slide 1 of 38 introduction to public relations part one public relations…the profession chapter 3...

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Introduction to Public RelationsIntroduction to Public Relations

Part OnePart OnePublic Relations…The ProfessionPublic Relations…The Profession

Chapter 3Chapter 3Theoretical Basis for Public RelationsTheoretical Basis for Public Relations

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Introduction to Public RelationsIntroduction to Public Relations Theoretical BasisTheoretical Basis

In Part One–Chapter 3, Our Focus Is In Part One–Chapter 3, Our Focus Is The Use of Theory In Public RelationsThe Use of Theory In Public Relations

• There is no single theory that covers all public relations There is no single theory that covers all public relations and communication.and communication.

• Today we will study three theories about relationships, Today we will study three theories about relationships, five about cognition and behavior, and two about media five about cognition and behavior, and two about media and communication.and communication.

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Why Understand Theory?Why Understand Theory?

Theories help practitioners explain and predict Theories help practitioners explain and predict human behavior and communication and guide human behavior and communication and guide organizational decision making.organizational decision making.

Let’s discuss communication theory…Let’s discuss communication theory…

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How Theories Connect with Public RelationsHow Theories Connect with Public Relations

• What is theory?What is theory?

• A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are A theory is a prediction of how events and actions are related.related.

• How do theories help the PR practitioner?How do theories help the PR practitioner?

• Using theories can make campaigns and messages more Using theories can make campaigns and messages more effective.effective.

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Theories of RelationshipsTheories of Relationships

• Cause-effect principles or theories can guide Cause-effect principles or theories can guide you in understanding how organizations relate you in understanding how organizations relate to their publics.to their publics.

• Systems theorySystems theory

• Situational theorySituational theory

First, the systems theory…First, the systems theory…

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Systems TheorySystems Theory

• Definition: The attitudes and actions of an Definition: The attitudes and actions of an organization or public contribute to a cause-organization or public contribute to a cause-effect chain reaction within their environment.effect chain reaction within their environment.

• The parts of an organization and public exist in The parts of an organization and public exist in relationship to each other, meaning the actions of relationship to each other, meaning the actions of one part affect the others.one part affect the others.

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Applying Systems Theory to Public RelationsApplying Systems Theory to Public Relations

• Systems theory is especially useful to public Systems theory is especially useful to public relations because it helps the practitioner relations because it helps the practitioner manage the organization’s relationships. manage the organization’s relationships.

• This theory emphasizes interdependence This theory emphasizes interdependence between an organization and its internal and between an organization and its internal and external environments.external environments.

There are two types of systems…There are two types of systems…

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Closed and Open SystemsClosed and Open Systems

• Closed System: Focuses on the history of the Closed System: Focuses on the history of the organization and makes decisions based on past organization and makes decisions based on past experiences.experiences.

• Open System: Focuses on input from external Open System: Focuses on input from external publics and the organization’s external publics and the organization’s external environment.environment.

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Situational TheorySituational Theory

• Definition: People will act on an issue or situation Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. their actions can make a difference.

• Three variables:Three variables:

• Problem recognition: People must be able to see the Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally.potential of an issue to affect them personally.

• Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue.something about the issue.

• Level of involvement: People must care about resolving Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.the issue.

• Definition: People will act on an issue or situation Definition: People will act on an issue or situation when they believe it affects them personally and when they believe it affects them personally and their actions can make a difference. their actions can make a difference.

• Three variables:Three variables:

• Problem recognition: People must be able to see the Problem recognition: People must be able to see the potential of an issue to affect them personally.potential of an issue to affect them personally.

• Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do Constraint recognition: People must see that they can do something about the issue.something about the issue.

• Level of involvement: People must care about resolving Level of involvement: People must care about resolving the issue.the issue.

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Two Benefits of Situational TheoryTwo Benefits of Situational Theory

• Helps the practitioner predict when groups will Helps the practitioner predict when groups will become active or remain apathetic.become active or remain apathetic.

• Helps the practitioner create communication Helps the practitioner create communication strategies for specific publics.strategies for specific publics.

How to handle conflicts…How to handle conflicts…

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Cognition and BehaviorCognition and Behavior

• Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while Cognitive theories deal with thought processes while behavioral theories deal with action.behavioral theories deal with action.

