TOEFL: Structure and Written Expression

General Strategies

• Be familiar with the directions.• Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions

1-5 are easier and 11-15 are harder.• Continue with questions 16-40 (Written

Expression). Questions 16-20 are easier and 36-40 are harder.

• Do not take too much time with each item. If you have time left you can go back and check 11-15 and 36-40.

• Do not leave any blank answers on the answer sheet.

Strategies for Structure Questions

• First, study the sentence.• Then study each answer choice based on how well it

completes the sentence.• Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by looking only

at the answers.• Be aware that in this section most of the items will

require you to identify the subject or the verb (or both) in the correct order of subject + verb (except on items with inverted structure).

• Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave enough time for the Written Expression Section.

Characteristics of a Sentence

• A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses.• Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordinate

clauses. All sentences must have subject and verb.• Sentences can be: simple, compound, complex, and

compound-complex.• A simple sentence is formed by only one independent

clause.

I went to the movies yesterday afternoon. Independent clause

• A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so: FANBOYS).

I went to the movies last night, and I had a great time.Independent clause conjunction + Ind. clause

• A complex sentence is formed by one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

I went to the movies after I had finished my homework.Independent Clause connector + Dependent Clause

• A compound-complex sentence is formed by more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

I went to the movies, and I had a great time because the movie Indep. Clause conj. + Indep. Clause + connector + Dep. Cl.

was terrific.

Characteristics of a Clause

• Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A complement is optional.

• There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent (or subordinated).

• Independent clauses have a complete idea and can stand alone in a sentence.

• Dependent clauses complement the independent clause, but do not have a complete idea and cannot stand alone in a sentence.

• There are three types of dependent clauses:• Noun clauses: function as a noun, so they can be

subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition.I understand how you feel.

• Adjective clauses: function as an adjective and describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause.

I know the man who works in that office.• Adverb clauses: function as an adverb and give

additional information about the verb (how, when, where, and why)

I know that man because he works with my father.

Note: We will see these in more detail in the skills.

Skills 1-5Simple Sentences: one subject + one verb

SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB:

Engineers are needed for work. S V

The boy will be going to the movies. S V

SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS:

In the past a woman in politics wasn´t common. OP S OP V

For the fever he took aspirine tablets. OP S V

SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes

another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off by commas.

Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car. S APP V

A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car. APP S V

A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing a car. S APP V

IT AND THEREStrategySome sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the constructions that follow these subjects. In the Structure section, parts of a sentence including it and there may be omitted.

A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there. 1) It is used in three ways:

– It is used as subject followed by the verb to be:It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be + that)

– It is used as subject when the information is related to an adjective:It was important to be free. (It + to be + adjective + infinitive)

– It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase:It took her a few years to learn English. (It + take + time phrase + infinitive)

2) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or place. In this use, the word there follows this construction:

there + to be + subjectThere are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.There was a big storm yesterday.

In these clauses the verb “to be” and the subject must agree on person.

“Expletive”:• Function: noun

1 a : a syllable, word, or phrase inserted to fill a vacancy (as in a sentence or a metrical line) without adding to the sense; especially : a word (as it in "make it clear which you prefer") that occupies the position of the subject or object of a verb in normal English word order and anticipates a subsequent word or phrase that supplies the needed meaningful content.

Source: Merriam Webster Online Dictionary: http://www.m-w.com/

SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES (Adjectives):

Do not confuse them with present progressive:

The boy is standing in the corner.

S V

The boy standing in the corner looks suspicious. S Adjective V

• The present participle works as an adjective:

Tip: If it does not have a form of be, it is not a verb.

SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES

Do not confuse them with the following:1. Simple past: She painted the picture.2. Present/Past Perfect: She has/had painted the picture.3. Passive Voice: The picture was painted by Karen.

• The past participle works as an adjective:The picture painted looks wonderful.

S Adjective V

Tip: If it does not have a form of be or have, it is not a verb.

Skills 6-8: Sentences with Multiple clauses:

1) Compound sentences: A compound sentence is a

sentence with two or more main or independent clauses that

can be connected with coordinating conjuctions: (acronym:

FANBOYS):

for and nor but or yet so

• These sentences normally have a comma before the conjunction/connector.

Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry.

s v con. s v

The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must study hard.

s v con. s v

The weather was great, and the sun was shining.

s v con. s v

2) Complex Sentences: A complex sentence is one that has a main or independent clause and a subordinated clause.

