, South Africa

10 % of all households in 20 election wards

Basic socio-economic profile:• Size of household• Type of dwelling• Average monthly household income• Unemployment rate• Source of household income• Labour market participation• Distance from work• Access to basic services – water, sanitation, electricity

Satisfaction with life and emotional wellness

Satisfaction with municipality and council


Social studies in Potchefstroom, South Africa

Poverty gradient


Bird studies in Potchefstroom, South Africa – total species richness

50. 80E+05 81. 11E+05 11. 14E+06 14. 17E+06

East65. 12E+05

84. 22E+05

10. 33E+06

12. 24E+06

Sout

h

Total number of species

> 18.2> 16.9> 15.6> 14.3> 13.0> 11.7> 10.4> 9.1> 7.8> 6.5> 5.2> 3.9> 2.6> 1.3> 0.0


• Urban plant diversity may reflect social, economic and cultural influences

• Diversity of woody perennials in Phoenix is positively related to income (Hope et al., 2003)

• “Luxury effect”• Composition and longevity determined by human choices and

landscape maintenance

Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity

Hope, D, Gries, C, Zhu, W, Fagan, WF, Redman, CL, Grimm, NB, Nelson, AL, Martin, C, Kinzig, A. 2003. Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. PNAS 100(15):8788-8792.


Plant diversity of house gardens in Ganyesa, North-West province, South Africa

Ganyesa *

Regions and Centres of Plant Endemism in southern Africa (Van Wyk & Smith, 2001)



Ganyesa *



Plant species richness

61%

39%

Indigenous species Alien species

Origin of indigenous species

58%29%

13%

Cultivated species Natural speciesWeeds

Origin of species

13%

71%

16%

Cultivated species Natural species Weeds

Use of cultivated species

59%

7%

3%

13%

16%

2%

Ornamental FoodMedicinal ShadeHedge / windbreak wood

Uses of indigenous cultivated species

49%35%

4%

1%

11%OrnamentalFoodMedicinalShadeHedge / windbreak

Uses of indigenous natural species

8%

23%

5%

3%10%

41%

10%

OrnamentalFoodMedicinalShadeHedge / windbreakWoodNo specific use

Sub-title

Basic houses, no running water, low income, large households:

• Species diversity low

• Few ornamentals

• Medicinal plants

Modern houses, running water, higher income, smaller household:

• Species diversity higher

• Many ornamentals

• Few medicinal plants

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation – The African experience

Tzoulas, K, Korpela, K, Venn, S, Yli-Pelkonen, V, Kazmierczak, A, Niemela, J, James, P. 2007. Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using Green Infrastructure: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning 81:167-178.

Conceptual framework integrating open space system, ecosystem and human health (Modified from Tzoulas et al., 2007)

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation – The African Experience

Tzoulas, K, Korpela, K, Venn, S, Yli-Pelkonen, V, Kazmierczak, A, Niemela, J, James, P. 2007. Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using Green Infrastructure: A literature review. Landscape and Urban Planning 81:167-178.

Conceptual framework integrating open space system, ecosystem and human health (Modified from Tzoulas et al., 2007)

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation (cont.)

• 3.5 million people• Cape Floral Kingdom• Table Mountain National Park• 9,600 plant species, 70% endemic• 41 mammal species, 6 recently extinct• 250 bird species, 10 endangered, 3

recently extinct• Approximately 111 endemic

invertebrate species• 18 amphibian species, 4 listed in Red

Data Book• 48 reptile species, 4 endangered, 2

locally extinct(Katzschner et al. 2005)

Cape Town is one of the most biologically diverse cities in the world

Katzschner, T, Oelofse, G, Wiseman, K, Jackson, J, Ferreira, D. 2005. The City of Cape Town’s Biodiversity Strategy. In: Trzyna, T (ed.) The Urban Imperative, urban outreach strategies for protected area agencies, pp. 91-95, IUCN- The World Conservation Union.


• Qualities of city must be enhanced for present and future generations

• Residents must live in a safe, healthy and caring environment

• 7 Strategic objectives:– Primary biodiversity (conservation areas and

biodiversity nodes)– Secondary biodiversity (conservation through corridors,

links and mixed-use areas)– Conservation of biodiversity in freshwater aquatic

systems– Invasive alien species management– Biodiversity legislation and enforcement– Biodiversity information and monitoring system– Biodiversity education and awareness

(Katzschner et al. 2005)

Cape Town (Biodiversity Strategy)

Katzschner, T, Oelofse, G, Wiseman, K, Jackson, J, Ferreira, D. 2005. The City of Cape Town’s Biodiversity Strategy. In: Trzyna, T (ed.) The Urban Imperative, urban outreach strategies for protected area agencies, pp. 91-95, IUCN- The World Conservation Union.


