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SobottaMusclesFlashcards

1st Edition

Arrangement and text by Lars Bräuer

Translation by Christian M. Hammer

142 Flashcards

München

Sobotta_LK_Muscles.indb 1ta_LK_Muscles.indb 1 21.05.2013 16:20:0521.05.2013 16:20:05

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Anschrift des Autors:Prof. Dr. Lars BräuerInstitute of Anatomy LST IIUniversity Erlangen-NurembergUniversitätsstraße 1991054 ErlangenGermany

Unless otherwise declared – all illustrations are taken from:Sobotta – Atlas of Human AnatomyEdited by F. Paulsen and J. Waschke

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Acquisition Editor: Julia BaierDevelopment Editor: Dr. Andrea BeilmannEditor: Ulrike Kriegel, buchundmehr, Munich; Michael Beall, KleveProduction Manager: Sibylle, Hartl; Renate Hausdorf, buchundmehr, Gräfelfi ngComposed by: abavo GmbH, BuchloeIllustration Design: Nicola Neubauer, PuchheimPrinted and bound by: Print consult, MünchenCover Design: Nicola Neubauer, Puchheim; SpieszDesign, Neu-Ulm

ISBN Print: 978-0-7020-5258-3

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How to use the fl ashcards!

The cards are organised thematically to provide excellent preparation for your exams if worked through systematically.

All cards (with a few exceptions) are structured according to the following simple and self-explanatory concept:

• Every card face contains a possible examination question relating to the card’s topic. On the back of the card, the answer is displayed either in the answer box , in a chart or as highlighted image annotation.

• Another way to test yourself is included in the cards that show images with numbered structures. Here you are supposed to name the structures. The solution is on the back of the card.

Many cards also display an information box providing additional information, learning tips (“mnemonics“) or pathological and clinical facts or aspects. Some of these contents are meant to help you memorise certain facts, while others are simply “good to know“.

Of course not all of the questions will be relevant to your examination. They have, however, been asked in a similar or even identical way in past anatomical tests or exams.

Have fun practising!


Picture Credits

Numbers in square brackets at the end of the caption of each illustration of the fl ashcards refer to the respective image source.Graphics and illustrations – unless identifi ed otherwise – originate from Sobotta’s Atlas of Human Anatomy 15th Edition, © Elsevier 2011.

[1] Drake, R. L., Vogl, A. W., Mitchell, A.: Gray´s Atlas der Anatomie, Urban & Fischer 2009

Abbreviations

Singular: Plural:A. = Arteria Aa. = ArteriaeLig. = Ligamentum Ligg. = LigamentaM. = Musculus Mm. = MusculiN. = Nervus Nn. = NerviProc. = Processus Procc. = ProcessusR. = Ramus Rr. = RamiV. = Vena Vv. = VenaeVar. = Variation


Table of contents

General Anatomy of Muscles 1– 8

Organisational principle of skeletal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Single-headed parallel-fi bred muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Double-headed parallel-fi bred muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Double-bellied parallel-fi bred muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Multi-headed fl at muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Multi-bellied muscle with tendinous intersections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Unipennate and bipennate muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Architecture of a tendon sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Head and Neck 9 –38

Facial and masticatory muscles 1–2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9–10

M. masseter and M. temporalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

M. pterygoideus lateralis and M. pterygoideus medialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Masticatory muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Temporomandibular joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Deep facial muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Extrinsic muscles of the tongue 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16–17

Intrinsic muscles of the tongue 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18–19

Mouth region and fl oor of the mouth (Diaphragma oris) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Muscles of the fl oor of the mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Extra-ocular muscles 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22–23

Facial muscles in the orbital region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

M. orbicularis oculi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Muscles of the auricle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

M. tensor tympani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Platysma and M. sternocleidomastoideus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Neck muscles and infrahyoid musculature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Prevertebral muscles and Mm. scaleni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Pharyngeal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Pharynx and parapharyngeal space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Laryngeal muscles 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33–34


Outer laryngeal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Larynx 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36–38

Upper Extremity 39–80

Muscles of shoulder and arm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39–41

M. trapezius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

M. levator scapulae and Mm. rhomboidei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

M. latissimus dorsi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

M. serratus anterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

M. pectoralis major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

M. pectoralis minor and M. subclavius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Muscles of the rotator cuff 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–50

M. supraspinatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Axillary spaces 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52–53

Muscles of the upper arm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 56–57

M. biceps brachii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

M. brachialis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

M. triceps brachii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Triceps slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Superfi cial layer of the ventral muscles of the forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Superfi cial layer of the forearm fl exors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Middle and deep layer of the forearm fl exors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Deepest layer of the forearm fl exors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Middle layer of the ventral muscles of the forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Deep and deepest layer of the ventral muscles of the forearm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Superfi cial layer of the dorsal muscles of the forearm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67–69

Deep layer of the dorsal muscles of the forearm 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70–72

Deep layer of the dorsal muscles of the forearm, M. supinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Dorsum of the hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Osseofi brous tunnels of the dorsal hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Palm of the hand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Intermediate layer of muscles of the palmar hand 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77–78

Tendon sheaths of the palmar hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Deep layer of muscles of the palmar hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80


