AMHARA NATIONAPARKS DEVELOPME

AUTH

GRAZING PRESSSTRATEGY DO

SIMEN MOUNTAIN

(DRAFT

i L REGIONAL STATE

NT AND PROTECTION ORITY URE REDUCTION CUMENT FOR

S NATIONAL PARK

REPORT)

July 2007 Bahir Dar

ACRONYMS ACSI Amhara Credit and Saving Institution AEZ Agro-Ecological Zone AI Artificial Insemination ANRS Amhara National Regional State BoA Bureau of Agriculture BoARD Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development BoCP Bureau of Cooperative Promotion BoFED Bureau of Finance and Economic Development BoTI Bureau of Trade and Industry CC Carrying Capacity C/LGZ Controlled/Limited Grazing Zone CP Crude Protein CPR Communal Property Resources CSA Central Statistics Authority DM Dry Matter DPPC Disaster Prevention And Preparedness Commission EB Ethiopian Birr FAO Food And Agricultural Organization FDRE Federal Democratic Republic Of Ethiopia GDP Gross Domestic Product G&S Grades And Standards Ha Hectare HH Household HPC/LZ High Potential Cereal/Livestock Zone IDP Integrated Development Project ILDP Integrated Livestock Development Projecct ILRI International Livestock Research Institute LPL/LZ Low Potential Cereal/Livestock Zone MIS Market Information System MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MOTI Ministry Of Trade And Industry NGO Non-Governmental Organization NGZ No Grazing Zone PaDPA Parks Development and Protection Authority RA Rapid Appraisal SMBS Simen Mountains Baseline Study SMNP Simen Mountains National Park SO Strategic Objective SR Stocking Rate TLU Tropical Livestock Unit WARDO Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development Office

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TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................................................... ACRONYMS.............................................................................................................................II LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. III 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................1 1.2. THE PROBLEM ............................................................................................................3 1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.........................................................................................5 1.4. POLICY ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................5 1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY......................................................................................6 1.6. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ........................................................8

1.6.1. Sample site Selection ........................................................................................9 1.6.2. Data collection................................................................................................10 1.6.3. Data Analysis..................................................................................................11

1.7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY......................................................................................11 1.8. ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER..................................................................................11 2. OVERVIEW OF THE SMNP .......................................................................................................... 12 2.1. GNERAL ...................................................................................................................12 2.2. PHYSICAL FEATURES ........................................................................................14

2.2.1. location ...........................................................................................................14 2.2.2. landscape ........................................................................................................14 2.2.3. soils .................................................................................................................15 2.2.4. vegetation........................................................................................................15 2.2.5. landuse............................................................................................................17 2.2.6. climate.............................................................................................................18

2.3. SOCIO - SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION.....................................................................19 2.3.1. Demographic Feature.....................................................................................20 2.3.2. Ethno Cultural Feature...................................................................................21 2.3.3. Market.............................................................................................................21 2.3.4. Participation in farm activities........................................................................22

2.4. AGRICULTURE AND FARMING SYSTEMS .....................................................22 2.4.1. farming systems ..............................................................................................22 2.4.2. crop production ..............................................................................................23

2.5. WILDLIFE..............................................................................................................23 2.5.1. types ................................................................................................................24 2.5.2. populations .....................................................................................................25 2.5.3. observed trend ................................................................................................25

3. LIVESTOCK HUSBANDRY AND POPULATIONS.................................................................... 27 3.1. OVERVIEW OF LIVESTOCK IN SMNP WOREDAS .........................................27 3.2. LIVESTOCK OF SMNP KEBELES.......................................................................28

3.2.1. Households within SMNP kebeles ..................................................................29 3.2.2. Livestock resources.........................................................................................30 3.2.3. Cattle...............................................................................................................32 3.2.4. small ruminants ..............................................................................................37 3.2.5. equines ............................................................................................................41 3.2.6. Poultry ............................................................................................................42

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3.2.7. Beehives ..........................................................................................................43 3.3. LIVESTOCK MARKETING SYSTEM .................................................................44 3.4. ON-GOING LIVESTOCK RELATED INTERVENTIONS ..................................46

3.4.1. Genetic Improvement......................................................................................46 3.4.2. Feed resources................................................................................................48 3.4.3. Veterinary services .........................................................................................49 3.4.4. Extension Services ..........................................................................................49

4. RANGE AND FORAGE RESOURCES.......................................................................................... 50 4.1. MAJOR FEED SOURCES......................................................................................50 4.2. NATURAL GRAZING LANDS.............................................................................51

4.2.1. Types And Extent ............................................................................................51 4.2.2. vegetation and species composition................................................................53 4.2.3. biomass productivity and nutritive value........................................................54 4.2.4. communal grazing systems in the SMNP........................................................56

4.3. STOCKING RATES AND CARRYING CAPACITY.......................................................58 4.3.1. definitions and concepts .................................................................................58 4.3.2. existing stocking rates (sr) of smnp kebeles....................................................58 4.3.3. carrying capacity (cc).....................................................................................59 4.3.4. areas of critical feed shortage ........................................................................60 4.3.5. observed effects of high stocking rates ...........................................................61 4.3.6. conclusion .......................................................................................................62

4.4. OTHER FEED RESOURCES.................................................................................64 4.4.1. crop residues...................................................................................................64 4.4.2. planted forages ...............................................................................................64 4.4.3. agro-industrial by products (aibp) .................................................................65

5. ANIMAL HEALTH .......................................................................................................................... 66 6. MAJOR CONSTRAINTS TO EXISTING SYSTEM .................................................................... 68 6.1. LIVESTOCK RELATED .......................................................................................69 6.2. FEED RELATED....................................................................................................69 6.3. ANIMAL HEALTH RELATED .......................................................................................70 6.4. LIVESTOCK WILDLIFE COMPETITION ........................................................72 7. GRAZING PRESSURE REDUCTION STRATEGY.................................................................... 75 7.1. GOAL......................................................................................................................76 7.2. STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES (SO)..........................................................................76 7.3. DETAILED OUTPUTS AND ACTIVITIES..........................................................76

7.3.1. SO 1: zonation of the park area achieved.......................................................76 7.3.2. SO 2: grazing rights limited to eligible users .................................................81 7.3.3. SO 3: reduction of animal numbers realized ..................................................83 7.3.4. SO 4: improved animal health ......................................................................87 7.3.5. SO 5: community-park collaboration enhanced ............................................89

7.4. STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION PLAN ............................................................97 7.4.1. physical plan...................................................................................................97 7.4.2. financial plan ................................................................................................109

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 115 8. ANNEXES........................................................................................................................................ 120

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11.. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

