simon dagher project

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INTER-BASIN WATER TRANSFER AND ITS ROLE IN MODERN

SOCIETY: A NON-TECHNICAL AND TECHNICAL REVIEW

by

Simon Dagher

Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics


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ABSTRACT

Inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) is the practice of moving or exporting bulk water volumes between adjacent or

distant water-basins. It is currently being applied to hydro-projects, irrigation and for local municipal water supply.

There is concern that IBWT projects may go up a level of magnitude in terms of scale and importance, to the point

where entire States or regions may depend on it. The issue from a philosophical perspective addresses the

commoditization of water in the context of IBWT. A historical, legal, economic, institutional and political discussion

addresses the difficulties that the Canadian governments face to effectively protect its fresh water resources f rom

exportation. Three case studies are also explored. Following this is a feasibility study from an engineering

perspective. Canadian water resources are scrutinized to identify potential water extraction locations. Three

proposals are described: exporting water using pressurized pipelines into the water-stressed Ogallala aquifer of the

Southern-States; reversing river flows to supplement the Great Lakes Basin; and using trans-oceanic water tankers

for exportation. Each proposal is rated depending on their potential environmental impacts, namely hydrologic

disruptions, greenhouse emissions, social impacts, and by their potential costs and benefits. It was found that the

pipeline proposal was the most beneficial of the three options, yet all three would not be economically or

environmentally feasible.


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RSUM

To be translated


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am extremely appreciative for the involvement of my supervisor, Professor Susan Gaskin. The

continued support and assistance made this project possible.

Thank you to the professionals that accepted to lend their thoughts and ideas in an interview: Professor

Murray Clamen, Chris Wood, Dr. K.J.A. Grant and Dr. Hugo Tremblay.

I would like to thank Deena Yanofsky of the geography library for help in accessing important data.

Thanks to my friends and family who have supported me throughout.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................................... i

RSUM ......................................................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1

Inter-basin water transfers in modern society ..................................................................................... 31.1 Project overview ................................................................................................................................. 4

CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 5

IBWT and Society ...................................................................................................................................... 5

2.1 What are the trends in the global water supply? ............................................................................... 5

2.1.1 Global Water Issues ..................................................................................................................... 5

2.1.2 Preparing and responding to global water scarcity ................................................................... 11

2.2 Philosophical nature of the issue ...................................................................................................... 11


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3.1 Australian case study: Kimberley to Perth ............................................................................................ 31

3.1.1 Political perspective: a complete study by Australian water authorities ...................................... 34

Transport methods ............................................................................................................................. 35

3.1.2 Pipeline method ............................................................................................................................. 35

Source variants .................................................................................................................................... 35

Routes variants ................................................................................................................................... 36

Other considerations .......................................................................................................................... 38

3.1.3 Oceanic transport method ............................................................................................................. 40

Source options .................................................................................................................................... 40

Conveyance method ........................................................................................................................... 41

Results from GWA (2006) study .......................................................................................................... 42

Conflicting Perspectives ...................................................................................................................... 42

3.2 Qubec's northern water: Eastmain-1-A, Sarcelle powerhouses and Rupert River diversions............ 44

Project Description .............................................................................................................................. 45

3.2.1 The Required Environmental Impact Statement ........................................................................... 45

Controversies ...................................................................................................................................... 46

Cree Opposition .................................................................................................................................. 47

3.2.2 Engineering Aspects ....................................................................................................................... 48Variants ............................................................................................................................................... 49

Hydraulic structures ............................................................................................................................ 50


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(3) expected gains ............................................................................................................................... 65

4.2 Results ................................................................................................................................................... 65

4.2.1 Pipeline Proposals .......................................................................................................................... 66

Source: Laird and Nelson rivers .......................................................................................................... 66

Destination: Consumption Sites .......................................................................................................... 67

Conveyance: Pipelines ........................................................................................................................ 69

Hydrology ............................................................................................................................................ 72

4.2.2 Proposal 2: Augmenting the Great Lakes by river reversal............................................................ 73

Destination: Supplementing the Great Lakes Reservoir ..................................................................... 76

4.2.3 Proposal 3: International Exportation through Tanker Ships ........................................................ 77

Hydrology ............................................................................................................................................ 78

Source and Destination ....................................................................................................................... 78

4.3 Evaluation and discussion ..................................................................................................................... 81

4.3.1 Environmental Impacts .................................................................................................................. 82

4.3.2 Socio/Economic Inhibitors ............................................................................................................. 83

4.3.3 Expected Gains ............................................................................................................................... 84

4.3.4 Comparison .................................................................................................................................... 84

CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................................................. 865.1 Future Studies ................................................................................................................................... 86

5.2 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 87


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Visual representation of increase in scale ...................................................................................... 2

Figure 2 Typical google maps screenshot of Quebec wetland landscape (Coordinates 49.497162,-

74.613274) .................................................................................................................................................... 9

Figure 3 North American watershed map. The thick black line roughly separates where water resources

are mostly free-running .............................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 4 source (Water Corporation, 2005) ................................................................................................ 33

Figure 5 Traditional supply versus new options for Perth region ............................................................... 34Figure 6 Elevation profile of pipeline .......................................................................................................... 37

Figure 7 Source point variants .................................................................................................................... 40

Figure 8 Mooring facility loads the cargo vessel (GWA, 2006) ................................................................... 41

Figure 9 Floating water bags (GWA, 2006) ................................................................................................. 41

Figure 10 Plan view of C-1 dam (HQ, 2004) ................................................................................................ 51

Figure 11 Cross section of typical dyke showing fill constituents (HQ, 2004) ............................................ 52

Figure 12 Liard River source ........................................................................................................................ 66Figure 13 Nelson River source .................................................................................................................... 67

Figure 14 Satelite image of conveyance path ............................................................................................. 70

Figure 15 Elevation profile of Liard River .................................................................................................... 71

Figure 16 Elevation profile of Nelson River ................................................................................................ 71

Figure 17 Plan view of Albany proposal ...................................................................................................... 74

Figure 18 Albany river elevation diagram. .................................................................................................. 75

Figure 19 Section 3 of Albany proposal ...................................................................................................... 75Figure 20 Section 10 of Albany proposal .................................................................................................... 75

Figure 21 Source site for tanker exportation .............................................................................................. 79
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Summary and purpose of Case studies .......................................................................................... 31

Table 2 Categories for expected environmental impacts ........................................................................... 62

Table 3 Categories for socio/economic inhibitors ...................................................................................... 64

Table 4 Categories for expected gains ........................................................................................................ 65

Table 5 Tanker ship details ......................................................................................................................... 81

Table 6 Environmental Impacts .................................................................................................................. 82Table 7 Costs and Inhibitors ....................................................................................................................... 83

Table 8 Gains ............................................................................................................................................... 84


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CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) is the practice of moving bulk water volumes between adjacent or

distant water-basins. This is typically done to augment the available water resources in an area of

scarcity, by introducing water from an area of surplus. For centuries, if not millennia, man has been

transferring water by diverting and reworking natural watercourses. This has enabled water demanding

human settlements in places that have always been dry. These transfers have been done typically using

a small scale application of collection, conveyance, and discharge technology.

What started with ancient aqueducts and the force of gravity has evolved to incorporate new

technologies powered by pumps and turbines. Water today is moved with cargo ships, dams and river

diversions, or through, pipelines and canals. Today, this technology has a wide range of applications;

from artificially irrigating dry plains, to use in augmenting reservoirs in hydroelectricity projects.