Trunk 81–110

Muscles of the trunk and shoulder girdle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Deep layer of the trunk-shoulder girdle muscles 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82–83

Superfi cial layer of the deep muscles of the back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Muscles of back and neck 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85–86

Deep layer of back muscles of the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebral column 87

Short muscles of the neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Muscles of back and neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Muscles of the thoracic and abdominal wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Superfi cial and middle layer of the abdominal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Middle layer of the abdominal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Deep layer of the abdominal muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Architecture of the rectus sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Posterior wall of the thoracic cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Anterior wall of the thoracic cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Diaphragm and muscles of the abdominal wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

M. psoas major and M. quadratus lumborum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Diaphragm and diaphragmatic apertures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Muscles of the male pelvic fl oor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

M. bulbospongiosus and M. ischiocavernosus in men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Mm. transversi perinei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

M. sphincter ani externus and M. levator ani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Female perineal region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Female pelvic fl oor 1–2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106–107

Male pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Male pelvis (CT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Female pelvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110


Lower Extremity 111–142

Ventral muscles of hip and leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Dorsal muscles of hip and leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Muscles of hip and thigh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

M. quadriceps femoris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

M. tensor fasciae latae and M. sartorius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Mm. adductores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Ventral and deep medial muscles of the thigh 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117–118

M. iliopsoas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

M. gluteus maximus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

M. gluteus medius and M. obturatorius externus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Dorsal muscles of thigh and hip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Pelvitrochanteric muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Ischiocrural muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Deep dorsal muscles of hip and thigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Muscles in the region of the knee joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Ventral and lateral muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Ventral muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Muscles of the lower leg and foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Lateral muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Superfi cial layer of the dorsal lower leg muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

Dorsal muscles of the lower leg 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132, 134

Deep layer of the dorsal muscles of the lower leg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Synovial sheaths of the foot 1–2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135–136

Muscles of the dorsum of the foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Plantar aponeurosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Superfi cial layer of plantar muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Middle layer of plantar muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Deep and deepest layers of plantar muscles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Mm. interossei dorsales and plantares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142


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Axes and planes

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Main Planes

median (sagittal) plane symmetry plane, divides the body into two equal halves

sagittal plane runs parallel to the median (sagittal) plane

transverse plane any cross-sectional plane of the body

frontal plane parallel to the forehead

Main Axes

sagittal axis is positioned perpendicular to transverse and longitudinal axis

transverse axis is positioned perpendicular to longitudinal and sagittal axis

longitudinal or vertical axis

is positioned perpendicular to sagittal and transverse axis

Radiological Section Planes

Radiological Terms Anatomical Terms

sagittal section sagittal plane

coronal section frontal plane

axial section transverse plane

Radiology terminology in imaging procedures (computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging) defi nes the three main anatomical planes as sections with their own nomenclature.

Direction of Movement

extension stretching of the torso or the extremities

fl exion bending of the torso or the extremities

abduction moving extremities away from the torso

adduction moving extremities towards the torso

elevation lifting of arms above the horizontal plane

rotation turning extremities inwards and outwards around a longitudinal axis

circumduction spinning motion

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Orientierungslinien sowie Richtungs- und Lagebezeichnungen

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Terms of Direction and Positioning of Body Parts

cranial or superior towards the head

caudal or inferior towards the sacrum

anterior or ventral towards the front or abdomen

posterior or dorsal towards the back

lateral sideways, away from the midline

medial centered, towards the midline

median or medianus within the median plane

intermedial positioned in between

central towards the interior of the body

peripheral towards the body surface

profundus located deeply

superfi cial or superfi cialis located superfi cially

external or externus located externally

internal or internus located internally

apical pointed or belonging to the tip

basal pointed towards the base

dexter right

sinister left

proximal towards the torso

distal towards the end of the limbs

ulnar towards the ulna

radial towards the radius

tibial towards the tibia

fi bular towards the fi bula

volar or palmar towards the palm of the hand

plantar towards the sole of the foot

dorsal (extremities) towards the back (dorsum) of the hand or the foot

frontal towards the forehead

rostral (literally translated: „towards the beak“) towards the mouth or tip of the nose (exclusively used for directional and positional information related to the head)

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M. brachialis.

Defi ne the “lever arm” of a muscle.

Organisational principle of skeletal muscles 1

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(Origo)

Fascia

Caput

Venter

(Insertio)

Line of forceof the muscle

Virtual lever armof the muscle

Axis of rotation of the joint

Tendo


Organisational principle of skeletal muscles 1

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The amount of force a muscle transfers to a joint depends on the length of the lever arm involved. The perpendicular distance of the joint’s rotation axis from the muscle’s line of action represents the lever arm of the muscle.As the length of the lever arm varies depending on the relative joint position, it is also called the virtual lever arm.

Normally, skeletal muscles link two bones and move one bone relative to the other. Originally, the idea was to refer to a muscle’s attachment site on the fi xed bone as its origin (Punctum fi xum or Orgio) and to the site on the moved bone as its inser-tion (Punctum mobile or Insertio). However, as bones are moved relative to each other, the proximal attachment site is simply defi ned as origin and the distal one as insertion.


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