1.1. BACKGROUND

World wide, mountains are characterized by a high degree of biological and cultural diversity. Apart from challenges, mountains also represent fantastic opportunities to demonstrate the importance of the environmental services provided to the societies by the specific ecosystems, and to realize sustainable development practices on the ground. In such areas, wildlife also contributes significantly to household incomes in both rural and urban communities through hunting, crafts and trade based on wildlife products; and to national economies through tourism and sale of wild animal products. In recent times, wild or semi-domesticated animals also are being considered as potential members of a farming system. Recent research indicates that native wild species often use local plants more efficiently with less negative environmental impact than do domestic animals. Domestic animals of local origin also may be better suited to their environment than animals that might be introduced from other regions. Despite the obvious contribution of wildlife to the socio-economic life, there are currently no serious attentions given to protect such resources and their habitat from damage. Studies also indicated that such areas near to settlement are heavily used for grazing (Ludi, 2005) fuel wood and construction purposes. Areas of different vegetation stratum used as source of food and habitat for wild animals areas similarly used by domestic stock and highly affected by human and over grazing pressure. Overgrazing has been becoming a widespread problem in many developing countries where its most serious impact is reduced feed supply, so that the growth and production of the animals are hindered. In areas where pastures are the communal property of a village or district, the risk of overgrazing is particularly great. A reform or new legislation can be required in order to make the utilization of communal land more efficient. Furthermore, when livestock production overlaps with wildlife habitat, the risk of serious diseases should be taken into consideration. Some livestock diseases can be transmitted to wild animals and thus pose a threat to the environment. Generally speaking, the heavier the stocking rate in an area, the greater is the risk that infectious diseases may break out. An area in which a major animal production activity is established ought to have a satisfactory veterinary service. In all types of economies, from highly developed to developing, there is increasing emphasis on programs for sustainable management of natural resources. Particularly, in areas where there are human and livestock a production activity that creates pressures and overlap with wildlife habitats requires special emphasis for sustainable management. Livestock production practices in the Simen Mountain National Park ecosystems are examples of such trends that demand an urgent and effective strategic management plans. For successful development strategies, it is necessary to treat the cause not the symptom. Hence, study on grazing pressure reduction strategy was undertaken and the report was prepared based on the study conducted through utilization of appropriate methodologies that helped to explore how the community in the Simen Mountains National Park (SMNP) and other stakeholders interact in creating pressure in and around the park. Since animals play economic and non- economic roles in small-farm systems, apart from separating the wildlife habitats from grazing areas of domestic animals, options which are available for improving livestock management were identified and suggested.

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Successful strategic planning starts from a serious look at traditional practices. Traditional practices were developed by trial and error in the context of the natural ecosystem. For example, traditional grazing systems allowed forage to re-grow and to be conserved for the dry season. Traditional systems of lending animals, in some areas, have reduced immediate pressure on the land. Livestock management adapting traditional methods and working in concert with the natural ecosystem has not only been more likely successful, it has also been enhancing and improving the life support systems on which it depends and contributed to a sustainable agricultural system. For this main reason, by seriously considering the issues of the ecology of animal husbandry and wildlife management, Socio-cultural conditions of the SMNP and other Institutional conditions, the study was conducted through close observation and contact of the local community. The study had also encompassed the technical aspects of livestock management including policy, institutional, and organizational aspects of sustainability.

he SMNP has been known to its outstanding physical features, unique and high number of

he natural diversity of vegetation cover and population of fauna have been affected by natural

response to the upper mentioned wide range of problems, the Simen Mountains National Park

For successful development strategies, it is necessary to treat the cause not the symptom.

Tspecies of fauna and flora. The park was established in 1969 with the main goal to insure the survival of endemic fauna and flora and protection of unique feature of landscape (Ludi, 2005). It was recognized by the international community as a World Heritage Site due to its unique features in 1978 (Nievergelt, 1998). The farming system characteristic in the Simen Mountains is integration of livestock and crop cultivation. However, in some cases like Gichi village, a growing number of households have no animals at all. Unfortunately, several reports confirm that Simen has not been free of problems. Interests of local residents have not been the same as those of some national and international stakeholders whose main interests lie in the protection of flora and fauna. Specifically, the main impacts of the villages inside the park have been related to the intensive use of its natural resources, in particular grazing, deforestation from cutting of firewood, and soil degradation from cultivation where all the problems have been exacerbated by a dramatic increase in human population. Tand human induced factors where many of plant species cover and the population of endemic fauna became declined. As a result, high deterioration of wild animal species, vegetation cover and natural features and increase in habitat fragmentation has been observed. Numbers of reports have clearly shown that the stocking density inside the SMNP has been very high resulted in an extremely devastating effect on the afro-alpine grassland ecosystem like deterioration with an increase of the unpalatable grasses like Festuca. The animals grazing in the park have not been just those of local people but also from relatives far from the park, the grass has been grazed until only short stubbles remain and natural processes are disrupted. Generally, Overgrazing in the SMNP has been resulted in negative consequences for the vegetation, for the soil preservation and for the chances of survival of the unique fauna. InIntegrated Development Program (SMNP-IDP), which is a comprehensive development intervention program, taken the initiative of conducting study on the extent and situation of grazing pressure in the SMNP in order to develop a strategy that can help in effectively tackling

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the diverse economic, social and environmental problems. Coming up with mitigating problems of grazing pressure in these fascinating ecosystems, has required holistic approach to the required multi components efforts. Several efforts were made to reduce grazing pressure around and inside the park through awareness creation and improving participatory protection and control techniques, development of livestock improvement programs through provision of like improved animal species and forage seeds. However, regardless of these efforts, the problems on grazing pressure, vegetation cover and wild animal habitats fragmentation is still persisting. Consequently, the AMIBETI Agricultural Development and Consultancy Private Limited Company had taken the responsibility of undertaking the study on Assessment of the Simen Mountains National Park to Design a concrete Strategy for reducing Grazing pressure and Minimizing Health Risk factors. In this report, strategic solutions are planned and formulated in such a way the implementation

1.2. THE PROBLEM

and around the SMNP, overgrazing and deforestation have resulted in serious degradation of

ivestock grazing is probably the most damaging resource use in the park, given the extensive

can provide alternatives for the settlers in side the park to assure conservation through sustainable development, allowing the park and the people to co-exist and benefit from each other.

Innatural resources, leaving the area susceptible to soil erosion by water and wind. According to our observation, extensive areas both within and outside SMNP are almost devoid of native woody vegetation due to the intensive natural resources exploitation of the people residing in and around the park. Reports confirmed that such degradation and its ecological impacts have forced both the Walia ibex and Ethiopian wolf to vacate some of their original ranges and to move further up into the less disturbed highlands. Cultivation inside the park has also been a serious concern where such form of land use is known to be incompatible with conservation objectives. Because of this, soil degradation has been identified as a major problem on cultivation land inside and around the SMNP.

In and around the SMNP, overgrazing and deforestation have resulted in serious degradation of natural resources, leaving the area susceptible to soil erosion by water and wind. Cultivation inside the park has also been a serious concern where such form of land use is known to be incompatible with conservation objectives.

Larea that is used for grazing and the current overstocking (Burnand, 1998). Though there are no recent reliable data available about the number of livestock in the park and their impact, the 1996 survey work in SMNP estimated that of the 900ha of Afro-alpine vegetation in the park (before the current and proposed extensions), 25% were heavily overgrazed and 60% were heavily grazed, and left only 15% in a more or less natural status. According to Burnand 1998, the quality of the grazing lands that were overgrazed resulted in deterioration of quality with an increase of unpalatable grasses. This in turn has been having negative consequences on the vegetation cover and composition, and soil preservation. Because of this fact, livestock in the SMNP has been in direct competition with Walia ibex for grazing areas, confining the Walia ibex