There is concern that IBWT projects may go up a level of magnitude in terms of scale and importance. As

many governing bodies are starting to feel the pressure of water scarcity issues many experts


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water supply strategy of entire provinces or states, if not countries. Figure 1 shows the anticipated

increase in scale.

Figure 1 Visual representation of increase in scale

At the present moment, large scale oceanic watershed transfers are not being used in either Canada's or

the United States strategy for water supply; nor has water been exported in appreciable amounts

between the two countries. Four lines of reasoning can be used to explain why. (1) There is a lack of


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Despite these four compelling reasons, the controversial idea of large-scale IBWT, and water exportation

has cropped up numerous times in news stories (Jolicoeur, 2010; Morgan, 2010; Maich 2005). On one

side, we see some engineers still pushing for it (Kierans, 2012; Olechnowicz, 2010; Pierre Gingras, 2010),

on the other we see environmentalists warning us of its looming threat. Perhaps this can be explained

by considering the development of new technologies and possibilities, combined with pressing global

water scarcity issues. As these two factors increase in amplitude, and it is hard to argue that they will

not, the first and second reason that go against IBWT, which can be summed up as the lack of economic

feasibility, might reach a tipping point where they will no longer resist water transfers, rather they will

demand it.

Inter-basin water transfers in modern society

The question thus becomes: in our world of changing climate, shifting demographics, relentless

economies, and damaged eco-systems, can and should long distance water transfer play a role in water

supply within society for the next generations?

Historically, from politicians, the public, and of course those involved in environmental protection, the

h b d h h b d b d f f


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1.1 Project overview

So far in the literature, inter-basin water transfer in North America has been discussed and argued

against mostly from a non-technical standpoint. Humanitarians, environmentalists, journalists, and

geographers have contributed to this cause; yet not much is heard from those who are ultimately

responsible for actually conceptualizing and building the physical structures needed: the engineers.

Thus, this project will take it a step further and begin the discussion as to why,from an engineering and

technological standpoint, it is not an appropriate long-term solution.

To this effect, the second chapter of this project discusses the non-technical aspects. It is based on

interviews and an extensive literature review. The idea of potentially turning water into a profitable

commodity brings up wide philosophical questions of how we define natural water, and how we place

value on it. Very few people would disagree that water is a human right. This implies that governments

should be committed to ensuring access to clean water and sanitation. Yet, do we live in an economic

era where in order to fulfill these long-term commitments, economic imperatives must be the driving

factor for the means to that end? The issue from a philosophical, historical, legal, macro-economic,

institutional and political perspective will be discussed.


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Following this is a systematic and qualitative evaluation of the potential environmental impacts, social

implications, obstacles and gains of each proposal. A discussion will follow to suggest their lack of

feasibility. The project will then conclude with suggestions for future work and a wrap up of the ideas

presented.

CHAPTER 2IBWT and Society

2.1 What are the trends in the global water supply?

Inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) is an extreme and massively impactful water supply method. To accept

the idea of including such a controversial technology in a discussion of future global water supply, the

reader must have an appreciation of the problems we currently facing and are set to face. As such, we

begin by presenting statistics and trends from the literature concerning global water scarcity issues, and

how they can relate to IBWT.

2.1.1 Global Water Issues

From Maude Barlow's book Blue Covenant: The Global Water Crisis and the Coming Battle Over the


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Other statistics are given; they include:

Two fifths of the world's people lack access to proper sanitation, which has led to massiveoutbreaks ofwaterborne diseases.

Half of the world's hospital beds are occupied by people with an easily preventable waterbornedisease Contaminated water is implicated in 80 percent of all sickness and disease worldwide

Every eight seconds, a child dies from drinking dirty water.

Barlow stresses that water shortages are not limited to developing nations. Australia, a highly developed

country, is also one of the driest countries on Earth and is facing major shortages. Problems like reduced

rainfalls; increases in salinity and desertification; and unsustainable river drains have compounded the

issue.

In Barlow's book (2007), we find many chapters to be mostly concerned with the commoditization of

water resources, and the struggle between the traditional methods of publicly sharing water, versus the

for-profit privatization of water distribution. She has identified the involvement of the largest

i ld b k d i i l i i i lik h d i ki


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No doubt those with an active role in environmental protection and preservation, from individuals to

collective organizations, will have a say in what happens. Yet, history can give an indication of what is to

come when economics, profits, and markets are stimulated and involved. Sometimes the more noble or

long-term solution takes a backseat to what is going to make fast money, or what is going to make a

politician more popular.

We can take Barlow's grim vision of a corporate controlled water supply world a step further: those who

control water distribution with an aim for profit by any means will accordingly look for the cheapest

supply. If the cheapest alternative becomes IBWT; what will be there to stop them?

***

Dry spring: the coming water crisis of North America, a book written by Chris Wood (Wood, 2008), is

another popular book on the water crisis, with a special focus on North America.

It's a problem of distribution, both geographic and temporal. Water is available in the wrong

place, or the wrong occasion, with the wrong form for economic convenience. There is either too

h t t littl b t ld t i t G ldil k ld ll "j t i ht "


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*We must+ equip ourselves for the widest conceivable range of future conditions with strategies and

investments that perform well in high water and low, as well as during wild swings between the two.

(Wood, 2008). Wood acknowledges that the United States and Canada have taken certain measures to

moderate its uses of all resources, particularly water. In the last 20 years, despite population increases,

water consumption has remained more or less even or at least on par with economic development. Yet,

we still do consume too much and much can still be done to decrease our consumption before we push

for an increase in supply. A good example mentioned would be to patch up and restore outdated and

leaky water supply infrastructure which loses a lot of water before it ever reaches taps.

Diving very deep into this is beyond the scope of this project, as we will focus on what to do in the

pessimistic case that conservation is not enough and therefore we will need to add available water. This

is a realistic scenario given trends in urban migration and farming practices, and due to the threat of

climate change. Given this, it seems worthwhile to study how or if, IBWT can be designed keeping

sustainable developments and ecosystem preservation at heart.

***


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recession of the last glaciation. The Great Lakes for example, carved out and left behind by massive

glaciers, have only one percent of their volume renewed with inflows from streams and rivers and

outflows through the St. Lawrence towards the Gulf. The United-States greatest aquifer that span

across eight states was similarly created.

Figure 2 Typical google maps screenshot of Quebec wetland landscape (Coordinates 49.497162,-74.613274)

Therefore, when it is said that we are running out of water it is not implying the hydrologic cycle will

suddenly cease. It is because we are tapping the anciently deposited aquifers, wetlands, and lakes that

do not get replenished at speeds comparable to our pumping rates. This activity is plainly not

sustainable and is already demonstrated by the plethora of dried-up lakes and halted rivers across the

globe, and groundwater pumps going dry.


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***

To understand the worrisome consequences of these water issues, we can study the book Plan B:

rescuing a planet under stress and a civilization in trouble by Lester R. Brown (Brown, 2003). In it he

describes the two factors that will most affect food production (which has the greatest direct impact on

human well-being): rising temperatures and falling water tables. This is best exemplified by China, a

place that has seen unprecedented agricultural activity where water tables are falling at alarming rates.

Brown (2003) identifies food production as the most vulnerable economic sector to water issues.