• Public relations practitioners find it useful to think Public relations practitioners find it useful to think about effects—how their client’s behavior affects about effects—how their client’s behavior affects others. others.

• Practitioners know that words and actions are given Practitioners know that words and actions are given personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that personalized meanings by others, and sometimes that meaning is not what was intended.meaning is not what was intended.

• The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ The practitioner seeks to influence his or her publics’ interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent.interpretations to accurately reflect the original intent.

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Theories of Persuasion & Social InfluenceTheories of Persuasion & Social Influence

• To learn how humans think and behave, four To learn how humans think and behave, four theories are highlighted here:theories are highlighted here:

• Social exchange theorySocial exchange theory

• Diffusion theoryDiffusion theory

• Social learning theorySocial learning theory

• Elaborated likelihood modelElaborated likelihood model

How do people listen and remember?

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Social Exchange TheorySocial Exchange Theory

• Uses the economic metaphor of costs and Uses the economic metaphor of costs and benefits to predict behaviorbenefits to predict behavior

• In general people want their costs low and In general people want their costs low and rewards high (eg. Get-rich quick schemes).rewards high (eg. Get-rich quick schemes).

• Apply to public relations by looking at how to Apply to public relations by looking at how to let publics evaluate costs and rewards to show let publics evaluate costs and rewards to show benefit of particular action.benefit of particular action.

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Diffusion TheoryDiffusion Theory

Individuals can be influenced to diffuse and adopt an idea by going through five stages.

Mass media is useful in the first two stages, and personal influence is needed in the next two before adoption takes place.

1. awareness1. awareness

2. interest2. interest3. evaluation3. evaluation

4. trial4. trial5. adoption5. adoption

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The Five Stages Of AdoptionThe Five Stages Of Adoption


2. interest2. interest

3. evaluation3. evaluation4. trial4. trial

5. adoption5. adoption

1. Awareness – Topic known but knowledge limited.1. Awareness – Topic known but knowledge limited.

2. Interest – Development of interest begins; information sought.2. Interest – Development of interest begins; information sought.

3. Evaluation – Idea applied to individual situations, more information obtained.3. Evaluation – Idea applied to individual situations, more information obtained.

4. Trial – Use begins on a small scale.4. Trial – Use begins on a small scale.

5. Adoption – Idea, service or product adopted after being proven worthwhile. 5. Adoption – Idea, service or product adopted after being proven worthwhile.

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Channels Engaged In Each StageChannels Engaged In Each Stage

• mass media and significant othersmass media and significant others

• mass media and significant othersmass media and significant others

• unbiased third parties and significant othersunbiased third parties and significant others

• unbiased third parties and significant othersunbiased third parties and significant others

• significant others and personal experiencesignificant others and personal experience


2. interest2. interest

3. evaluation3. evaluation

4. trial4. trial

5. adoption5. adoption

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Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory

• Social Psychologist Albert Bandera suggests Social Psychologist Albert Bandera suggests that we can learn new behaviors by observing that we can learn new behaviors by observing others.others.

• When we see a behavior that has the reward we When we see a behavior that has the reward we want, we may adapt that behavior for ourselves.want, we may adapt that behavior for ourselves.

• Thus, in employee relations we can see that if Thus, in employee relations we can see that if inappropriate behavior has been rewarded for inappropriate behavior has been rewarded for one employee, others may follow. one employee, others may follow.

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Elaborated Likelihood ModelElaborated Likelihood Model

• Theory says there are two ways people are influenced: Theory says there are two ways people are influenced: central route and a peripheral routecentral route and a peripheral route

• This model proposes the peripheral route in which This model proposes the peripheral route in which people are influenced by such things as the following:people are influenced by such things as the following:

• RepetitionRepetition

• Highly credible spokespersonHighly credible spokesperson

• Tangible rewards (coupons, free samples)Tangible rewards (coupons, free samples)

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A Summary of Theories about A Summary of Theories about Cognition and BehaviorCognition and Behavior

• Social Exchange Theory:Social Exchange Theory: people act in ways that reduce people act in ways that reduce costs and increase rewards.costs and increase rewards.

• Diffusion Theory:Diffusion Theory: people can be influenced to diffuse people can be influenced to diffuse and adopt ideas through five stages.and adopt ideas through five stages.

• Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory: people can be influenced by : people can be influenced by seeing how others are rewarded for particular actions.seeing how others are rewarded for particular actions.

• Elaborated Likelihood Model:Elaborated Likelihood Model: message strategies message strategies choose between central/peripheral routes based on choose between central/peripheral routes based on receiver’s motivation to process.receiver’s motivation to process.

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Theories of Mass CommunicationTheories of Mass Communication

• There are two theories that help us understand There are two theories that help us understand the powerful influence of media.the powerful influence of media.

• Use and Gratification TheoryUse and Gratification Theory

• Agenda Setting TheoryAgenda Setting Theory

How do we define media?How do we define media?

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A Definition of MediaA Definition of Media

• The English word The English word media media is a Latinis a Latin derivative of derivative of medius, medius, meaning meaning middle.middle.

• For our purposes we define media as… For our purposes we define media as…

• all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and all the means of communication, as newspapers, radio, and TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., TV, that provide the public with news, entertainment, etc., usually along with advertising usually along with advertising (Webster’s New World (Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 1999).College Dictionary, 1999).

• Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.Therefore, in your writing, media is always a plural noun.

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Use and Gratification TheoryUse and Gratification Theory

• People are active users of media and People are active users of media and choose how and when to use media choose how and when to use media based on its gratification for them.based on its gratification for them.

• You should research why your You should research why your particular publics use media. Do they particular publics use media. Do they do it…do it…• as entertainmentas entertainment

• to scan the environment for items that are to scan the environment for items that are important to themimportant to them

• as a diversionas a diversion

• as a substitute for personal relationshipsas a substitute for personal relationships

• as a check on self-identityas a check on self-identityThe connection with PR…

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Application for the PractitionerApplication for the Practitioner

• The use and gratification theory helps the The use and gratification theory helps the practitioner explain media effects, or the practitioner explain media effects, or the absence of effects.absence of effects.

• The practitioner must remember that just The practitioner must remember that just because a message is available doesn’t mean because a message is available doesn’t mean that people will pay attention and remember it.that people will pay attention and remember it.

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Agenda Setting TheoryAgenda Setting Theory

Agenda Setting is based on the assumption Agenda Setting is based on the assumption that although media can’t tell people what that although media can’t tell people what opinion to hold about an issue, it has opinion to hold about an issue, it has influence on what issues people think influence on what issues people think about.about.

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The Influence of The Influence of Agenda SettingAgenda Setting

• The agenda setting theory The agenda setting theory proposes that media has the proposes that media has the potential to:potential to:

• build issue or product build issue or product awarenessawareness

• increase issue salience increase issue salience

How do movies, mass media, How do movies, mass media, affect what issues people discuss?affect what issues people discuss?

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Public Relations Roles….the managerPublic Relations Roles….the manager

Roles have been defined in public relations theory by public Roles have been defined in public relations theory by public relations scholars Glen Broom and David Dozierrelations scholars Glen Broom and David Dozier

• Expert prescriber:Expert prescriber: person who operates as a consultant person who operates as a consultant to define the problem, suggest options, and oversee to define the problem, suggest options, and oversee implementationimplementation

• Communication facilitatorCommunication facilitator: person on the boundary : person on the boundary between the organization and its environment who between the organization and its environment who keeps two-way communication flowing.keeps two-way communication flowing.

• Problem-solving facilitator:Problem-solving facilitator: person who partners with person who partners with senior management to identify and solve problems. senior management to identify and solve problems.

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Models of Public Relations PracticeModels of Public Relations Practice

• Press agentry:Press agentry: oldest form of public relations practice where oldest form of public relations practice where propaganda tactics, special events, are used. Little regard for propaganda tactics, special events, are used. Little regard for research or ethics.research or ethics.

• Public Information:Public Information: intent is to inform through one-way intent is to inform through one-way information such as press releases.information such as press releases.

• Two-way asymmetrical model:Two-way asymmetrical model: scientific persuasion using social scientific persuasion using social science methods to increase persuasiveness of messages. science methods to increase persuasiveness of messages.