• Adverb Clauses: These clauses give information about the verb in the independent clause:

Time: Cause after because as since as long as now that before inasmuch as as soon as when while since until etc.

Condition Contrast Manner Place

If although as where

In case even though in that wherever

provided though

providingwhile

unless whereas

whether

Teresita went inside because it was raining. Subject verb con. Subj. verb

I am going to go to the movies as soon as I finish my TOEFL Sub. verb con. Subj. verb

exercises.

Although there is a lot of information to learn for the TOEFL Con. Subj. verb

exam, you can get the 600 points if you work hard.Subj. Verb con. Subj. verb

SKILLS 9-12: Noun and Adjective Clauses

• Noun clauses: They are the second type of subordinated clauses. They work as nouns, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition.

• Noun clauses as any other clause have the normal order of Subject + Verb. Noun clauses you have used before:

Indirect/embedded/polite questions:Where is the bank?

Could you tell me where the bank is?Does he work here?

Do you know if he works here?

• Noun clauses answer the question “What…?” and can be substituted by “it”.

SKILL 9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY Noun connectors: what, when, where, why, how, whatever, whenever, whether, if, that.

• As object of the verb: What do you know?I know what you did.S V con. S V

• As object of a preposition: What are you concerned about?I am concerned about when he will arrive.

S V Prep. C S V

• As subject of the sentence: What is not important? Con. S V When he will arrive is not important.

Subject V

SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY

Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever: Can beconnectors and subjects of the clause at the same time.

1. As object of the verb: What do you know?I know what happened.

S V C/S V

2. As subject of the sentence: What was great?What happened was great

C /S V V

3. As subject of all the sentence: What was wrong? C S V

What you did was wrong Subject Verb

• Adjective clauses: These are the third type of dependent or subordinate clause. They have the same function as an adjective: describe a noun (person, place, thing).

This is the book which I bought yesterday.

Describes the book.

The man who is standing over there helped me.

Describes the man

• Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need to have at least a subject and a verb.

• Adjective clauses go immediately after the noun they are describing, so they can appear in the middle or end of the sentence.

• Adjective connectors: Who (people), whom (people/object and after prepositions), which (things), that (people or things, but cannot be used after prepositions or when the adjective clause is between commas), where (places), whose (possessive).

I liked the book which you recommended. S V C S V

The man who you recommended was hired yesterday. S C S V V

• Who (people), which (things) that (people or things): Can be connector and subject of the clause at the same time.

She needs a secretary who can type fast S V C/S V

A secretary who can type fast is invaluable S C/S V V

Skills 13-14: Reduced Clauses

1) Adjective Clauses: Only adjective clauses where the connector works as subject of the clause can be reduced.

• Clauses with a ‘be’ form: Omit the connector and the form of ‘be’:

The girl (that is) sitting over there is my sister.The car (which was) bought by my father is a racing car.The house (that is) on sale is very old.

• Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Omit the connector and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form.

I don’t understand the article (which appears) in today’s paper.I don’t understand the article appearing in today’s

paper.

Adjective Clauses separated by commas

• If the original adjective clause was separated by commas the reduced clause keeps the commas:

The homework, which was given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow.

The homework, given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow.

• We can also change the position of the adjective clause and put it at the beginning of the sentence.

The president, (who is) now preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors.

Now preparing to give a speech, the president is meeting with his advisors.

2) Adverb Clauses: Only adverb clauses that have the samesubject as the main clause can be reduced.• Clauses with a form of ‘be’ : Keep the connector and omit the

subject and the form of ‘be’ of the adverb clause.Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the

seminar.Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

• Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Keep the connector, omit the subject and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form.

Although he feels rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar.

Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they are in passivevoice. For example, with adverb clauses with “once” can only bereduced if the verb is in passive voice:

Cannot be reduced:Once you arrive, you can start the exam.

Can be reduced:Once the exercises are answered, they are checked by

the teacher.Once answered, the exercises are checked by the

teacher. • Adverb clauses of cause cannot be reduced:

as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since

Skills 15-19: Subject and verb inverted

1) In questions the normal order of subject and verb/aux. is inverted:

Yes/No questions:With verb “to be” Are you a teacher?

V S With other verbs: Did you go to the beach? Aux. S V

Information questions: With verb “to be” Where are you?