Needless to say, if food output cannot keep up with demand, prices will rise and food will become a

national security issue. In other worlds, everything is linked to water from food production to energy

security and civil stability.

***

The long and short of the messages in these books is that we are running out of water. Of course this is a

very vague and general statement, and as stated in the beginning of this section, is repeated very often.

F th W ld W t C il i 2010


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2.1.2 Preparing and responding to global water scarcity

In response to this reality, Ghassemi and White (2007) make a good point: the "water profession has

been repeating ad nauseaum for the last four decades that business as usual is not an option, but they

continue to behave as if there is no other option." Policy makers, scientists, and engineers are all using

current and historical data and methods in their efforts to ensure a steady water supply. There is no

need to abandon traditional ways of supplying and conserving water, but now is the time to re-evaluate

our strategy and prepare ourselves for new challenges.

This project serves this need; to open up the dialogue to an unconventional water supply strategy. There

is little doubt that massive scale water transfer projects are unrealistic at the time being. However those

most affected by water scarcity issues will eventually face desperate times. If Canada, a place rightly

considered as having an abundant supply, is to defend and protect its water resources, all angles have to

be studied and all proposals and options need to be considered and debated.

2.2 Philosophical nature of the issue2.2.1 Wasted water


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Therein lays the controversy and sensitivity towards considering water as a commodity or a resource.

Water has vital a role in the ecosystem, whereas all other resources either have a lesser (timber) or a

non-existent role (minerals, petrol). If we exhaust our nickel reserves, our only concern will be to think

of another way to strengthen steel. If we run low on clean water, the consequences are far more

disastrous.

2.2.2 Justified environmental impacts

IBWT involves removing water from its natural course. Thus, the environmental question is of the

importance of maintaining natural discharge rates along rivers and at the mouth of rivers. Assessing the

environments sensitivity to change should be done case-by-case. Given the typical biodiversity and

activity of major rivers especially at estuaries, we should not undermine the importance of preservation

(Linton, 2002).

IBWT will have environmental impacts starting with changes to the hydrologic regime, followed by

impacts on the local climate, ecosystem and finally biologic activity (Linton, 2002; Sasseville &

Abdessalem, 2005). Therefore, in light of this and the uncertainties as to its severity, some professionals


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specific conditions. The two alternatives, small and big, may co-existit is not an either/or proposition.

They conclude that it is important to move the question way from whether large projects involving

dams, diversions and pumps should be built, to how these can be done economically, safely, and within

social and environmental acceptability.

In the foreword ofLeau du Nord(Pierre Gingras, 2010), M.K. Gagnon is also vocal against this knee-jerk

reaction towards engineering projects like IBWT. He expresses that water, once used, continues to exist

and asks if it comes back not polluted, what does it bother if it spends time in another step? The

sentiment is that untapped freshwater will end up mixing into unusable salt water anyway; we might as

well use it for our economic benefit. A similar sentiment was expressed by Kazimir Olechnowicz, the

president of the Canadian civil engineering giant CIMA+ during a Radio-Canada news interview

(Olechnowicz, 2010).

This issue can be addressed using a utilitarian perspective. If we are to push for water as a universal

human right, we must accept some of the measures taken to supply it. Supplying water inevitably has

environmental impacts. For example, tapping fossil groundwater can cause ground subsidence.


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nature. Of course this is hypothetical, and the best course of action can only be truly found using site

specific data and environmental conditions. The question is of scale, both spatial and temporal

(Lasserre, 2005). How big of an impact is too big of an impact? How can we measure this and give

proper value to water in the ecosystem? With respect to IBWT, what is the maximum flow that we can

sustainably remove from a river?

There are scientific and objective ways of answering these questions. Within an environmental impact

assessment, the minimum flows to protect certain fish species or to enable a minimum floodplain can be

measured. There are also hydraulic structures that can be used to mitigate the impacts such as weirs or

engineered river bedding that serve to maintain desired water levels, velocities, turbulence and other

hydraulic characteristics (as described in the Rupert River case study).

2.2.3 Canadian water: abundance or surplus?

Activists (Barlow 2007; Quinn, 2007; Linton, 2002) like to bring up the question does Canada reallyhave

a surplus of water? in their arguments. From (Quinn, 2007):

There is a widespread misconception in both countries that Canada is much wealthier in


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worlds population, with 7-9% of renewable water resources depending on estimates (Sasseville &

Abdessalem, 2005). The appropriate way to assess the relative abundance is to consider the availability

of free-running renewable water resources. This is the water in rivers discharging away from

populations. It flows naturally into northern seas and oceans. The stock of water that is available for

export can be considered as the quantity that can be spared from these rivers. Consider figure 3: the

area north of the thicker black line is roughly where water mostly runs free towards the north (barring

some industrial and hydropower activity). South of this line is amidst human population and thus

inappropriate for exportation. The majority of the Canadian population lives south of the black line.

Environmentalists and engineers may vastly disagree on what quantity, if any, can be considered a

surplus. However, with the vast unpopulated reaches of

the north, Canada can be considered as having a huge

abundance of pristine water flowing out relative to the

United-States or most other countries. Whether it can be

labeled as surplus or to spare is tough to answer, just

as difficult as whether water is ever wasted. Again, the


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and value of water resources is discussed by many authors (Johns, 2008; Wood 2008; Wood, 2011,

Barlow, 2007). This is in response to the emergence of water in an international economy, where it can

be controlled and traded and is valuable as a commodity on a free-market. Activists such as Barlow and

Wood deplore focusing on liquid water itself as a commodity, while ignoring its other indirect and

elusive roles in economic production. From the interview with Chris Wood (Wood, 2011):

What thoughtful people need to do is recognize that water has economic value. Some of that is in

its nature as water. Some is in the products we can make that others with less water cannot

(embedded/virtual water). Some is in the ecoservices that water enables (this value may be very

large indeed, just poorly assessed). We need to be able to recognize all of these and have adult

conversations about them all, and about the potential they each have to improve Canadians

quality of life, without going into brain-lock around the idea of commodifying water.

In other words, it is meaningless to get lost in semantics. The pursuit of long-term quality of life and

environmental sustainability is what is important. Water is not valuable to Canadians only because of

some arbitrary heritage that we want to protect or some association of water with life (Agnew &


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2.3 Water transfers and exports in Canadian society

The idea of inter-basin water transfer, when done within national boundaries, has resulted in public

opposition and controversy. This was seen numerous times over with the river flow disturbances and

inundations required to build and operate giant hydro-facilities in Northern Quebec.

Moving water across an international boundary becomes a whole other story in terms of controversy.

There are many implications beyond concerns for environmental impacts. Canadians have always

regarded water as their heritage (Barlow, 2007); relegating water as just another commodity would

result in public outcry, despite proclaimed economic benefits at the international stage. As a result of

this, the government's reaction in the form of the legal, political and economic institutions to either

protect or take advantage of Canadian water warrants considerable attention.