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to the steeper and less accessible areas, and has also been impacting on small mammal populations, which are the major food source for the Ethiopian wolf. It has been also reported that the contact between wildlife and livestock have also been resulted in increasing the risk for transmission of diseases. The grasslands, particularly at the higher elevations of the SMNP, have been intensely used as

nder worse situation, particularly when there is drought, it was observed that the drought

the SMNP, soil productivity has also been declining, as soil erosion continued almost

he major driving force driving behind most of the problems in the SMNP has been believed to

view of all the factors and dynamics mentioned above, the observed situation is a sharply

grazing area. According to the survey conducted at the Gich plateau by the year 1996, it was concluded that totally eroded and heavily overgrazed areas have doubled between 1973 and 1996 where this fact was further observed in November 2004 suggesting that the area was of heavy grazing or serious overgrazing has again increased since then. The stocking density inside and around the park has been very high. Overgrazing has devastated the afro-alpine grassland ecosystem. Only in the most distant areas are still in a less disturbed situation although also these areas are used for grazing. Uproblem resulted in competition for scarce grazing land between the protected park animal population, especially the Walia ibex, and farmers livestock herds within and outside the park areas. This also had a negative effect on the available food for the Gelada baboon, which also depends primarily on the alpine grasslands. Furthermore, overgrazing in the ericaceous belt had reduced the Erica plants and the regeneration capacity of Erica seedlings and damaged to the undergrowth had a negative effect on the hiding and nesting sites. Inuncontrolled, nutrient mining has been taking place unchecked, manure has been collected as a substitute for fuel wood, and fallow periods have been shortened. It has been alarming to see how little investments in soil conservation and soil productivity improvements have been made in some areas, despite available technologies and the general awareness regarding the seriousness of the problem within parts of the administration. Tbe the population pressure. An annual growth rate of 2% led the figure to doubling about every 35 years. It has been also well understood that the majority of the population continued to depend on the agricultural sector, thus further aggravated land degradation and pressure on remaining wildlife habitats. Socio-economic problems related to such a high human pressure on available natural resources become visible by the dependency of several villages on outside assistance. Such dependencies on outside assistance are very dramatic and a clear indicator of the un- sustainability of the present livelihood. Indeclining resource base availability for a sharply increasing population where few options can remain. It is not questionable that, in order to attain a sustainable use of natural resources in the park, the population size and the land under cultivation should be reduced to appropriate more land for grazing or reduce the number of livestock. If situations are let to continue the way they are, it must be expected that the situation of the park population will deteriorate dramatically over the coming few years, leading to sharpened conflicts with the administration of the park over the use of its natural resources.

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Generally speaking, there can be no hope for the park population to continue their present way of life for any lengthier period of time like what is happening today. The only option through which the long-term livelihoods of the park population can be ensured, the degradation of the natural resources of the park can be halted or reversed and the population of the park can be significantly r p

Tditf

a

In view of all the factors and dynamics mentioned, the observed situation is a sharply declining resource base availability for a sharply increasing population where few options can remain.

T1wn

educed is to find an immediate practicable solution that will be acceptable by the parkopulation.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

he general objective of the assessment study (according to the Terms of Reference) was to evelop a concrete strategy based on a close observation to the problem and a detail analysis that ntegrates technical, social, economic and administrative factors, which will serve as a guideline o significantly reduce livestock grazing in the national park. Within this general objective ramework the specific objectives of the study were

1. To assess the basic socio economic condition of the society within and around SMNP, 2. To know the attitude of different participants on the issue related to park management, 3. To identify some possible solutions for decreasing the grazing pressure on the park, 4. To observe the land use of the park,

nd hence come up with the following outputs

- developing a practicable concrete strategic document, which can be used for direct intervention as well as for formulation of a large scale program

- raising Stakeholders concern and awareness about the problem and enhance possible solutions

The general objective of the assessment study was to develop a concrete strategy based on a close observation to the problem and a detail analysis that integrates technical, social, economic and administrative factors, which will serve as a guideline to significantly reduce livestock grazing in the national park.

1.4. POLICY ANALYSIS

he Environmental policy of Ethiopia: The Environmental policy of Ethiopia developed in 997 provides a legal frame-work for sustainable development environmental resources upon hich development activities can be undertaken through maintenance and preservation of the atural resource base. The over all objective is to improve and enhanced the health and quality of

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life and to promote sustainable social and economic development through the sound management and use of natural, human-made and cultural resources and the environment as a whole so as to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The specific objectives relevant to the grazing pressure reduction strategy development include - Ensure that essential ecological processes and life support systems are sustained,

biological diversity is preserved and renewable natural resources are used in such a way that their regenerative and productive capabilities are maintained and where possible enhanced so that the satisfaction of the needs of future generations is not compromised; where this capability is already impaired to seek through appropriate interventions a restoration of that capability

- Raise public awareness and promote understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development.

The National biodiversity policy: provides a basis for preservation, development, management and sustainable use of the diversity of gene pools of Ethiopia's species of wildlife and domesticated flora and fauna and its natural and human managed ecosystem for the country's social and economic development and for the integrity of the biosphere. Regional conservation strategy: one of the major strategy document in the region: It takes holistic view of the natural, human made and cultural resources of the region and their use and abuse and seeks to integrate a coherent whole, existing and future regional planning in all sectors that have impact on the environment including agriculture, forestry, wildlife, fisheries, water, minerals, energy, tourism, urban planning and heritage conservation. Environmental Protection: the Land Use Policy was issued in 2000 along with a proclamation to determine the administration and use of the rural lands in the region. In order to implement the regional conservation strategy and the land use policy, the region has established the Regional Environmental Protection, Land Administration and Use Authority (EPLAUA) with a principal objective of creating a conducive environment in which the use of rural lands could be appropriately managed and administered under the Federal and Regional Constitutions. Furthermore, many research works carried out in the field of biodiversity in the SMNP have identified the Gich plateau as a center of biodiversity. It has also been confirmed that the Gich plateau was one of the best places where an outstanding quality of the natural afro alpine grassland was found for ungulates like Walia ibex and Klipspringer. Among the three endemic plant species identified in the SMNP, Festuca gilbertiana is only found in the Gich plateau. Unfortunately, with increased invasion by people and their livestock into the Afro-alpine grassland the Gich plateau has recently been regressing from its natural state (Puff and Sileshi, 1999).

1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The Simen mountains area has a historical significance and is the only area where the Walia ibex exists as endemic. It is exceptional in its breathtaking landscape, species richness and endemism and thus has favorable situation for all those interested in wildlife, spectacular landscape and

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biological research. Its proximity to the old cultural centers like Aksum, Lalibela and Gonder also makes it convenient for visiting for those primarily interested in cultural or historical sites. The SMNP is one of the great biodiversity hotspots areas in the world that represents the afro alpine and montane ecosystems. The Afro alpine ecosystem consists of grassland and moorland, with an abundant herb layer, while heathers dominate the heath land scrub.

The Park has preserved a representative part of the Ethiopian Tropical Seasonal Highland biome and contains vegetation characteristic of each. So far in the SMNP, of the plant species that are recorded to be endemic, three of them are only endemic to the Simen Mountains. These include Festuca gilbertiana, Rosutaria simensis, and Dianthus longiglum. The faunal diversity of the SMNP is also high, which is mainly related to variations in the topography and vegetation cover of the area. A total of 21 mammals including 7 endemic species, 129 bird species of which 14 are endemic, 27 aquatic invertebrates and five species of rats and shrews have been recorded in the Simen Mountains (Management plan final draft). In addition to the outstanding diversity in flora and fauna, the Simen Mountains has an exceptional diversity in landscape and altitude. The Simen Mountains nature of the landscape is characterized by deep gorges, precipices, crests, rocky areas and plains. The western rugged massif contains the highest peak of Ethiopia, Ras Dajen, which has an elevation of 4624 m.a.s.l. The mosaic pattern of the Simen Mountains promotes species richness and biodiversity, but on the other hand makes it vulnerable to environmental degradation since some habitats are taken over by man either for agriculture or wood cutting or livestock grazing (Hurni, 1986) In spite of all the above mentioned potentials, the Simen Mountains in general and the SMNP in particular, have been under heavy human population pressure, which is threatening the natural value of the mountain ecosystem. The human disturbance and habitat alteration had reported to reduce the range of habitats available to the animals in the Park. For instance, the Walia ibex has taken refuge on the cliffs of the northern escarpment and the Ethiopian wolf and klipspringer have almost abandoned their traditional habitats. Such shrinking or loss of habitat for the above species and subsequent decrease in the number of the animals has attracted the attention of the not only the national but also the international community towards the SMNP.