QW V S With other verbs: What did you do?

QW A S V

2) Subject and Verb inverted after place expressions: When we have place words or expressions at the beginning of a clause we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb.

With verb “to be”: Here is the book you lent me. V SAround the corner is Sam’s house.

V SWith other verbs:

Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather. A S V

In the closet are the clothes that you need. V S

• The inversion of subject + verb with place expressions is only necessary when the expression is essential to complete the sentence.Necessary: In the forest are many exotic birds.

V S

Not necessary: In the forest, I walked for many hours. S V

3) Invert subject + verb with negatives or almost negative words: The subject and verb are also inverted after certain negatives and related expressions: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely, hardly, only, rarely, scarcely, seldom

With verb “to be”: Rarely were they so happy. V S

With other verbs: Not only did he pass, he got a 100. A S V

4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals). In certain conditional structures, the subject and the verb may also be inverted.

• When the conditional clause has: Had, should or were

Should + S + V base form: (First Conditional)

If I should finish early, I’ll help you.

Should I finish early, I’ll help you.

Were + S: (Second Conditional)

If he were here, he would help.

Were he here, he would help.

Had + S + V base form: (Third Conditional)

If you had studied more, you would’ve passed.

Had you studied more, you would’ve passed.

5) The inversion with comparatives is optional and it can be used in formal writing.

• All of these forms are correct:

My sister spends more hours in the office than John.My sister spends more hours in the office than John does.

INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + SMy sister spends more hours in the office than does John.

We were more prepared than the other performers.We were more prepared than the other performers were.

INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + SWe were more prepared than were the other performers.

General Strategies for Written Expression

• First, look at the underlined word or groups of words to see if you can identify an incorrect form or structure.

• Then, read all the sentence to verify the correct form and structure of the four answer choices. Some underlined options are incorrect because of something in another part of the sentence.

• Never leave any answers blank.

Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement

1) Be careful with: prepositional phrases

• If the subject is singular the verb is singular:

The key to the doors IS in the drawer. Ob.Prep.

• If the Subject is plural the verb is plural:

The keys to the doors ARE in the drawer. Ob.Prep.

.

2) Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity: all/most/some/half of the.

Singular count noun: All of the book was interestingPlural count noun All of the books were interesting

Non-count nouns All of the information was interesting.

3) When we have structures where we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb we have to be careful to make the verb agree with the subject. Remember this inversion is applied in questions, after expressions of place, after negative or almost negative words, in conditional clauses without “if”, and after comparisons. After these structures the order is:

With verb “to be”: verb + subject

With other verbs: aux. + subject + verb

Never is she late to class.Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth. In the first drawer is the book you are looking for.How many times have your parents warned you to be careful?

4) After indefinite pronouns: everybody, nothing, somewhere, etc., the verb or auxiliary are used in singular form:

Everybody was ready for the exam.Does someone know the answer?

Skills 24-26: Parallel Structure

Parallel Structure means to make the language as even and balanced as possible.

Example:

(not balanced: wrong) I like to sing and dancing.

(balanced, correct) I like to sing and dance.

or

I like singing and dancing.

1) Parallel Structure with coordinate conjuctions: and, but, and or.They are not interested in what you say or what you do.

clause + clause

You can decide whether to go hiking or kayaking gerund + gerund

I like to go home early, but my friends prefer to stay late. Independent clause + Independent clause

2) With paired Conjuctions2) With paired Conjuctions both…and:both…and: I know I know both both where youwhere you wentwent and and what you didwhat you did.. either…or:either…or: The report you are looking for could be The report you are looking for could be either either in thein the

filefile oror on the deskon the desk.. neither…nor:neither…nor: The tickets are The tickets are neitherneither in my pocketin my pocket nornor in my in my

pursepurse.. Not only…. but alsoNot only…. but also

He is He is not onlynot only an excellent studentan excellent student but alsobut also a great athlete.a great athlete.

• Parallel structures with comparisonsParallel structures with comparisonsmore…..thanmore…..than less….thanless….than -er….. than-er….. thanas….asas….as the same asthe same as similar tosimilar to

My school is farther than yours.To be rich is better than not to be.What is spoken is more easily

understood than what is written.Their car is as big as yours.This book costs about the same as the

other book.The work that I did is similiar to yours.English is less difficult than Spanish.

Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for parallel structure: *1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared. 2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way. 3) If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in each part.

* Source: http://www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/handouts/grammar/parallel.pdf

Skill 27-29: Form Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly

• Comparative: We compare two persons or things.

1) Add –er to one syllable words: harder, darker, faster.

2) Double the consonant and add –er to one syllable words with v+c: bigger, hotter.

3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –er to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: happier, easier.

4) Use more/less before words with two or more syllables: more beautiful, more intelligent.

5) Add than after the comparative if you specify the second person or object you are comparing:

Peter is taller than Joe.

• Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things. (add ‘the’ before the adjective)

1) Add –est to one syllable words: the hardest, the darkest, the fastest.

2) Double the consonant and add –est to one syllable words with v+c: the biggest, the hottest.

3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –est to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: the happiest, the easiest.

4) Use the most/least before words with two or more syllables: the most beautiful, the most intelligent.

5) We can also use the words ‘in’, ‘of’ and ‘that after the superlative forms:

You’re the most beautiful girl in the world.

Your’re the most beautiful of all the girls in the group.

You’re the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

• Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly.

Wrong: It is the better sports car that I´ve seen.

Right: It is the best sports car that I’ve seen.• Use the Irregular –er, -er Structure Correctly: Two parrallel

comparatives introduced by ‘the’:

The more you read, the more you learn.

The harder you try, the more you’ll accomplish.• Sometimes a verb is not necessary:

The greater the experience, the higher the salary.• The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are similar to

adjectives except with two syllable adverbs that end in –y. The comparative is formed with more/less, the most/least: more easily.

• The comparative of nouns is formed only adding: more/less, the most/least: more work, the most work.

Skills 30-32: Problems with the Form of the Verb

• Base form: No person, tense, or number.play work sing come

• Present form: With tense, person and number.play(s) work(s) sing(s) come(s)

• Present participle: Verb + -ing. Use in prog. tenses.playing working singing coming

• Past form: Used with the Simple Pastplayed worked sang came

• Past Participle: Used with Perfect tenses and Passive Voice.played worked sung come

Always check what comes:• After any form of have: have, has, had, having we should use the past

participle form of the verb:

Peter has worked a lot this week.My parents have bought a new car.I had finished my homework by 10 p.m.Having finished my homework, I went out.You should have studied a little more.

• After any form of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being the verb can be in:Present participle: for progressive tenses:I am playing. He is playing. I was playing.We were playing. I have been playing. I had been playing.

Tip: The subject does the action.

2) Past participle: for the passive voice:I am checked by the doctor every year.The water is bought every day.The mail has been delivered on time.The movie will be filmed in Mexico.

Tip: The subject receives the action.

• After modals or modal like expressions use the base form of the verb: can, could, shall, should, will, would, must, ought to, be able to, be supposed to, have to, had better.You can work with us.He should study a lot more.

They must finish the project.I would help you, If I had time.

SKILL 33: KNOW WHEN TO USE THE PAST WITH THE PRESENT

• If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the present, the sentence is probably incorrect because it doesn´t make any sense:

I tell him the truth when he asked me the question.

• However, it is possible for a correct sentence to

have both past and present together and be

correct because the meaning is logical.

I understand that you were angry

SKILL 34: USE HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY

TENSE FORM MEANING USE EXAMPLE

Present perfect

Have + Past Participle

Past up to now

Not with a past tense **

Sue has lived in L.A. for 10 years.

Past perfect

Had + Past Participle

Before past up to past

Not with a present tense

Sue had lived in L.A. for 10 years when she moved to San Diego

**Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence, see skill 35.

SKILL 35: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT

Adverb clause simple past tense: when, before, until, since, etc.

in 1990, ago, last year, yesterday,

since 1990, for… already, lately, just, yet, recently, so far, many times, ever, never, still

SKILL 36: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH WILL AND WOULD

VERB MEANING USE EXAMPLE

Will After the present

Do not use with past

I think that I will leave tomorrow

Would After the past

Do not use with present

He knew that she would come

NOTE: When would is used to make polite requests, it is used with the present tense: “I would like to have a cup of coffee please”.

SKILL 37- 38: USE THE CORRECT FORM OF THE PASSIVE

• Active Voice: The subject does the action.