Water law and politics can get somewhat complicated. To the experts, there is much open for

interpretation and for debate (Johns, 2005; Tremblay, 2011; Grant, 2008). When it comes to bulk water

transfers, what environmentalists are continuously pushing for is the certainty that, within the layered

and complicated web of laws and agreements, there exist concrete provisions for environmental


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2.3.1 Timeline: Inter-basin water transfer and Water Policy in Canada

The story of Canadian water politics is a long and drawn out one. Many issues and conflicts have

progressively mandated, shaped and matured Canadas water laws, policies, public institutions, and

international agreements. They include conflicts between the multiple users of a watershed, the

establishment of property rights, protection of northern aboriginal communities, public health, hygiene,

sanitation and the right to clean water. Increasingly, provisions have been made for the protection of

water resources, navigation routes, fisheries, and the natural environment. Finally, in modern times,

there has been much discourse relating to the potential for water as a commodity and as an economic

good; both as virtual water through the export of goods, or through bulk water exports. Of course the

story of Canadas water policy is and will be ongoing; more-so now with the advent of technologies,

increased environmental awareness, climate change, and unprecedented new economic opportunities.

The next section deals with the emergence and evolution of laws, agreements, and institutions that can

be applied specifically to inter-basin bulk water transfer in Canada. These are presented chronologically

in four observable and distinct time periods. The first era deals with the origins of water policy in

Canada. The second era comprises the technological boom of the ambitious early 1960s; complete with


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"delineated the rights and obligations of the United States and Canada with respect to the protection of

natural levels and flows of their shared boundary waters. (Grant, 2008).

This established the international joint commission (IJC), which active even today has the role of

enforcing the treaty. *The IJC+ must follow the Treaty as they try to prevent or resolve disputes. They

must act impartially, in reviewing problems and deciding on issues, rather than representing the views

of their respective governments. (International Joint Commission, 2012).

Grant (2008) identifies that the treaty, as well as the influence of the IJC, was to be used as an

instrument for environmental protection. It gave vetoes to each federal government and to the panel

of IJC commissioners collectively over any proposed diversion in boundary waters that would

substantially affect water levels on the other side of the international border.(Grant, 2008).It should be

said however, that initially the main intention to preserve water levels was to ensure navigation routes

through the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. Grant (2008) identifies that the treaty is not fully

applicable to bulk transfers of a grander scale as discussed in this project.

2.3.3 The ambitious era: late 1950s to 1970.


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The promotional video (Parsons Co., 1964) describes the points where the flow would need to cross the

saw-tooth Mountain range of Western United States. It would require a tunnel 24 meters in diameter

(which is about the width of a six standard highway lanes) and 800 kilometers in length. Clearly this was

no small undertaking, if one was to imagine the kind of power required to pressurize such a massive

pipe in just this one section.

The proposed benefits across North America were demonstrated to be nothing short of astonishing. The

promotional video from the 1960s (Parsons Co., 1964) describes how the sectors of water supply,

power, flood control, agriculture, seaway transportation, and recreation would directly benefit. The

lower states would enjoy a doubling of their water supply; and a large amount of economically valuable

hydroelectricity would be generated on down sloping sections. Politically, this project would contribute

to the United States clout as a nation fully harnessing and taming nature, something which could be

shown proudly on the world stage.

In terms of impacts, not much was identified or considered. This was during an era before

environmental impacts became crucial to new projects. Yet, some importance to maintaining


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under its own weight: the astronomical costs and multiple decade timescale needed, made it in

intimidating and risky undertaking to fund and start (Grant, 2008).

GRAND

Compared to NAWAPA, the GRAND (Great Recycling And Northern Development) scheme of the 1960s

proposed by Newfoundland engineer Tom Kierans was at a more realistic scale, albeit still at a scale

large enough to be seen from space. Kierans proposed to block off the James Bay from the Hudson Bay,

using a dike spanning across the junction. This would allow freshwater to accumulate via the many rivers

that dump into the James-Bay perimeter; while saltwater would slowly drain out. Eventually, this

enclosure would turn into a large freshwater lake.

Now armed with a massive freshwater reservoir, more populated areas of the South could benefit from

a new inflow. It would require a large network of pumps, canals and reversed rivers; these naturally

requiring large energy demands, as well as environmental impacts.

To this day, this project remains in incubation with its designer still optimistic of its inception (Wood,

2008; Clamen, 2011). Yet, the author ofDry Spring, Chris Wood, does not believe it will see the light of


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Under the new free-trade conditions, we find a few examples in North America of tensions caused by

water exportation. They differed from the projects of the previous era, in that they were of a much

lesser scale, less sophisticated and more realistic (Grant, 2008). The proponents were enterprises; while

governments played the role of moderator. Therefore, rather than being shut down for being technically

and economically infeasible, they were shut down for political reasons.

One example highlighted by a few sources (Grant, 2008; Wood, 2008) occurred in 1991. Sun Belt Water

Inc. of Santa Monica, California was the winner of a bid to supply a small American town with British-

Columbian freshwater through containerships. The deal was promptly halted by a provincial moratorium

on water exports. Both Sun Belt Water Inc. and the Canadian company responsible for the supply end,

Snowcap Waters of Fanny Bay, attempted to sue the federal government. Citing the investments section

(specifically article 1105) of the NAFTA agreement, Sun Belt claimed they were being treated unfairly;

yet since no other Canadian company had been granted the green light or an advantage for such an

endeavor, the federal government dismissed the claim (Grant, 2008).

In light of this, Canadian federal reports began calling out for legislation that would clearly and


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MCS) from Lake superior for exports by ship to Asia. Permits were issued by the Ontario Ministry of the

environment. This project was halted due to a large public outcry from both the Canadian and American

side of Lake Superior.

Legally, the project went against policy as there were constraints on water exports from the Great Lakes

basin; not to mention "the granting of such a permit by the province of Ontario ran counter to principles

of conservation and cooperation management set out in joint Province-State declarations such as the

Great Lakes Charter, a non-binding agreement drawn up in 1985 between the provinces and states of

the Great Lakes basin aimed at protecting their shared water resources. (Grant, 2008).

2.3.5 The Federal Strategy: 1999 to early 2000s

The 90s saw a handful of tanker ship proposals. Even considering their sum running continuously year

round, they could not significantly have an effect on water levels of the Great Lakes or of coastal rivers.

Yet, the Canadian government was adamant in its position to restrict these exports. Allowing those few

would set a precedent, perhaps a disastrous one. Once a few companies would be allowed to ship

water, any other could not be denied (Barlow, 2007; Heinmiller, 2003). The problem could be amplified


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Nevertheless, with their goals and the obstacles in sight, Heinmiller (2003), as well as Grant (2008)

recognized the Canadian governments strategy of prohibiting bulk water removals. By framing *it+ as

an environmental management issue [in the Federal Strategy], the Department of Foreign Affairs and

International Trade hoped to avoid trade challenges since an outright ban on water exports was

contrary to trade rules of the GATT and, subsequently, the NAFTA. (Grant, 2008).

With this, in 1999, the Canadian federal government decided to push towards making water unlike other

natural resources subject to trade laws, such as lumber or minerals. As long as the water was

underground, or in surface water, it was considered safe from trade obligations. The logic underlying

this approach is that water in its natural state in rivers or lakes, for example is not considered a good

or a product and is not subject to international trade rules (Grant, 2008).Thus, the act specifically tried

to regulate water withdrawals, rather than water trade. (Heinmiller, 2003).

Grant (2008) continues this discussion by detailing the three elements of the 1999 federal strategy:

1) Proposed amendments to the International Boundaries Waters Treaty Act:Signed in 2001, this made sure to stipulate that bulk water removals would conflict with the initial


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This led to a document in 2000 (International Joint Commission, 2000). In it, the IJC provided important

recommendations to protect water. They also addressed the worries of the free-trade agreements, but

only specific to the Great Lakes basin (Grant, 2008).