SMNP illustrates the complex dilemma of reconciling conservation with development in a region of great rural deprivation and poverty (Hurni and Ludi, 2000). In such a situation, the same authors have suggested that, protected area management with a strong remit for protection but without a concern for human development is no longer a valid approach. Problems of biodiversity and livelihood needs are intricately linked: without the achievement of one, the other cannot be fulfilled. Such approaches require local involvement in resource management and park planning, and empowerment in decision-making.

SMNP illustrates the complex dilemma of reconciling conservation with development in a region of great rural deprivation and poverty

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Enormous efforts have been initiated by the regional and local governments, partly supported by international and bilateral donor agencies to tackle the problems in the SMNP. However, still considerable efforts are needed to reconcile conservation with sustainable development. Particularly the chronic problem associated with live stock grazing pressure demanded an urgent solution. For instance, as wildlife habitats and grazing lands of domestic animals overlap in many areas, vaccination of domestic animals against easily transmittable diseases should be considered as an immediate action. Separating wildlife habitats and grazing areas of domestic animals is an indispensable measure in order to keep a healthy population of Walia ibex and Klipspringer and hopefully increase the number of Ethiopian Wolf. According to United Nation world commission on environment, achieving sustainability will require a strategy rather than a piecemeal approach (Clayton and Radcliff, 1997). Strategy development requires a better understanding of the behavior of complex natural and human systems and the various interactions between such systems. For this reason, conservation of such high biodiversity resources with its unique habitat is essential and hence the PaDPA-IDP taken the initiative to undertake study on assessment of the problems associated with grazing pressure and development of Grazing pressure reduction strategy

1.6. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

To make the bio-physical and socio economic assessment of grazing pressure on the Simen Mountain National Park, both primary and secondary data were exhaustively collected and utilized. Apart from a very close observation of the study area, information was collected on attitudes of different stakeholders towards the SMNP, livestock and population dynamics, education and experience, and other socio-economic characteristics of the households. In order to address the objective and successfully accomplish the planned assessment, the following major activities were undertaken; - reviewing available literature and consulting relevant stakeholders - observing and assessing the situation of the current livestock production, wildlife

management and related interventions - a draft plan of action to conduct the study developed and presented - survey conducted , data collected and discussions made with all relevant stakeholders - all feasible means and solution for the critical problems were identified - delineations for wildlife habitat and grazing areas were identified and suggested - maximum effort undertaken to address all the task listed in the TOR - data were analyzed, needed management options in approach to better resources

management, means of monitoring were suggested and a concrete strategic document that can serve as a guideline prepared

The assessment was made through:- Reviewing a number of secondary literatures (existing documents and plans, outbreak

reports and recommendations, study results and scientific articles) which have provided an outlook and reserved as basic, theoretical and practical backstops for the study.

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Set of Checklist for core activities and focus group: which was used as guideline to accomplish prioritized activities and to discuss with and collect information from various stakeholders, who were involved/ experienced in the various activities of the park to address problem in the previous periods.

Collecting primary data through a comprehensive field survey and/or physical assessment

of the area, covering various angles. The data used to obtain first hand information on the general condition of the park, its landscape and other features, resources available, observable problems, wildlife and livestock situations, extent and intensity of grazing and degradation, health risk trends and points, park population's characteristics and economics were closely assessed. Additional data were also gathered through semi-structured questionnaires including Questionnaire administration to livestock owners/household heads: to collect all the socio-economic issues, livestock and wildlife conflicts and/or relationships, livestock feed and water sources, level of awareness on the advantage and disadvantages of the park and wildlife existence, major lively hood and livestock production constraints and possible solutions identified by the villagers to alleviate the existing threats. Professional questionnaires administered to animal health professionals working in the adjoining districts/woredas: to collect and extract vital information in relation to animal health service delivery system, facilities, experiences, bottlenecks to the delivery system and their comments and suggestions to address those problems.

Interviewing park experts, guides and wildlife scouts: which helped us to gather

information on the historical backgrounds and current status of the park, human-wildlife-livestock interactions and/or conflicts in and around the park, identified and prioritized key problems in the park, efforts exerted so far and suggestions to solve the existing bottlenecks sustainably in the future.

Analysis of the collected primary and secondary data and identification of major findings

and risk factors. The attitude of the different individuals was analysed using qualitative techniques. Whereas, the survey data were analysed by using simple descriptive statistics.

1.6.1. SAMPLE SITE SELECTION

Selection of the Sample Kebeles, where a detailed household survey conducted, was undertaken through an intensive discussion with the PaDPA ecologist (Ato Derbie Dexios). The selection was made in such away that those representative villages for little, medium and heavily grazed areas were considered. Furthermore, kebeles representing the grazing pressure problem areas within and outside the park area were taken in to account. However, the physical observation of the SMNP was undertaken in all villages except those in the Adiarkay Woreda. The following table summarizes the list of kebeles that were physically observed and a detailed household survey conducted.

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TABLE 1: list of Kebele Administrations and respective villages where household surveys were conducted

No.

Wereda

Kebele Administration

Village selected to conduct detailed HH survey

Remark

1. Angwakerneja - 2. Seragudela - 3.

Adi Arkay

Agdamia - 4. Lori Duhara 5. Bahiranba Jona 6. Atigiba - 7. Barna Timirk 8. Sakeba - 9. Zakelta - 10.

Janamora

Debel Awria Feres 11. Adebabay-Tsion - 12. Zebena - 13. Debir Lialimo Abo 14. Argin-Jona Argin 15. Abergina Gichi 16. Adisgie-Miligebsa Buitras, Kebero 17.

Debark

Dib Bahir -

The target population was defined as all households within and around the park. In addition key informants were different Government and non-Government organizations concerned bodies, which are directly or indirectly involve in SMNP management, were also used as sources of data. The sources of secondary information were records of different government institutions, NGOs, and previous studies on the area.

1.6.2. DATA COLLECTION

The survey was carried out to obtain information on family size, age, types of crop, number and types of livestock, and off farm activities performed by the households. The researchers held the group discussion and key informant interview. But the survey was conducted by three enumerators for 10 days. Different secondary data were also collected from concerned organizations and individuals. A series of discussions were held with the residents in the villages and concerned individuals at different levels to explain the purpose of the study. Following the introductions, group discussions were held with the community at seven selected villages and key informant interviews with stakeholders including the SMNP office, Woreda administration and Agriculture and Rural Development offices, IDP office, North Gonder Zone administration, Culture and Tourism and Agriculture Rural Development Department, Scouts, and finally with the Amhara Region Park Administration Authority. In addition to cover some gaps on group discussion, sixty-two farmers were selected through purposive sampling based on their availableness on the

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survey date and area advantage. Moreover, the researchers made physical observation on different and important aspects of the park by using photograph and video cameras.

Members of the team conducted intensive fieldwork for over two weeks, focusing on an assessment of the existing and potentials for development of the strategic document on the grazing pressure reduction.

1.6.3. DATA ANALYSIS Both for the qualitative and quantitative data, analyses was undertaken at the field work (particularly for the qualitative data) using simple analyses techniques like use of matrix. Whereas, computer software including Excel and SPSS were utilized to analyze the data collected.

1.7. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The overriding methodology applied to study the livestock and pasture systems within the SMNP was mainly Rapid Appraisal Method. Hence, the study relied mainly on qualitative field assessments and secondary data collected from various sources especially the respective WARDOs. The veracity of these data is sometimes controversial. Moreover, the main driving force to choose this methodology has been the inherent time shortage and financial constraints.

Therefore, limitations to this study first and foremost emanate from the Rapid Appraisal methodology followed in the collection of field data. Hence, the entire negative attributes of RA in terms of similar studies as detailed in several literature hold true in our case as well. What is more, the biggest limitation for the study apart from normal limitations related to use of secondary statistics and errors related to power of recall for some specific details was the low response from private stakeholders. The other problem that needs mention also relates to the simple level of investigation used during analysis, which mostly never passed the levels of descriptive statistics.