• 1,466 plant species, 76 endemic• Serious challenges: poverty and alienation of

people from civic well-being• “Mainstreaming Biodiversity on the Cape

Flats” to denote the intention of making biodiversity everybody’s everyday business (Davis, 2005)

• Partnerships:– Local government, conservation NGO,

conservation funder, implementing partner (SANBI), bioregional planning and funding agent

• Objectives:– Create a forum for communities to

interact meaningfully with other partners– Encourage communities to take

leadership roles in decision-making about conservation issues

– Build bridges for communication about conservation issues between communities disabled by the impacts of apartheid

Cape Town (Cape Flats Nature)

Davis, G. 2005. Biodiversity conservation as a social bridge in the urban context: Cape Town’s sense of “The Urban Imperative” to protect its biodiversity and empower its people. In: Trzyna, T (ed.) The Urban Imperative, urban outreach strategies for protected area agencies, pp. 96-104, IUCN- The World Conservation Union.

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation

• Maputoland-Pondoland Region of Plant Endemism

• D’ MOSS (Metropolitan Open Space System)

• Change in approach (Roberts, 2001)

Durban, South Africa

Roberts, DC. 2001. Using the development of an Environmental Management System to develop and promote a more holistic understanding of urban ecosystems in Durban, South Africa. In: Berkowitz, AR, Nilon, CH, Hollweg, K (eds.) Urban Ecosystems, a new frontier for Science and Education, New York, Springer, pp. 384-398.

Regions and Centres of Plant Endemism in southern Africa (Van Wyk & Smith, 2001)



Roberts, DC, Boon, R, Croucamp, P, Mander, M. 2005. Resource economics as a tool for open space planning Durban, South Africa In: Trzyna, T (ed.) The Urban Imperative, urban outreach strategies for protected area agencies, pp. 44-48, IUCN- The World Conservation Union.

The urban ecosystem (Roberts et al., 2005)

• Sustainable development (Agenda21)• Open space system is a service

provider• Goods and services (supply and

demand) vs. protectionof plants and animals

• Resource economics: complex • Environmental Management System:

replacement value – R3.1 billion


Lessons learned• Reinterpreting biodiversity

“value of biodiversity not elusive but understandable”

• Conceptual flexibility“botanical surveys replaced by the use of

resource economics”• Need for education

“deeper understanding of sustainability issues in cities”

• Need for appropriate tools“Priceless or valueless”


Roberts, DC, Boon, R, Croucamp, P, Mander, M. 2005. Resource economics as a tool for open space planning Durban, South Africa In: Trzyna, T (ed.) The Urban Imperative, urban outreach strategies for protected area agencies, pp. 44-48, IUCN- The World Conservation Union.

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation

Potchefstroom (North-West Province, South Africa)


Increased employmentDecrease in povertyIncreased investmentsEconomic growthIncreased trade – exportDecrease in HIV/AIDS and other diseases

Increased food securityImproved physical infrastructureImprove information and telecommunicationIncreased access to resources

Top 10 challenges in NW province – low quality of life: UN Human Development Index (literacy rate, life expectancy, annual income)

Potchefstroom (North-West Province)

PROPOSED APPROACH TO URBAN ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN NW PROVINCE: PHASE 1

BIOTOPE MAPPING BASED ON LAND-

USES

BIOTOPE MAPPING BASED ON LAND-

USES

URBAN AGRICULTURE:

ECO-CIRCLE ULTIVATION

URBAN AGRICULTURE:

ECO-CIRCLE ULTIVATION

MAJOR SOCIAL ISSUESPoverty, Health,

Unemployment, Cultural heterogeneity

MAJOR SOCIAL ISSUESPoverty, Health,

Unemployment, Cultural heterogeneity

Social and

cultural research

Social and

cultural research

Ecological research

Ecological research

MAJOR LAND (BIOPHYSICAL) ISSUES Fragmentation, Degradation,

Native biodiversity loss

MAJOR LAND (BIOPHYSICAL) ISSUES Fragmentation, Degradation,

Native biodiversity loss

PUBLIC LAUNCHING:Community ownership,

Urban ecology information campaign

ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION

Assist in urbanization

gradient characterization

Assist in urbanization

gradient characterization

Spatial Development Framework

Spatial Development Framework

PROPOSED APPROACH TO URBAN ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN NW PROVINCE: PHASE 2

SOCIAL

RESEARCHSOCIAL

RESEARCH

BIOPHYSCAL

RESEARCHBIOPHYSCAL

RESEARCH

Social Surveys in Eco-circle project

Community profile establishment

Establish socio-economic structure Establish socio-

economic structure

Focus on SDF and LUMS

Focus on SDF and LUMS

Biodiversity

Soil

Water

Air

Water QualityWater Quality

Physical and Chemical properties, Decomposition

rates, Soil microbial activity, Faecal pollution

Physical and Chemical properties, Decomposition

rates, Soil microbial activity, Faecal pollution

Plants, Birds, Epigeal Arthropods, Lepidoptera,

Soil Mesofauna

Plants, Birds, Epigeal Arthropods, Lepidoptera,

Soil Mesofauna

Air QualityAir Quality


Eco-circle project in Potchefstroom

URBAN AGRICULTURE:

ECO-CIRCLE CULTIVATION

URBAN AGRICULTURE:

ECO-CIRCLE CULTIVATION

MAJOR SOCIAL ISSUES IN S.A. URBAN AREAS

Poverty, Health, Unemployment, Cutural heterogeneity

MAJOR SOCIAL ISSUES IN S.A. URBAN AREAS

Poverty, Health, Unemployment, Cutural heterogeneity

Community development projectCommunity development project::•• To create jobsTo create jobs•• To counter malnutrition:To counter malnutrition:

-- with minimum impact on with minimum impact on environmentenvironment

-- through community through community involvementinvolvement

-- with minimum water with minimum water consumptionconsumption

•• To be user friendlyTo be user friendly•• To decrease crime incidenceTo decrease crime incidence•• To enhance oxygen levelsTo enhance oxygen levels•• To limit wind and water erosionTo limit wind and water erosion

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation (cont.)Eco-circle project in Potchefstroom

What are eco-circles?

POLYPIPEFROM WASTE PLASTIC

WETPIPEFROM USED TYRES


Bare waste land

Eco-circles

Agro-ecosystems

Approaches in urban biodiversity preservation (cont.)Ecological urban agriculture

Improve environmental quality of cities:

• Reduction of organic waste -compost

• Stimulates recycling of urban organic wastes (eco-sanitation)

• Reduces risk of contamination of soil, water and produce (pollution)

• Prevents soil erosion and compaction

• Regenerates degraded areas• Increases biodiversity


Ecological studies in areas inbetween and surrounding eco-circles

Soil organic matter breakdown, feeding activities and soil mesofauna compositionUse of companion and trap plants for integrated pest management following ‘stimulo-deterrent’ diversion strategies (push-pull system) Eco-circles in natural grasslands ? Impact of anthropogenic activities (eg. trampling) on plant species composition and abundance (importance value)


Social surveys in eco-circles 26 % active, 57 % discontinued, 17 % never participated

A. Socio-economic profile:• Gender• Age *• Marital status *• Household size *• Status in family• Type of house *• Ethnicity *• Religion• Culture and tradition• Education *• Occupation *• Food providers *


Social surveys in eco-circles (cont.)

C. Willingness to participate in eco-circlesSubsistence food productionDon’t understand advantages of eco-circles

Lebala concept (barren land - tidiness) - Batswana


Lessons learned from eco-circle study:• Participatory approach – involves, stimulates and develops all aspects of community life• Better use of local wisdom, skills and resources (IK) • More involvement of ward councilors• Better monitoring practices – volunteers must be better trained• More community-based gardens – youth and

woman empowerment

In summary…

• No success if social aspects not emphasized• Integrated approach – transdisciplinary • Solid scientific basis – cooperation (comparative studies)• Local Action for Biodiversity – mainstreaming urban

biodiversity among local governments• Mainstreaming urban biodiversity among biodiversity

specialists • Many ecologists and social scientists are still reluctant to

study the urban environment, especially following a transdisciplinary approach

URBAN ECOLOGY IS THE ECOLOGY OF THE FUTURE !

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

• National Research Foundation for funding• Municipalities of Potchefstroom, Klerksdorp, Ganyesa• Colleagues:

– Dr. Stefan Siebert– Dr. Luke Sandham– Dr. Ernst Drewes– Prof. Henk Bouwman

• Students:– Emily Matjila– Elandrie Davoren– Nikki Smith

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