• Two-way symmetrical model:Two-way symmetrical model: depicts public relations orientation depicts public relations orientation in which organizations and public adjust to each other. It focuses in which organizations and public adjust to each other. It focuses on use of social science methods to achieve mutual understanding on use of social science methods to achieve mutual understanding and two-way communicationand two-way communication

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Other newer models for Public Relations PracticeOther newer models for Public Relations Practice

• Personal Influence modelPersonal Influence model: personal relationships with : personal relationships with keep individuals is developed. Also, an asymmetrical keep individuals is developed. Also, an asymmetrical model.model.

• Cultural Interpreter model:Cultural Interpreter model: depicts an asymmetrical depicts an asymmetrical form of public relations practice but it indicates that a form of public relations practice but it indicates that a person doing public relations in another country needs person doing public relations in another country needs someone who understands the language, culture, someone who understands the language, culture, customs and politics to do business.customs and politics to do business.

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Conflict Resolution ApproachesConflict Resolution Approaches

• Conflicts involve an individual or group actively Conflicts involve an individual or group actively opposing another because of differences in values opposing another because of differences in values and goals.and goals.

• Four resolution elements:Four resolution elements:

• Separate the people from the problem.Separate the people from the problem.

• Focus on interests, not positions.Focus on interests, not positions.

• Invent options for mutual gain.Invent options for mutual gain.

• Insist on objective criteria. Insist on objective criteria.

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Public Opinion theories….Public Opinion theories….

• What are attitudes?What are attitudes?

• What are opinionsWhat are opinions

• Is there any interaction between attitudes and Is there any interaction between attitudes and opinions?opinions?

• What is cognitive dissonance?What is cognitive dissonance?

• Are we influenced by rational or irrational Are we influenced by rational or irrational reasoning?reasoning?

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Public OpinionPublic Opinion

• What are attitudes?What are attitudes?

• Predispositions to respond in a given way Predispositions to respond in a given way to an issue or situationto an issue or situation

• What are opinions?What are opinions?

• Expression of an attitude on a controversial Expression of an attitude on a controversial issueissue..

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PR Objectives for Shaping OpinionPR Objectives for Shaping Opinion

• Conserve Favorable OpinionConserve Favorable Opinion

• Crystallize uninformed, or latent opinionCrystallize uninformed, or latent opinion

• Change/neutralize hostile opinionChange/neutralize hostile opinion

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Public Opinion PrinciplesPublic Opinion Principles

• Identification Identification PrinciplePrinciple

• Action PrincipleAction Principle

• Familiarity Familiarity PrinciplePrinciple

• Clarity PrincipleClarity Principle

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Identification PrincipleIdentification Principle

• People will ignore an idea, opinion, People will ignore an idea, opinion, point of view unless they see clearly point of view unless they see clearly that it affects their personal fears or that it affects their personal fears or desires, hopes or aspirations.desires, hopes or aspirations.

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Action PrincipleAction Principle

People do not buy ideas separated from actionPeople do not buy ideas separated from action—either action taken or about to be taken —either action taken or about to be taken by the sponsor of the idea or action which by the sponsor of the idea or action which people themselves can conveniently take people themselves can conveniently take to prove the merit of the idea.to prove the merit of the idea.

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Familiarity and Trust PrincipleFamiliarity and Trust Principle

• People buy ideas only from those they People buy ideas only from those they trust. We are influenced by, or adopt, only trust. We are influenced by, or adopt, only those opinions or points of view put those opinions or points of view put forward by individuals or corporations or forward by individuals or corporations or institutions in whom we have confidence.institutions in whom we have confidence.

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Clarity PrincipleClarity Principle

• The situation must be clear to us, not The situation must be clear to us, not confusing. The thing we observe, read, confusing. The thing we observe, read, see, or hear…the thing that produces our see, or hear…the thing that produces our impressions must be clear, not subject to impressions must be clear, not subject to several interpretations. several interpretations.

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In Summary…In Summary…

Understanding the theories behind the behavior Understanding the theories behind the behavior of an organization’s publics is essential for of an organization’s publics is essential for developing strategies and tactics that can help developing strategies and tactics that can help an organization achieve its goals. Modern PR an organization achieve its goals. Modern PR practitioners focus on two-way communication practitioners focus on two-way communication that values the input of the publics as much as that values the input of the publics as much as the persuasive power of the organization.the persuasive power of the organization.

slide 1 of 38 introduction to public relations part one public relations…the profession chapter 3...

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