The man bought the books. Subject Verb Object

• Passive Voice: The subject receives the action:

The books were bought by the man. Subject verb Agent

The passive voice is formed by:

Be (takes the tense) + Verb in past participle

Present: am/is/are bought

Pres.Prog. am/is/are being bought

Pres.Perf. have/has been bought

Past. was/were bought

Past Prog. was/were being bought

Past Perf. had been bought

Future will be bought

Future Perf. will have been bought

SKILL 39: USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR PLURAL NOUN

KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS

For singular nouns Each every single one a

For plural nouns Both two many several various

A singular noun is used where a plural noun is needed.On the table there were many dish.

A plural noun is used where a singular noun is needed.The lab assistant finished every tests.

Skill 40: Distinguish countable and uncountable nouns

For countable nouns many number few fewer

For uncountable nouns much amount little less

Key words for countable and uncountable nouns

Some common mistakes: He has seen much* foreign films. He didn’t have many* fun at the movies.

It should be:He has seen many foreign films.He didn’t have much fun at the movies.

Skill 41: Recognize Irregular Plurals of Nouns

Many nouns in English have irregular plurals; the irregular forms that are the

most problematic are plural forms that do not end in S.

Different Criteria was* used to evaluate the performers

In this example the plural criteria looks singular because it does not end in S.

However, criteria is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used is incorrect.

The verb should be in the plural form were used.

IRREGULAR PLURALS

Vowel Change Man / Men Foot / Feet Goose / Geese

Woman / Women Tooth / Teeth Mouse / Mice

Add – EN Child / Children Ox / Oxen

Same as Singular Deer / Deer Salmon / Salmon Trout / Trout

Fish / Fish Sheep / Sheep

-IS -ES Analysis / Analyses Diagnosis / Diagnoses Synthesis/Syntheses

Axis / Axes Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses

Crisis / Crises Parenthesis / Parentheses

Ends in –A Bacterium / Bacteria Datum / Data Criterion / Criteria

Curriculum / Curricula Phenomenon / Phenomena

-US -I Alumnus / Alumni Fungus / Fungi Stimulus / Stimuli

Bacillus / Bacilli Nucleus / Nuclei Syllabus / Syllabi

Cactus / Cacti Radius / Radii

Skill 42: Distinguish The Person From The Thing

Nouns in English can refer to persons or things; sometimes in the written expression the person is used in place of the thing, or the thing is used in place of the person.

Ralph Nader is an authorization* in the field of consumer affairs

There are many job oppotunities in accountant*

In the first example, autorization is incorrect because authorization is a thing and Ralph Nader is a person; it should be authority.

In the second example, accountant is incorrect because accountant is a person; it should be accounting.

SUBJECT OBJECT

I

You

He

She

It

We

They

Me

You

Him

Her

It

Us

Them

Sally gave the book to John.

She gave it to him.

A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verbAn object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition

Skill 43: DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

SKILL 44: DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

• Possessive adjectives and pronouns both show who or what ¨owns¨ a noun.

• Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the same function.

• A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must be accompanied by a noun

• A possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun, it can’t be accompanied by a noun

They lent me their book.

They lent me theirs.

POSSESSIVE

ADJECTIVES

POSSESSIVE

PRONOUNS

My

Your

His

Her

Its

Our

Their

Mine

Yours

His

Hers

-

Ours

Theirs

Must be accompanied by noun

Cannot be accompanied by a noun

The following chart outlines the possessives and their uses:

Skill 45: CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE FOR AGREEMENT

After we check that the subject and object pronouns and the

possessives are used correctly, we should also check each of

these pronouns and possessives for agreement.

The boy will cause trouble if you let him.

Everyone must give his/her* name.

PRONOUN AGREEMENT

1. Be sure that every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers to.

2. You generally check back in the sentence for agreement

*In informal speaking we can use their/them

SKILL 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY

Adjectives are used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives have only one job: they describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

She is a beautiful woman. She is beautiful. ADJ. NOUN PRO. ADJ.

She sings beautifully. VERB ADV.

She is a beautifully dressed woman. ADV. ADJ. NOUN

She is a truly beautifully dressed woman. ADV. ADV. ADJ. NOUN

Skill 47: Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs

• Generally an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly

after a verb because the adverb is describing the verb.

She spoke nicely. VERB ADV.

This adverb (nicely) describes the verb spoke.

• You must be careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb

is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb. A linking verb is

a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs a complement.