1.8. ORGANIZATION OF THE PAPER

The present report consists of seven major parts: The first part is an Introductory part, in which the general back ground, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, significance of the study and the methods utilized for data collection and analyses, and limitations of the study are briefly described. The second part refers to an overview of the SMNP. In this part the physical features, socio-spatial distribution, agriculture and farming systems and the wildlife past and present situations are presented. The main target and issue of the study related to livestock husbandry and populations is covered in the third part of the report. Analyses of the past and current livestock situation in the SMNP kebeles, livestock marketing systems, and the ongoing livestock related interventions are stated in details. Issues related to the major feed sources, the natural grazing land, stocking rates and carrying capacity, and other feed resources are covered within part four of this document, which is the range and forage resources. The animal health related issues are covered in the fifth part of this report, whereas issues related to the major constraints of the existing system (related to livestock, feed, and livestock/wildlife competition) are shown in the sixth part.

11

It is based on the above mentioned parts background that the grazing pressure reduction strategy was developed in the seventh part of this report. The strategy, clearly and separately, outlined the goal, strategic objectives, the detailed outputs and action plans on zonation of the park area, grazing rights limited to eligible users, reduction of livestock number, improved animal health care and community-park collaboration enhancement are well discussed and the strategic implementation plan described. Last but not least, are the list of references materials used and annex for further information that are included in the eighth and ninth chapter of the report. 22.. OOVVEERRVVIIEEWW OOFF TTHHEE SSMMNNPP

2.1. GNERAL

The Simen Mountains National Park (SMNP), which is found in the northwestern part of Ethiopia, is an area of great diversity and scenic beauty. It is located in the north-central highlands of Ethiopia, forms part of the Simen Mountain chains, and encompasses part of the spectacular escarpment of the Simen mountain chains, with comparatively large areas of natural vegetation and a wide variety of animal species. It covers 205 km2 areas with an altitude ranging from 1,900 to 4,543 m.a.s.l. and with average temperatures between -50C and +180C. The SMNP is surrounded by three woredas of North Gondar Administrative Zone including Debark, Janamora and Adarkay (Shiferaw et al., 2005). The park is established in 1969 with the main goal of insuring the survival of the highly endangered Walia ibex and declared as world heritage site in 1978, as it was understood for being home to a number of threatened and endemic species of wildlife (Ludi, 2005; Shiferaw et al., 2005; PaDPA, 2006). Three of the 21 large mammal species are locally endemic (Walia ibex) and endemic to Ethiopia (Ethiopian wolf and Gelada baboon), which are a national symbol and the flagship species of the park. The Walia ibex (Capra walie) and the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) are considered critically endangered and endangered species, respectively (PaDPA, 2006). The Simen Mountains are also home to many small mammal and bird species endemic to Ethiopia. The mountains are, furthermore, part of the afro-alpine center of plant diversity characterized by a high level of plant endemism. The Simen Mountains and the general landscape of the area are results of volcanic activity and geomorphologic processes over the geological history of the area. It is built up by the Trap series lava flows of the Tertiary period of the Cenozoic era that are 3000 to 3500 m thick and underlain by 500 m sandstone and limestone layers of the Mesozoic era that overlie the Precambrian crystalline basement rocks (Kazmin, 1973 in Hurni, 1982). During the Pleistocene, when the northern regions of the world were covered with glaciers, most of Africa was drenched in rain. The Simen Mountains, geologists believe, had both glaciations on the highest peaks and pouring rainfall in the rest of it during this time. The cracks in the hard resistant basalt once begun were widened and deepened by the floods that poured into them, and narrow valleys of ~1500 m deep were cut as a result. Despite its high-ranked potential wealth, the SMNP has not been free of problems or conflicts; it has been faced with critical threats. Interests of local residents have not been found to be same as those of the national and international stakeholders. Land degradation has been widespread, leading to chronic food deficits of an ever-growing portion of the local land users. Demographic trends with a continuous growth rate of more than 2% resulted in land scarcity, deforestation and overgrazing. More than 80% of SMNPs territory is subjected to human use, in particular

12

livestock grazing, agriculture and human settlement, leaving only less than 20% undisturbed (Ludi, 2005; PaDPA, 2006). Most of the plateau is over-run by domestic livestock, resulting in high risk of communicable disease transmission, erosion and reduction of the natural habitat available for the wildlife. Excessive agricultural cultivation resulted in soil erosion and further expansion of agriculture leading to deforestation and further reduction of the Walia ibex natural habitat.

Despite its high-ranked potential wealth, the SMNP has not been free of problems or conflicts; it has been faced with critical threats. Interests of local residents have not been found to be same as those of the national and international stakeholders.

The world Heritage Committee had declared to inscribe the property on the list of World Heritage in danger in 1996, realizing those bottlenecks to the wellbeing and development of park. The Committee then adopted the following benchmarks, to guide a removal of the property from the list (PaDPA, 2006).

1. Realignment of the park's boundary to exclude the villages along the boundary; 2. Extension of the park to include at least Mesarerya and Limalimo wildlife reserve; 3. Significant and sustainable reduction in the human population density within the park; 4. Effective conservation within the extended national park of a large population of wildlife.

Human-wildlife conflict has been becoming a critical threat to the survival of many globally endangered species, in particular to large and rare mammals. The numerous cases from countries all over the world demonstrate the severity of human-wildlife conflict and suggest that an in depth analysis is essential to understand the problem and support the conservation prospects of threatened and potentially endangered species (Distefano, 2004). The direct contact and grazing overlap between livestock and wildlife has been harboring high risk of dangerous communicable diseases from-to domestic-wild animals both directions, which may lead to distinction of the endangered species. Diseases were observed to cause significant morbidity and mortality in captive and free ranging wildlife. Further more, wildlife are known to be sources of many fatal zoonotic diseases such as Rabies, Tuberculosis, HIV-AIDS, Ebola, SARS, Hepatitis A and B, Brucellosis, West Nile virus, Lyme Borelliosis, Tularemia, Leptospirosis, Ehrlichiosis, Yersiniosis (plague) etc; and sources for various contagious livestock diseases (Bengis et al., 2004). In recent decades, infectious pathogens that originate in wild animals have become increasingly important throughout the world, as they have had substantial impacts on human health, agricultural production, wildlife-based economies and conservation of genetic resources. The emergence of these pathogens as significant health issues is associated with a range of causal factors, most of them linked to the sharp and exponential rise of human activity. Among these are the burgeoning human population, increased frequency and speed of local and international travel, increased human-assisted movement of animals and animal products, expansion of

13

agricultural practices, and a range of natural or anthropogenic ecological/environmental changes that alter the distribution of wild hosts and vectors (Bengis et al., 2004).

2.2. PHYSICAL FEATURES The park is found in three altitudinal oriented ecosystems with different wildlife habitats. It is an afro-alpine undulating grassland plateau, with precipitous escarpments dropping away north and east, giving spectacular views of peaks and canyons, which are outside the park. These ecosystems are directly linked with vegetation zone such as Afro-alpine (3700-4300 m.a.s.l.), Sub Afro-alpine /Ericaceous woodland /3000-3700 m.a.s.l. / and Montane forest belt /2000-3000 masl/. Major habitats are high plateau, Afro-alpine grass lands, tree heater and benched terraces of the escarpment, valleys, gorges, mixed woodland, hills and gravy yards. Landscape and vegetation cover as a main habitat and food source for wild animal are divers and unique (Hurni, 1986). The Simen area was built up by plateau basalt (Trapp series). These layers are composed of numerous olivine-basalt lava flows, inter bedded with tuff layers. The main part of the Simen area consists of remnants of a Hawaiian-type shield volcano, overlying the volcanic flows of the Trapp series. The extreme escarpment appeared to be preconditioned by an extended up lift of the whole massif during the tertiary, comprising major faults which can be attributed to the Rift system extending over most of East Africa to the Red Sea. Harder rocks on the foot of the escarpment preconditioned the development of the terrace-like steps which today form a favorable area for settlement and agriculture. (Hurni, 1982)

2.2.1. LOCATION Located in the north-central highlands of Ethiopia the Geographical position of the National park is between 1309-13012N and 38000-38012E in the North Gondar zone of the Amhara National Regional State in the north and north-western of Ethiopia. It is 120 Kms north-east of Gondar.