2.3.6 Current situation and difficulties

Large-scale water diversions have the potential to threaten Canada's sovereignty from the large and

relentless economic empire of the United States. Canadians do not want to be in the position where

they must perpetually submit their natural resources, water being the most precious of them, lest they

face huge penalties and the souring of other important trade relationships.

Thus the question becomes: today, does the Canadian government protect its water? It is clear that the

Great Lakes area is well protected, but what about the rivers that flow away from populations? The

Canadian government has plainly stated that they do not intend on opening up trade negotiations

(Richer, 2007), yet Maude Barlow (Barlow, 2007) clearly does not believe this to be entirely true. She

expresses her concern by calling it a myth that Canadians believe their government will protect natural

water.


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It all stems from the fact that the original Canadian Constitution did not clearly delineate and divide

powers to decide on water issues; especially that of a water export application (Heinmiller, 2003; Grant,

2008). The provinces are responsible for their water resources, while the federal government is

responsible for international trade. Johns (2008b) adds that jurisdictional complexity is also related to

the physical nature of water resources... the multi-jurisdictional scale and fugitive or transitory nature of

water and its many interrelated uses make it hard to fit neatly within well-defined categories of

property rights.

The fragmented nature of policies and their ambiguities have become a rather notorious problem in

Canadian water politics. Heinmiller (2003) highlights one example, section 109 in the Constitution act of

1867 in which provinces can cite for proprietary rights over all publicly owned lands, and resources. This

has given the provinces the needed authority to sell their water. However, according to the much more

recent international trade agreements, it is the federal government that should oversee and deal with

large-scale trading between countries. Also, as Heinmiller (2003) highlights, the federal government has

jurisdiction over issues on navigation and inland fisheries. This has resulted in delays and deferring of

actual concrete measures to deal with the complexities of water exportation.


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As expressed before, there is abundant water that flows north into the Arctic; therefore northern

watercourses are considered the most vulnerable to water transfers.

The Rupert River and Eastmain powerhouse case study discussed in the next chapter is a prime example

where northern water had its direction reversed, despite being an expensive undertaking. It still

happened even with vocalized concern among aboriginal communities. Therefore we can conclude that

the largest barrier between exploiting northern water, and protected it, ultimately comes down to basic

economics and practical feasibility, and not public opposition, political power or institutions.

Difficulty 3: trade agreements

As described, the late 1980s saw the emergence and development of free-trade agreements. Perhaps

more than anything else, with the introduction of the FTA and then NAFTA which superseded it, came

the reduction in influence of the federal government (Heinmiller, 2003). With respect to IBWT, under

NAFTA, the Canadian governments (both federal and provincial) are restricted from imposing export

controls on water goods unless there is a serious emergency that can justify such a restriction.

(Heinmiller, 2003). Also, any type of profit making venture for water exportation must be open to


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Prosperity Partnership (SPP), a trilateral initiative to increase the economic integration of Canada, the

United States and Mexico (Quinn, 2007). If all three North American countries were to aggressively

adopt this type of planned economic development, it would be of no surprise that water sharing could

be a top priority for all three countries. Canada might be anxious to put something of value on the table:

its large freshwater supply.

Difficulty 5: Consequences of banning, and compromised alternatives

Many researchers criticize the Canadian federal government for not being very clear about water

exports when given the chance. Heimiller (2003) and Grant (2008) both discuss how the Canada water

act of 1970 could have, but failed to addressed directly water exports through a permanent ban. Since

the ambitious projects of the 1960s, there has been a call from both the Canadian public and

environmentalists urging for a national ban on water exports once and for all (Heinmiller, 2003).

Sasseville & Abdessalem (2005) argues that it is the sheer grandeur of the issue that is inhibiting political

decisiveness. Moving water across a geopolitical landscape is a very complex question that brings up

many economic, social and environmental difficulties and unknowns for politicians. They therefore do


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The bottom line

Although the various difficulties are presented as distinct, they are very much interconnected. For

example, the establishment of trade agreements caused much of the jurisdictional conflicts; and

jurisdictional conflicts have provided an excuse for the government to delay and defer bans, or

otherwise deal with the water export issue.

With all this, it is obviously important to finally answer the simple question: with respect to the various

constitutions, institutions, trade agreements, policies, and other forms of control, are international bulk

water transfers possible? This bottom line is perfectly described in Grant (2008):

While some Canadian businesspeople see trade in bulk water as a source of untapped wealth and

a potential growth industry for the 21st century, many others view it as a looming environmental

catastrophe and a major threat to Canadian sovereignty. Current federal and provincial policies in

Canada have stymied the bulk water export business thus far, but it remains a prospective new

economic user of Canadian water, clearly challenging the institutionalized status quo.

In other words, despite every obstacle in the way of bulk water transfer, such as current public


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Table 1 Summary and purpose of Case studies

Case study nature Transfer method Purpose

Australiancase study:Kimberley toPerth

Proposedschemes tosupply expectedincreases inmunicipaldemands

pipeline, canal,tanker

- Discusses the process a government shouldtake to thoroughly assess the feasibility of aIBWT proposal.

- There are also lessons learned from designspecification of water resource sourcing,pipeline design, hydraulic structures,environmental impacts and cost analysis

Qubec'snorthern

water:Eastmain-1-A& Sarcellepowerhousesand RupertRiverdiversions

Newlyoperational for

hydroelectricity

Diversions,flooding

- Design and arrangement of hydraulicstructures, and river works specific to NorthernQuebec landscapes.

-Requirements for Environmental ImpactStatements in Quebec.

- Example of the socio-political climate andconsequences of a large water project inCanada.

ColoradoBigTh

Operational formunicipal andi i ti l

Canal, tunnels,pumps

- Example of a functional cap-and-trade systemof water resource allocation.


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supply (Ghassemi & White, 2007). From environmental standpoint this will prevent impacts from water

resource exhaustion, but it necessitates some kind of urgent response from water authorities to find

other ways to maintain water security. The obvious first action is to take active measures to reduce

consumption. Yet, there might very well come a point where demand will exceed the potential of the

traditional supply, despite all measures that could be taken to curb demand.

As a case study, the metropolitan area of Perth on the South-Western coast will be focused on. It has an

estimated population of 1.7 million and rising (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010). The urban area is

located in a dry-temperate climate zone. Supplying this growing population with water has been

problematic, and it is becoming especially worrisome with perceived and anticipated impacts of climate

change combined with increases in consumption (Ghassemi & White, 2007). This prediction is shown

graphically (Figure 4, prepared by Water Corporation), where the yearly breakdown of the various

supply methods is superimposed on the trend for expected demand. Note the gradual divergence

between supply and demand starting in 2017, where supply authorities will either be forced to tap into

non-sustainable supplies, or try non-traditional means, such as IBWT or desalination. Both are not

desirable. Both are high energy consumers, are expensive to set up and operate. Both will generate


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Figure 4 source (Water Corporation, 2005)

The Australian government is aware of this, thus they have conceded to studying and comparing the


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Figure 5 Traditional supply versus new options for Perth region

3.1.1 Political perspective: a complete study by Australian water authorities

The idea of transporting water down to Perth from Kimberley began to garner public attention in the

late 1980s (Keating, 2006). The concept was straight forward: transfer water to Perth from North-


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reference, equally important was the Panels evaluation of social and environmental impacts. The

Panel therefore sought consultancy reports on these impacts, and also consulted with the

community in Kimberley.