Examples: She looks nice.

SUB. ADJ.LINKING VERBS: appear feel seem be look smell

become prove taste

SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY

Adjectives and adverbs can appear in incorrect positions in the Written Expression Section.

The two common errors are:- The position of adjectives with the nouns they describe.- The position of adverbs with objects.

In English it is correct to place a one-word adjective in front of the noun it describes.

The information important is on the first page.

Here the adjective “important” should come before the noun information,this is because important describes information.

The important information is on the first page.

THE POSITION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

ADJECTIVES

ADVERBS

A one-word adjective comes before the noun it describes, it does not comedirectly after.

An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb and its object.

• You should be aware of the position of adverbs with objects of verbs. when a verb has an object, an adverb describing the verb should not comebetween the verb and its object.

He has taken recently an English course.Verb Adv. Object

• There are many possible corrections for this sentence.

Recently he has taken an English courseHe has recently taken an English courseHe has taken an English course recently.

-LY ADJECTIVEScostly likely daily quarterlynortherly

early lively hourly weekly easterly

friendly lonely monthly yearlysoutherlykindly manly nightly lovelywesterly

SKILL 49: Do not confuse –ly Adjectives with Adverbs ending in –ly

The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT

The alive* snake was lying on the rock. INCORRECT

• In the first example, the predicate adjective alive is used correctly after the liking verb was to describe the subject snake. In the second example, the predicate adjective alive is used incorrectly in front of the noun snake. In this position, the adjective live should be used.

SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES AFTER LINKING VERBS

SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY

Predicate adjectives Forms used in front of noun

alike like, similar

alive live, living

alone lone

afraid frightened

asleep sleeping

A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes.

The woman cleans the car. VERB

The cleaning woman worked on the car. ADJECTIVE

The woman put the cleaned car back in the garage. ADJECTIVE

• In the first example, cleans is the verb of the sentence. In the second example, cleaning is a verbal adjective describing woman. In the third example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing car.

The cleaning* car… is not correct because a car cannot do the action is not correct because a car cannot do the action of cleaning. (active)of cleaning. (active)

The cleaned* woman… is not correct because a woman cannot is not correct because a woman cannot receive the action of the verb clean. (passive)receive the action of the verb clean. (passive)

SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY

SKILL 51: USE –ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY

-ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES

TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE

-ING ActiveIt does theaction of theverb.

… the happily playing children….

(The children play.)

-ED PassiveIt receives the action of the verb.

… the frequently played record…

(Someone plays the record.)

Skills: 52-54: PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES:

Articles Countable Singular Nouns

Contable Plural Nouns

Uncontable Nouns

Indefinite (General)

a dollar

an apple

---- dollars

---- apples

----money

----juice

Definite (Specific)

the dollar

the apple

the dollars

the apples

the money

the juice

SKILL 52: Use Articles with Singular

Nouns

A singular noun must have an article (a/an, the) or some other

determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable

noun may or may not have an article.

I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed)

I have books. (Countable plural--- no article needed)

I have a book. (Countable singular--- article needed)

SKILL 53: Distinguish A/An

A A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant sound.

AN AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound.

Be careful of words beginning with letters such as u, o, e, x or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound.

A university A hand A one- way street

A euphemism

A xerox machine

An unhappy man

An hour An omen An event An x-ray machine

Skill 54: Make Articles agree with Nouns

• The definite article “the” is for both singular and plural nouns• The indefinite article “a/an” is used only with singular nouns.• One very common agreement error is to use the singular

indefinite “a/an” with a plural noun.

He saw a new movies. (incorrect)

He saw a new movie. (singular)

He saw new movies (plural)

Skill 55: Distinguish Specific and General Ideas

• With countable singular nouns, it is possible to use either the definite or the indefinite article. BUT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS.

¨A or An (versus) THE¨

• A or An:

1. Use it when there are many, and you don´t know which one it is.

2. Use it when there are many, and you don´t care which one it is.

Tom will bring a book tomorow. (any book)

• THE:

1. Use it when it is the only one.

2. Use it when there are many, and you and your listener know which one it is.

Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific book.)

Skills 56-57: Problems with Prepositions

Prepositions

Literal way Idiomatic way

Means exactly what you expect

It’s very far from the real

meaning

Example

The boy ran up the mountain. v/s I call up my friend.