2.2.2. LANDSCAPE

In terms of topography, the SMNP is characterized by diverse conditions. Elevations range from the lowest point at 1350 m.a.s.l. in the northwest to 4430 m.a.s.l., the Peak of Bwahit Mountain. Relief energy is extremely high throughout the area. Hurni (1986) distinguished four distinctive geomorphic units:

The deeply incised lowland valleys bellow 2000m.asl; The lowland terrace-like steps (roughly at 2000m.asl), which comprises the main

cultivation and settlement area of this belt: The step escarpment between 2000 and 4000m.asl, extending in a SW-NE direction,

which forms the main wildlife habitat; The highland plains and valleys south of the escarpment, a densely settled and cultivated

area.

14

2.2.3. SOILS

Different types of soil associations are found in the SMNP. Andosol is known to be the typical soil type in areas lying above 3000 m.a.s.l. whereas Pheozem, Vertisol, Luvisol, Regosol and Leptosol are the dominant soils in areas lying below 3000 m.a.s.l. Soil degradation is a major environmental problem in the area where the average soil loss rate from cultivated fields as estimated using the Universal Soil Loss Equation is 70 t / ha per year (Hurni and Ludi, 2000). Similarly the SMBS team estimated the annual soil erosion rates at around 85 t/ha in highland villages and 65 t/ha in lowland villages. Considering the low soil formation rates of 3-12 t/ha, the destructive process of soil erosion becomes even more apparent (Hurni, 1983). Reports also indicated that, although the use of manure and compost is promoted and more artificial fertilizer is available in the current times relatively, soil productivity has shown still to decline. With current levels of land degradation, available technologies and increasing population, food security would rather expected to decrease in the future. For that reason, all possible efforts are needed to increase land productivity and reduce the number of people depending on the land. Soil degradation has been identified as a major problem on cultivation land inside and around the SMNP. Based on the SMBS findings it was concluded that soil erosion not only leads to diminishing soil depth and physical alteration of the soil, but also to selective removal of specific nutriments, thereby causing chemical degradation and loss of soil productivity. It was also estimated that soil erosion rates in some areas are 20 times higher than annual soil formation rates. In some villages, soil and water conservation investments have been initiated in the past few years and are remarkable in quantity and quality. It is astonishing, however, to observe how little soil and water conservation activities were carried out in other villages despite the far-reaching negative consequences of uncontrolled soil erosion.

2.2.4. VEGETATION

The Simen Mountains are part of the Afro-alpine centre of plant diversity and are characterized by a high but yet un quantified level of plant endemism. The vegetation in Simen Mountains are of characteristics of the Ethiopian Tropical Seasonal Highland Biome, demonstrates the evolutionary links to both palaearctic and Afro tropical realms, and contains vegetations which are characteristics of each. The floristically rich vegetation grows in four vegetation belts: Afro montane forest, Erica/ Hypericum forest, Afromontane Grasslands and Alpine Moorlands. There are about 253 species of plants which are belonged to 176 genera and in 100 families. Of these, about 20 species of plants are endemic to the country, and 4 to 5 of plant species are near endemic to Simen Mountains (Hurni, 1986). Within these chains of mountains, the SMNP has unique botanical and zoological combinations of species that have been able to resist human interference. Erica arborea, Hypericum revoltum, and Juniperus trees and the grass varieties of festuca, Poa and Danthonia are worth mentioning among the eight plant species. Generally speaking, a considerable difference of forest cover inside and outside the SMNP could be observed. Likewise, a clear differentiation can also be made between villages in the highlands and those in the lowlands regarding strategies of forest utilization. A distinct feature of lowland agriculture is the fallowing system. In lowland villages, pressure on remaining forests is comparably lower than in highland areas where no woody biomass develops during the very short fallow periods and natural forests are the only sources of firewood and construction wood.

15

Actually, in recent times, planted Eucalyptus trees have also been serving several purposes. During the close observation and assessment of the SMNP by the study team, it was possible to conclude that, in most cases for highland villages outside the SMNP, the number of Eucalyptus trees has increased. Forests in the lowlands are also overused, although probably less than those in the highlands, as wood can be collected from fallow land. Reports from PaDPA described that the Austrian-funded IDP established several tree nurseries in the surrounding villages outside the National Park and distributed Eucalyptus seedlings annually. As Eucalyptus trees were considered by the SMNP management as alien species not welcomed inside the Park, it intervened at the Wereda office of Debark not to distribute seedlings, which, if they have not planted Eucalyptus before, are now left with no access to wood at all. Consequences are that people continue to harvest Erica wood or they have to plant Eucalyptus in clandestine. Illegal wood cutting has been reported to be a much bigger problem in the highlands with less alternative wood resources than in lowlands. On the other hand, forest fires resulting from clearing fallow land are a serious problem in lowland areas. From the group discussions conducted, it was understood that although regulations exist regarding forest use, the main problem has been the enforcement of these regulations. There seems to be no clear ownership and commitment to enforce existing regulations at the KA level. Other reports have shown that selective cutting of trees led to a thinning out of the forest. It was stated that areas that were classified as forests 30 years ago have to be called bushy areas now (Hurni & Ludi, 2000). This process has continued especially in highland Erica / Hypericum forests, where fresh cuts can be easily detected even in forests far away from villages. Although the cutting of Erica inside the Park is forbidden, many households still depend on wood resources from natural forests as not every household owns its own Eucalyptus trees for firewood or construction wood. TABLE 2:- Altitude-dependant classification of natural vegetation of the SMNP

Belt

Altitudes

Plant Formation

Dominant/Major Species

Afro-alpine

3700m and higher

Tussock grassland Giant Rosette shrub

Lobelia rhynochopetalum festuca spp.

Sub-Afro-alpine

3700m 3000m

Evergreen Microp. Shrub

Erica arborea Hypericum revolutum Festuca macrophylla

Montane forest

3000m

Broad leaved Dec. forest Evergreen Sclerop. Forest

Hagenia abyssinica Juniperus Procera Schefflera abyssinica

Source: - SMNP Management plan (final draft)

Following altitude and slope of the area, the vegetation structure of the SMNP is well-stratified. On the plateau areas with altitudes above 3000 m.a.s.l and with slopes of up to 30%, grassland with solitary stands of Giant lobelia is the dominant vegetation structure. In grasslands livestock grazing and foraging of Gelada baboon are the main land use activities. Very often one can observe the Erica forests on the side slopes of the Simen Mountains in altitude that range between 3000 and 3800 m asl. The forest cover is denser on the middle of the mountains where human and livestock interferences are minimal. At present this forest belt is the common habitat

16

for Walia ibex, Klipspringer and Gelada baboon. It is the refuge camp for the above wild animals against being chased by humans and predators like leopard. Bush lands are most commonly found in areas below 3000 m.a.s.l. They are commonly associated with steep slopes. The steep escarpments with slopes in excess of 55% are bare rocks with light grass cover. Mostly they are suitable for paragliding and mountaineering.