Indeed, this is a good example of a government taking their water resource situation seriously. The

argument here is that the Canadian government, as well as the provincial governments, should follow

suit. It is not enough to just outright ban water exports; there should be accompanying technical,

engineering, and ecological based studies, that include socio-economic considerations, to back up and

justify these institutional restrictions.

Transport methods

Three proposed methods to transfer water over the long distance from Kimberley to Perth were

proposed: an underground pipeline, a lined canal, and oceanic transport (via tanker ships or towed

water bags). The pipeline and tanker will be discussed as they were the most realistic and applicable to

the proposals of chapter 4 of this project.

3.1.2 Pipeline method


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have to be stored by using either a dam reservoir, or an off-stream contained reservoir. This has led to

numerous variants, in terms of the location of hydraulic structures, extraction methods and storage

facility types.

Routes variants

In addition to the source point, the conveyance path options have also been discussed thoroughly. This

paper will focus on the most recent: the two variants presented in the 2004-2006 study (GWA, 2006;

Water Corporation, 2004). The first route is an in-land direct path, which starts at the William barrage

and follows the Great Northern highway for 1900 kilometers. The second follows the Kalgoorlie and the

G&AWS natural gas pipeline . It was found that the advantages of building along a pre-existing pipeline,

which would leverage a certain amounts of pre-existing infrastructure and vegetation clearage, did not

outweigh the cost of a substantially longer (500km) conveyance path. As such, the first option was

chosen.

The design criteria were as follows:

Required yearly discharge would start at 100 billion liters per year (3.2 (MCS)meters cubed per


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allowable pressure in the pipeline was not specified, nor was the available pumping capability,

but it is assumed that these constraints were considered when designing the proposal.

The results of the study found that the optimal diameter of the pipeline to be 1400mm, and the material

would be traditional high-pressure steel with the concrete lining. The other options for material were

not chosen due to concerns of the high pressures involved, and the lack of large-scale examples that

show reliability or price competitiveness.

To overcome the change in elevation, four hydraulic pumping stations would be required along the

route. This is illustrated by the hydraulic grade line in the elevation profile graph (figure 6). In terms of

energy use, this scheme would require 100 MW at the Fitzroy source, and 30 MW for each pumping

station along the route.


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Other considerations

Water quality:Ensuring a clean supply at the end is a crucial design element. Prior to being injected into

the pipelines, the flow would be subjected to screening, sedimentation and granular media filtration

(GWA, 2006). This would remove solid particles and colloids. To prevent contaminations from

pathogens, the water would be disinfected. Given the length of the pipeline and concerns for the

potential for pathogenic growth, some kind of booster chlorination treatment could be required at a

midpoint of the pipeline.

Power supply:Various options for supplying power to the pumping stations and treatment plants are

described in (Ghassemi & White, 2007). The options would be to (1) use the power generated from the

already built infrastructure servicing the Perth metropolitan area, (2) use individual diesel fuel stations,

(3) use tidal power from the Kimberley region, or (4) use solar power stations. In terms of minimized

costs, it was found that the best alternative would be to use pre-existing power plants.

Aboriginal heritage: In their analysis of the proposal, Water Corporation (2004) express that a major

stumbling block and politically sensitive issue would be that of aboriginal heritage. Although it would be


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Social impacts: Land access issues for transportation, increases in traffic in smaller roads, and

community severance are significant negative impacts of the construction process (thus only short-term

problems). According to Water Corporation (2004), the majority of these issues are able to be

mitigated through planning and good management and are unlikely to be of significant impact.

Environmental impacts: Listed by Water Corporation (2004) are the most foreseeable and significant

environmental impacts:

1. Energy expenditure and greenhouse gas emissions.

Emissions and energy expenditure would come mainly from operating the energy intensive pumps. Also

significant is the energy required for fabricating the steel pipes, and for transporting all the material.

Pumping would require an estimated 14 Wh per liter. Comparatively, desalination uses 5 Wh per liter. If

powered by natural gas power plants, CO2 emissions would approach 2.5 mT per year. Options to curb

carbon emissions include carbon sequestration and solar energy; both of which under present and

projected technology are not economical or feasible.

2 I t th di h f th Fit Ri


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The construction phase would require a 30 m wide cleared surface. Soil disturbances, loss of vegetation

and habitat destruction would be expected. Also, the movement of vehicles and machinery for

construction could risk spreading undesirable plants and species along the pipeline route. These impacts

could be considered as temporary, and measures such minimizing erosion, sedimentation, and

contaminations should be taken.

The study concludes that The majority of biodiversity impacts, apart from those affected by the

environmental flow of the Fitzroy, are likely to be mitigated through environmental management plans,

construction management and rehabilitation work. (Water Corporation, 2004).

3.1.3 Oceanic transport method

Source options

Both the Ord and the Fitzroy Rivers were considered variants for the water source (see figure 7). In the

end, the Ord River was chosen, despite the Fitzroys advantage of a shorter transport path down to

Perth. By utilizing the already established infrastructure, which is chiefly a storage dam (GWA, 2006),

significant savings in initial capital could be had.


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From the barrage near the town of Kununurra, a 162km pressurized pipeline would be build to feed a

basic water treatment plant (similar treatment as the pipeline scheme). An additional underwater

pipeline, (47km in length, optimally designed with epoxy coated welded steelgiven the expensive

nature of underwater piping), would connect to a single-point mooring loading facility (figure 8).

Conveyance method

Two options were considered to transport water

around the coast. The first would use oceanic

supertankers commonly employed in the largest oil

shipments. New vessels were considered for the

analysis, with a price tag of 215 million CAD$ each.

Similarly to the pipeline scheme, the volume of

shipped water would gradually increase over time.

As described by GWA (2006): At a practical maximum average speed of 15 knots (about 30 km/hour), it

would require at least four ships of 500,000 dead-weight tonnes operating on a continual 14-day

Figure 8 Mooring facility loads the cargo vessel (GWA, 2006)


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at the required scale of several hundred GL per year over a 5 decade timeline. A rudimentary

assessment found this option to be substantially less cost effective, yet a scenario using 0.5GL bags was

included in the final economic analysis. GWA (2006) expressed that more research and development of

this technology is required.

Results from GWA (2006) study

It the end, given the expected rise in water demand, it was found that the lowest cost option would be

to supply water using oceanic supertankers. The cost would come to $6.70 per meter cubed, which is

about five times the cost of desalination. Appendix A has a table taken from GWA (2006) summarizing

the comparison results, as well as various other notes.

The conclusions of the GWA (2006) report was that inter-basin water was infeasible on many fronts;

cost and energy consumption (both initial and operational) being the most deterring. Other deterring

factors included the risks and unknowns associated with the options, environmental impacts (especially

green-house gas emissions due to the high energy requirements), and social impacts.

Conflicting Perspectives


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Some members of the public are especially pushing for water transfers. A pertinent example would be

of the pressure from Michael Derry, a business consultant that has many years dealing with the oil

industry and specifically shipping large volumes of liquid (Derry, n.d.). Granted, this person has a

business bias and much to gain from such an undertaking (as is a common reoccurrence from

professionals who push for IBWT projects), his voice should nevertheless be heard.