Literal / Idiomatic meaning

Prepositions

Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and agent, but are also used in combination with verbs, adjectives, nouns, and in many common set expressions. We cannot list all prepositions, but some important groups are:

1. Verb + Prepositiondepend on lead to

2. Adjective/Participle + Prepositionsurprised at famous for

3. Noun + Prepositionexample of possibility of

4. Other Combinations with Prepositionsas a result of in addition to

5. Prepositions of Time and Placeon May 16 in Washington

6. Prepositions in Common Expressionsat present in general

VERB + PREPOSITIONaccount for contribute to insist on plan onbelieve in depend on lead to rely onbelong to detach from obtain from result inconfined to fight for overcome by withdraw from

ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITIONaccustomed to different from necessary for responsible forafraid of expert at opossed to successful inbased on free from possible for surprised atcompared to famous for related to typical of

NOUN + PREPOSITIONcause of equivalent of influence on result ofcost of evidence of need for use ofdanger of example of possibility of solution toeffect on increase in reason for supply of

OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONSaccording to in the process ofas a consequence of in view ofas a result of on account ofbecause of on behalf ofby means of on the basis ofin addition to prior toin spite of with the exception ofin terms of with the purpose of

PREPOSITIONS IN COMMON EXPRESSIONSat times by land/sea/airat present by farat first/last by chanceat the moment by accident

by day/nightin common on firein general on the other handin existence on the wholein the future/past on purposein theory on land

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE

• Prepositions of Time at time of day (at 8 a.m.) noon, night midnight in parts of the day (in the

morning/evening/afternoon)month (in July)season (in the fall)year (in 1980)decade (in the 1980s)century (in the nineteenth century)

on days of the week (on Monday)dates (on March 20)

for/since duration of time (for three days)point in time (since March 20)

from . . . tofrom beginning time . . . to ending (from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.)

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE

• Prepositions of Place

at address (at 200 Main Street)

on street/road/avenue (on Kings Road)

in building (in the drugstore)

city (in Los Angeles)

state (in California)

country (in Japan)

continent (in Africa)

from . . . to from beginning point . . . to ending point (from Alaska to California)

Skill 56-57: Problems with Prepositions

• Sometimes an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.

The game was called on because of the rain. It must be called off – (canceled)

I knew I could count in you to do a good job. It must be count on someone

• Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test.

Can you wait me after the game. It should be: wait for me.

I plan attending the meeting. It should be: plan on attending.

Skill 58: Distinguish Make and Do

•Make and Do can be confused in English because their meanings are so similar.

•Make often has the idea of creating or constructing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of make:

She likes to make her own clothes.

Would you like to make a cake for dessert?

If you make a mistake, you should correct it.

He was unable to make a response to the threat.

• Do often has the idea of completing or performing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of do:

This morning she did all the dishes.The students are doing assignments.The janitors did the work they were assigned.You can do your laundry at the laundromat.

Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and therefore difficult to classify.

http://www.epcc.edu/ftp/Homes/tracyvm/dovsmake.html

Skill 59: Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and dislike

• Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are confused because they look so similar but they have many different uses.

1) Like and alikeJohn and Tom are alike.John and Tom worked in a like manner.

As you see like and alike are adjectives that have similar meaning.

Alike is a predicate adjective, so we can only use it after a linking verb.

Like is used immediately before a noun so it is an adjective form.

2) Like and unlike

Jonh is like Tom.

John is unlike Tom.

Here both words have opposite meanings, they are working as prepositions so they must be followed by objects.

The prepositions like and unlike can also be used at the beginning of a sentence.

3) Like and dislike

John and Tom like the course.

John and Tom dislike the course.

Here both words are written as verbs, so they are used with subjects.

SKILL 60: DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER, AND OTHERS

To decide how to use other, another or others, we must consider three things:

1.- If it is singular or plural.

2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite (a).

3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by itself).

SINGULAR PLURAL

INDEFINITE

I have another book.

I have another.

I have other books.

I have others.

DEFINITE

I have the other book.

I have the other.

I have the other books.

I have the others.

Bibliography:

Broukal, Milada. In-A-Flash: Grammar for the TOEFL Test. New Jersey: Thomson Learning, Inc. 2001.

Phillips, Deborah. Longman Preparation Course for the TEFL Test. The Paper Test. New York: Pearson Education, 2003.