2.2.5. LANDUSE

It is already known and reported that seventeen Kebele Administrations have part of their land with in the park area creating a strong pressure against wildlife resources conservation. The extensive range land dominated by species of Guasa and Giant lobelia has been co-grazed by cattle, sheep and horse population with no complementary effect. Herding various species of livestock with different grazing preferences often lead to over use of the pasture land where, as a result, the beautiful plateaus of the SMNP are grazed down close to the soil surface. On the other hand, with increasing tendency of range land degradation Giant lobelia to some extent has shown increased cover or density in some parts of the plateaus. This change in vegetation structure ultimately decreases quality of the landscape scenery.

Area (SQ.Km)

0.005.00

10.0015.0020.0025.0030.0035.0040.0045.00

bush

land

cultiv

atedla

nd

fores

tland

grass

land

Sum

Area (SQ.Km)

FIGURE: - The land use/land cover of the SMNP (Source: - PaDPA, Bahir Dar Office) The SMNP is also partly inhabited by subsistence cereal farming communities. A reconnaissance survey made on the land use and land cover of the newly demarcated park area indicated that besides grazing use, 10% of the park area is under cultivation of highland crops, barley being the most dominant crop followed by wheat and pulses. The traditional farming system has been in use without any soil and water conservation measures in place. As a result, the area has reached a critical level of land degradation. With a further intensification of agriculture that can be

17

expected from the growing demand for food of the inhabitants, there will be a possibility to increas l fertilizers that will have negative consequences on the natural ecosystem of the park.

ed use of chemica

2.2.6. CLIMATE

The SMNP lie in the summer rainfall region where the yearly average rainfall is about 1500 mm ranging between 1000 mm and 1600 mm. The rainfall pattern in Simen Mountains is characterized by a single rainy season and the highest amount is between June and September. The temporal pattern is uni-modal with high amounts occurring between June and September, nd the peak being in July. December to April constitute the dry months of the year in the

ere the temperatures range from a minimum of -2.5 to 4 c and to a maximum of 11 c to 18 c. During the day there are often drying winds.

Sno oless dis

vation possible

zone (between 1500-2400 m.a.s.l.) sub-tropical climate upper limit of maize and teff cultivation, cultivation of maize and pulses

aSMNP. The mean annual temperature ranges between -50C and +180C. Frost may occur at night during the winter months (Nov.-Mar.) wh

0 0 0+

w ccurs occasionally at altitudes of over 3800 m.a.s.l. Hurni (1986) identified three more or tinct climatic zones in the SMNP:

Wurch zone (over 3700 m.a.s.l), alpine climate no culti High Dega zone (between 3400-3700 m.a.s.l.), cool climate upper limit of barely and

potato cultivation (3700 m.a.s.l.) Dega zone (between 2400-3400 m.a.s.l.) temperate climate upper limit of wheat and

pulses cultivation (3150 m.a.s.l), cultivation of barely Woina Dega

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The Kola zone with its tropical climate is the main climatic zone in the NGZ, covering 56% of it, mainly outside the SMNP and in the lowlands of the buffer zone, from 800-

ABLE 3:- Climat

ajor Factors ype

1500 m asl. T ic Type of SMNP

ower Climatic T

M L

Upper Climatic Type

Altitude range 2000-3200 m 3200-4500 m Wind system

Southwest monsoon (upwardly ecreasing influence), trade-winds only d

in the dry season

Northerly and north easterly winds all year

Clouds and precipitation

Convective rains. Less frequent hailstorms

Increase in cloud cover with altitude, maximum annual rain fall at about 3500 m, frequent hailstorms with high erosivities

Snow and frost No snow, rare frost

Occasional snow in higher elevations, frequent frost

Cultivation (crop) suita

Favorable for most Ethiopian crops and

Unfavorable for most grains and pulses except barley, potatoes and some vegetables below 3700m bility pulses

Source: SMNP Management plan final draft

evelopment should be attained, not only the use of natural resource is of concern equally

unctions in ceremonies and exchanges in developing world, like ock sector to total GDP and agricultural GDP is estimated ely not including the value of draft power and social

2.3. SOCIO - SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION The issue of grazing cannot only be discussed from ecological or legal point of view. The role of livestock in the socio economic structure of the various households and communities has to be xamined before putting forth any policy based on "technical fix" approach. If sustainablee

dimportant aspects are economic and social sustainability (Hurni & Ludi, 2000), especially on those parks the history of settlement of people before the establishment of parks. People living inside the Semen Mountain National Park dates back to the time of its creation, as several villages and land used for agriculture and livestock grazing were included in the protected area. Livestock has been the vehicle for savings and insurance, as banks are remote and unreliable, ivestock also fulfilled social fl

Ethiopia. The contribution of the livestat about 15 and 35 percent respectivfunctions (Trade and Transformation, 2004). Though livestock production has an advantage from economic and social point of view, it has also been having a negative impact on the ecology if we cannot manage properly.

19

2.3.1. DEMOGRAPHIC FEATURE

The total population with in and around the park area is estimated, as 84801people. Based on the PaDPA survey the female-headed households are only 15.69% (80 from 510 households) but when we consider the total population on the other hand from total 2735 residents 1364 (49.87%) re female. The average family size is 5.36 persons per households. This is in line with the

per households. From total

the area is 2% and it is relatively low com ared to the average population growth rate of the region (3%). TA E he KAs and thei adjacent to the SMNP

N

Wereda

Household Tota

Popula

asurvey done by our team; the average family size is 5.21 persons population active labor force (age 15-65 years) are 51.62%. The annual population growth rate of

p

BL 4:- List of t r Population

o. KA No

l tion

1. rneja 1Angwake ,100 5,5002. Seragudela 931 4,6553.

Adi Arkay

Agdamia 560 2,800 14. Lori ,085 5,425

5. Bahiranba 826 4,1306 Atigiba 693 4,1807. Barna 1,050 3,0508. Sakeba 1,050 5,2509. Zakelta 770 3,58110.

anamora

1

J

Debel ,866 9,33011. Adebabay-Tsion 1,607 6,72812. Zebena 630 3,00013. Debir 1,117 5,58514. Argin-Jona 966 6,27915. Abergina

800 4,250Debark

16. Adisgie-Miligebsa 1,493 8,95817. Dib Bahir 420 2,100

Total 16,964 84,801

Source: - SMNP Management plan (final draft)

The survey results also revealed that 66.88 percent of the sample household heads were illiterate, hereas 33.12 percent of the house hold heads were literate. To improve their skills on on-farm,

were divorced, 48 (10.19%) ere widowed, and 4(0.8%) were single. When we see the same issue by sex of households the

situation even worse in female-headed households, the ratio of female headed on marital status, 2.01%, orced, widowed and single respectively. Since

woff farm and non-farm activities, they highly demand training. According to the survey conducted from 510 households, 426 (83.53%) demanded additional training. On the past through different governmental and non-governmental organizations, 16 types of on farm and 20 types of off farm trainings had been given to the residents. When we see the marital status of the population, from 471 households who responded for the question, 398 (84.5%) of the respondents are married, 21(4.45%)w

90.48%, 93.75% and 75% are married, div

20

PrivstePopulation dynamics in relation to our interest is not well stated

widows and divorced women are not allowed to plough, they have to lend their land in a share of

of residents in and around the SMNP are Amhara ethnic group. According to the park area survey done by region park administration authority the dominant religion within the park area is g 71.2% of the total households and the rest 28.9% are Ethiopian

rthodox Christian follower. But when we consider the total 17 Kebeles with in and around the ark area, the majority of the populations are Ethiopian Orthodox Christian follower (64%).

arket infrastructure tends to be deficient in the area. There is lack of appropriate roads, ommunication means, and electricity and there is also lack of appropriate marketing facilities.

y markets Arikwasiye, Ambaras, and Beles. Through ese markets the land users in the Simen are integrated into a larger economic system. arketing margins are affected by a number of factors: distance to be covered, adequacy of

t are grown in the area, like gesho (hop), chat and today ome farmers tried plantation of apple. As a consequence, mainly surpluses from the subsistence roduction are sold, or animals are 'converted' to grain (Hurni & Ludi, 2000). Besides local roducts, there are a few traders who sell small household items spices, salt and sometimes lothes. Both men and women participate in marketing. Men are responsible for selling big

livestock and bigger quantities of grain, where as women mostly exchange poultry and smaller quantit

crop amounting to about 50% of the yield (Hurni and Ludi, 2000).