Derrys website applauds Australian government to take the issue of water transfers seriously. Indeed,

the proper steps were taken: the government assembled a competent committee which carried out a

thorough investigation through data acquisition and analysis. Yet, Derry does not agree with the

conclusions drawn from the comparison of technologies and water supply methods.

We are concerned that the Committee was given no role by the Government to challenge or

investigate the key information and assumptions given to it by the Water Corporation. These facts

were taken as fixed and had a crucial bearing on the Committee's final report. Consequently a

reader of the report gets the mistaken impression that comparing a dollar assessment of one

option in the report against the dollar assessment of another one gives a correct and accurate


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numerous errors in the cost assessment, energy consumption, and of the environmental impacts of

implementing desalination plants.

This underlines the complexity of comparing large-scale technologies. It should further solidify the

concession and urgency towards studying the issue across many angles. It also suggests the value of

contracting many different organizations to conduct studies, to ensure the issue may be

comprehensively and conclusively be evaluated.

3.2 Qubec's northern water: Eastmain-1-A, Sarcelle powerhouses and Rupert

River diversions

For the past 50 years, Hydro-Qubec has been very active harvesting the energy that flows east to west

into the Bay James, in the form of river flow. Its focus on that part of Quebec is reasonable; the

perimeter of the James Bay receives discharge from many high flow rivers that extend out radially.

The challenge, however, is that the infrastructure and capital costs needed to build a Hydro facility is

extremely large, especially when it occurs so far from human populations where materials and labor is

more easily attained Furthermore the water that flows west is not carried by a single large river; rather


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damned and diverted upstream zone, (2) a downstream zone of reduced flow, and (3) lakes and rivers

with its volumes and flow increased.

Project Description

The Eastmain powerhouse and Rupert diversion project is typical in this schematic sense, but atypical in

its grandeur, use of technology and measures needed for environmental preservation. The plan was to

divert the flow of the Rupert River, north into the Eastmain reservoir. The flow would work its way up,

first through two new powerhouses (the Eastmain-1-A, and Sarcelle), then towards the pre-existing

reservoirs and turbines further north (LaGrande complex). The potential net energy production was

estimated at 8.5 TWh (HQ, 2004).

3.2.1 The Required Environmental Impact Statement

In 2002, agreements were signed between Hydro-Qubec and the Crees of Quebec (the first Nation

group settled in the James Bay region). The Crees consented to the construction and operation of the

project, given a commitment from Hydro-Qubec to ensure that the project was fully subject to

applicable environmental legislation. This was to protect the environment and aboriginal communities


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The EIS document as well as the whole project review and assessment process was set to prove that the

project was profitable under market conditions, environmentally acceptable, and well received by local

communities (HQ, 2004).It also made efforts to include native community involvement. Systematic

inclusion of the Crees in conducting surveys of the various environmental components, thus ensured

that Cree traditional knowledge was taken into account in establishing procedures for sampling and field

data collection and analysis (HQ, 2004).

The evaluation and assessment process of the EIS includes a review and submission of

recommendations by the Environmental and Social Impact Review Committee (COMEX); public

participation through consultations and hearings; and granting of permits issued by the described

governing bodies. This process and conclusions are found in detail in the COMEX (2006) report.

Controversies

Most of the above information was provided directly from the Hydro-Qubec side of the project; which

naturally presents the project with a certain amount of one-sided bias. Several sources have shined light

on the other side of the issue. In 2006, news outlets (Bonspiel, 2006; CBC, 2006 ). and Northern


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the negative impacts of the Eastmain-1-A Powerhouse and Rupert Diversion project. The project will

cause mercury increases in the fish in six areas. This would lead to fish consumption limitations

(MMDEP, n.d.).

The project also sparked controversy over the use of Hydro-Power in general. Whether hydro-electricity

can be considered a renewable energy source is still up for debate. Some studies have shown that GHG

emissions of hydro reservoirs can surprisingly exceed that of similar power output coal burning plants

(Montreal Environment, 2011). Hydro-Qubec is aware of this concern of some of the negative stigma

associated with hydro-power, and has thus partaken on some public-relations effort in order to de-bunk

some of the so-called myths (for example, see www.hydroforthefuture.com).

Cree Opposition

In 2006, Three Cree tribes claimed they never gave their consent to Hydro-Qubec, and were set to

oppose the development after tallying community votes (Bonspiel, 2006; Northern Waterways, 2006).

They were not claiming to go against the Paix-des-Braves treaty; they merely felt that their voices were

not being heard and that there was a lack of open communication towards the projects proponents


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When discussing the frustrations felt by native community leaders, one example can be shown that a

firm stance with aggressive and public activism can affect a big decision. In the early 1990s, the Great-

Whale project came to a halt after a series of effective public relations stunts led by Cree communities

(Mercier & Ritchot, 1997). Weistche felt that his tribe was not given the opportunity to react in such a

way this time around (although some smaller protests were organized) (Bonspiel, 2006).

When you uproot people from their birthplace, from where they used to gather, from where they

raised their family and tell them they have to move because the land is going to wash away and erode;

youre bound to have something happen inside that person *reffering to suicide rates, depression and

alcoholism of the Cree Nation+. (Bonspiel, 2006).

Finally, Weistche expresses how it is inappropriate to assume that Native peoples would be satisfied by

monetary remuneration in exchange for submission of their surrounding environment. The rivers, the

land; the reality is that it is part of who we are. They cannot separate the land from the Cree, that is who

we are.(Bonspiel, 2006).

3.2.2 Engineering Aspects


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Variants

By the late 1990s, Hydro-Qubec engineers saw the hydro-power potential of the Rupert River basin

and began preliminary studies and the evaluation of variants (HQ, 2004). As for other hydro projects,

this involved obtaining and considering the following information:

Topography & bathymetry: where is the natural terrain, and existence of hills and valleys, favorable for

water level increases? Where are land gradients favorable for flow conveyance? What will be the extent

of the requirements for dikes, spurs and levees to contain rising waters? How wide and high must dams

be constructed?

Geology: How much excavation is required, and how and what is the hardness of the soil and bedrock?

What are other geological features of importance, such as the direction and steepness of fractures? Is

seismic activity an issue? Is fill material, required for dams, dikes and other structures, available nearby?

Hydrology: How does seasonal variability of precipitation and stream flow effect the reliability of the

variants?

E i t H h fl b h d d h h h t b ll t d t th i t?


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arranged, where diversion corridors should be placed, where the powerhouses could be located, and

whether a system of canals or a underground tunnel should be used to bypass a section of especially

mountainous terrain.

The process of comparing each variant at each step is thoroughly described in the EIS. Pertinent to this

project are not these details, rather it is important to note the general advantages and drawbacks that

were considered and their relative importance.

Advantages: This project serves to produce hydro-electricity. Therefore, the variants are weighted on

their potential to provide reliable flow in hydro-power harnessing reservoirs; while minimizing the need

for costly hydraulic structures and environmental protection efforts.

Drawbacks: The most obvious drawbacks are the direct environmental impacts, which is mainly the total

flooded area. Flooded areas have impacts on land and aquatic wildlife, as well as Cree hunting.

Specifically, much attention is paid on the potential for flooding of category II land, which are designated

native hunting and fishing areas. Also, while one area is flooded, another has reduced flow. This has

impacts on habitats as well, especially on fish breeding grounds. There are also notable impacts on


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The main dam, Rupert C-1, (figure 10 shows a plan view) retains an average of 637 MCS (meters cubed

per second) which represents 73% of the total flow of the Rupert water shed. It is a rock filled dam, lying

on a solid bedrock foundation.

Figure 10 Plan view of C-1 dam (HQ, 2004)

The three other dams comparatively do not hold back much flow initially; they are used as barriers to

the other Westward paths to contain the artificially rising water levels.


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The availability of construction materials, especially concrete and steel, is a limiting factor in dam and

dike design for northern Quebec. Together dams are very large structures; the biggest one for this

project reaches 50 m high and is close to 400 m wide. Dikes are not as high, but they are very numerous

(74 in total) and can be several hundred meters wide. Together, dams and dykes will need 5.3 million m3

of fill material. As such, a geologic survey of the area has provided Hydro-Qubec with many sites in the

vicinity that could provide for material for the structures. The material is mostly granular: till, sand, and

gravel, and coarser material needed for a riprap covering. Figure 11 shows the cross-section for a typical

dike.

Figure 11 Cross section of typical dyke showing fill constituents (HQ, 2004)


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The other dams have a tunnel type release system. The gate is placed on the upstream side to prevent

high-pressure situations in the tunnel when water levels are high.

Powerhouses: several powerhouses and related structures are described thoroughly in the

environmental impact statement. Much attention is paid to flow rates and surface velocities,

considering the high latitude and potential for problems due to ice formations.

Weirs: flow rates downstream of the dams on the Rupert River will be heavily reduced. Measures to

ensure adequate water levels along the river reach are necessary to protect what is remaining of the

rivers aquatic habitat, especially for fish migration. A system of 8 weirs in series was positioned, along

with a few dikes to maintain a narrow and deep river cross-section.

Canals: Canals where typically designated in sections of flatter terrain. This occurs where flooding would

be too wide, and containment with dikes on both sides would not be economical. They were also used

to traverse obstacles in the terrain such as hills. They have the advantage of improving hydraulic

conditions, especially controlling head losses incurred when conveying water.

T f T l h b ildi l b i l t f t l b d At


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mentioning, but go beyond the necessary scope of how to divert and transfer bulk water. These include

new transmission lines; access roads and bridges; temporary work camps; measures for a safe, clean,

and efficient construction phase; native community resettlements; forest clearing and management;

excavation of borrow pits and quarries for materials; stabilizing riverbanks near vulnerable areas; fish

ladder requirements; and in-depth details of powerhouse components like turbines, substations and

control structures.

3.3 Colorado Big-Thompson project

Completed in the late 1940s, the Colorado Big-Thompson project is a trans-mountainous inter-basin

water diversion project implemented to supply water to the North-Eastern side of the Rocky Mountains

in Colorado. The original application was mainly for irrigation purposes. Yet, since then it has also

supplied water needs for emerging municipalities and industrial activity. The system was built and is

operated by the The Bureau of Reclamation, a federal department (Bureau of Reclamation, n.d.).

From an engineering standpoint, the project is rather impressive and remarkable for its time, in its grand

scale, use of technology, and ease of regulation. As the source, the Eastern, upstream region of the


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3.3.1 A working water market

The Colorado Big-Thompson project can be studied as a relevant, North American example of a

gradually established and equilibrated water market. The system can be seen as akin in structure to a

cap-and-trade system of carbon emissions (Wood, 2011): the amount of discharge out of a source is

"capped"; users within the system are allotted a fixed and fair share; users can subsequently allow and

trade away whatever reserve they do not expect to need. The end result is that the total allowable

emissions, or in the case of the Big-Thompson project, the total yearly environmentally allowed flow

consumption, is never surpassed. The trade and exchange of shares is made easy on either short-term or

permanent agreements. There is trade between farmers and municipalities (Wood, 2008).

This case study, brought up in Dry Spring; and again mentioned in an interview with Wood (2011), is

pertinent because it serves to ease down some of the commonly held anxieties associated with market-

driven water trading. This project exists in stark contrast with most other areas in the United-States,

where local trading of water rights could have some economic potential, yet they are halted for political

and legal reasons. According to Wood (2008):


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In Dry Spring and in a e-mail interview, Wood highlights the lessons learned fromthis working

experiment in harnessing the power of market choice (Wood, 2008). Some of the key lessons include:

o That water markets don't arise spontaneously and, hence, are at low risk of breaking outof any regulatory cage to unexpectedly engulf every drop of the planet supply.

o Water rights does not necessarily translate to ownership of water, rather it is more of aright to use it, such as a rental agreement.

o Transaction costs must remain low and easily executableo In successfully operated water markets, the sharing of water can be considered fair; i.e.

wealthy corporations do not have considerable advantages over others, and that's they

cannot just let loose and cause uninhibited environmental devastation.

o Permission to trade privately in water rights can coexist in perfect harmony with the publicprotection of water in the environments. Indeed, it must.

Wood (2008) highlights the advantage of the natural and freely moving momentum of free

markets: Where these conditions exist, markets have advantages that will become increasingly

desirable as the weather changes. In growing food, which is the human activity that uses by far


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CHAPTER 4

Water Transfer Proposals

Using the information gained in the previous two chapters, we can begin contemplating where and how

water transfers could occur in Canada. A few potential projects will be proposed, with some

developmental details given for each. Following this, a qualitative assessment and comparison of each

proposal will be made which will lead to general conclusions about the potential of IBWT in Canada.

4.1 Methodology

Step 1 - Extraction zone

The first task is to identify potential water extraction sites. Canada is dotted with thousands of lakes

including some of the biggest in the world. It also has a considerable amount of water stored in aquifers

and glaciers. Yet, rivers are chosen as the preferred extraction source, as a constant, reliable and

renewable flow is required for sustained exportation.

Therefore, the first step is to identify Canadas largest rivers by discharge rates. 44 major rivers


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What are the competing uses? Is the river protected? Rivers that are heavily used for irrigation,industry, municipal water supply, fisheries or hydropower use may be seen as inappropriate.

This is especially true if an upstream diversion/extraction would compromise available flow for

other downstream users.

Where does the River flow? Rivers that flow into the United States are inappropriate. Where can the discharge be extracted? Is there available land with a suitable topography for a

flooded reservoir? Is the land a protected area?

All things considered, the most significant trade-off is accumulated tributary area, versus howfar north the suitable extraction point would be. For most rivers, there is a trade-off between

available flow and conveyance distance: the further north you go, the longer is the conveyance

distance, yet more flow is available (seeing how rivers accumulate flow downstream as the

drainage basin widens, and thus have their greatest discharge at the mouth).

Step 2 - Consumptions Zone

The next step is to identify the potential importers. These are places with water scarcity issues where

the local supply of freshwater may not be sufficient to satisfy demands.


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demands for water are relatively high, such as in highly artificially irrigated areas, or near large

population centers. Future predictions are also important. They include changes in population, demand,

and the effects of climate change.

It is important to note that, as of this writing, no official declaration or intention to buy Canadian water

has been expressed by any State government (Wood, 2008). For example, a 2012 report by the Texas

Water Development board presents the sobering realities of the potential water crisis in Texas (Texas,

2012). It urges conservation

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