2.3.2. ETHNO CULTURAL FEATURE

Majority

Muslim, accountinOpThese two religious groups Christians and Muslims live together peacefully, although in separate places.

2.3.3. MARKET

McThe distance in km that the beneficiaries travel to get main road for accessing different services was very far. The movement of goods from producers to consumers at the lowest possible cost, consistent with the provision of the services desired by the consumer, may be termed as efficient marketing (Raju and von Oppen, 1982). The marketing areas for SMNP residents include Debark, Adi Arkay, Mekane Birhan and Zariama. In addition there are three weeklthMtransport, effectiveness with which the various activities are carried out and services that are provided (FAO, 1987). When production is more scattered, supply is confined to one major season, distance are much longer and the whole marketing infrastructure is less developed, the marketing margin is then likely to be high. There are little types of cash crops thasppc

ies of grain, pulses or potatoes.

21

PrivsteReligious aspects only are mentioned. How about the cultural aspects

PrivsteWhat does it mean

2.3.4. PARTICIPATION IN FARM ACTIVITIES To fulfill their daily need some of the households participate on off and non-farm activities.

xclusively agricultural rural households have lower incomes than multi active households (tho h than non-farm rural households.

ccording to the survey, 173 (33.92%) have participated on the off and non-farm activities. The major es are apiculture, weaving, pottery, hiring horse/mule,

adwork, guiding tourists, daily labor work and petty trade.

Ese wit activities in both the farm and non farm sectors) and

Aoff farm and non-farm activiti

ro

2.4. AGRICULTURE AND FARMING SYSTEMS

2.4.1. FARMING SYSTEMS The populations of Simen Mountain are mainly sedentary agriculturalist with a mixed farming

stem based on crop cultivation complements by a livestock component. In Simen, the term ubsistence oriented farming system' means a farming system tailored mainly to meet the needs

so true in SMNP. According to the survey from 510 households 280 4.90%) own at least one cow, 327 (64.12%) own at least one sheep, and 245 (48.1%) at least

LP, 2006). The combination of crop production nd livestock keeping is especially important at times of stress, e.g. if yields are inadequate

urni & Ludi, 2000).

roduction systems develop in response to interplay of agro-ecological, socio-economic and chnological factors (Rangnekar, 2006). In resource poor areas, croplivestock mixed farming

ystem enables farmers to minimize external inputs by internalizing the system and using a means of risk

version since resource poor farmers prefer assured subsistence over risky high productivity.

sy'sof household member (Hurni & Ludi, 2000). Crop cultivation meets most food needs, while livestock is the possibility to accumulate reserves or wealth. The cultivation is based on traditional and cultural system. Land is ploughed using mainly oxen, wherever possible; otherwise with horse and hand tools. According to 2003 report of Central Agricultural Census Commission in North Gondar Zone, out of the total rural agricultural holders those who are engaged in crop production, livestock and both crop and livestock productions were estimated to be 16.07 %, 8.58 % and 75.35 %, respectively. This is al(5one horse. Especially for highland villages, where crop production reaches its limits because of altitude and land degradation, relying more on livestock for securing the household income becomes a strategy of growing importance (DAa(H Livestock are kept for various economic and social reasons in the area. The major economic reasons include provision or supply of draught power, generation of cash income, food and animal dung (as an organic fertilizer and fuel). Ptesvariety of crops and livestock. Thus, the mixed croplivestock farming serves as a

22

Fea

Low inputoutput croplivestock production systems; Mixed cropping and livestock keeping is the only system followed; ery much from the other highlands in N/Gondar or other

zones of the Amhara region;

tures of farming systems in the highland areas of SMNP include the following,

The areas represent typically fragile resource zones;

Farming systems do not differ v

Women play major role in croplivestock production and post-production activities; and Migration and shifting cultivation practices seem to be rare.

2.4.2. CROP PRODUCTION According to the park office report, a total of about 1161 hectares of land is cultivated within the park by the park dwellers. Additional area of land, around 1717 hectare, is also cultivated, thus making total areas under cultivation to be 2878 hectare. The most important crops cultivated in the area are: barley, wheat, horse beans, peas, linseed, lentils and teff. Barley is cultivated mainly in the Dega belt with altitude ranging from 2000m to 3715m. Wheat and the others are cultivated mainly between Erica forest and the Montana belt. About 70% of the cultivated land around the

ark area is occupied with barley and wheat, followed by legumes such as horse beans and peas.

udi, 2000).

ding the survey, only 23 (4.51%) responded their land is fertile.

t stock. Thus, some of the villages like Gich an feed themselves for only half year and are largely dependent on food aid (Falch, 2006).

The major reasons for food shortage are natural disaster, shortage of rain, and shortage of labor,

pFrom 510 respondents, 469 (91.96%) have cultivated barley in the 1998/99-production season. This is in line with the survey done by our team. From 62 respondents 57 (91.9%) have cultivated barley in the 1998/99-production season. Here, barley is most favored due to its high yield, and due to altitude and temperature. Generally speaking, Simen cropping systems are heavily dependent on only a few varieties of crops (Hurni & L Majority of households owned small parcel of land, for example, according to the survey, 456 (89.41%) own less than one hectare of land. They are forced to plough steep slope and rugged lands, according to the same survey 211(41.37%) & 225 (44.11%) of the cultivated lands are rugged and steep slope lands respectively. Moreover, majority of the fields is infertile, accorto Their production of crop even cannot satisfy their daily food demand. For example, from 510 surveyed households who responded the question for food stock sufficiency until next production, only 52 (10.52%) responded for sufficienc

poor productivity, large family size, and shortage of land. The reasons for declining yields are degradation of soil (land had been used for long period of time and depleted of nutrients), and shortening of fallow periods (Hurni & Ludi, 2000).

2.5. WILDLIFE

Although the National Park contributes to assure that habitats for wildlife, especially Walia ibex and Klipspringer, but also large carnivores such as Leopard, Ethiopian Wolf or Serval, continue to exist, its small spatial extension does not necessarily assure the survival of the species. In the

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larger area of the Simen Mountains, additional areas exist which show similar bio-physical characteristics like the habitats inside the SMNP, but where no wildlife is found at this moment (Hurni, 2005). Findings from research carried out in Walk, in selected areas of Beyeda Wereda (escarpments to the east and north of the high plateau, grasslands at high altitudes around Ras Dejen) and in the vicinities of Silki, Abba Yared and Walia Kend, suggest that considerable areas existed which could serve as habitat for endangered species such as the Walia ibex or the

thiopian Wolf. For some of these potential habitats the local population reported the occurrence

discussed. Although an overall skepticism remains, there seems to be a certain willingness to consider such introduction, as it was considered an asset for promoting tourism also in these remote areas or of making the

illage eligible for compensation by the government for foregone resource use. Based on

Eof Walia in former times usually referring as far back in the period of Haile Selassie. For other areas, resident land users reported the occurrence of Walia even today, although such observations could not be corroborated. Wildlife inside the SMNP cannot survive if it has to constantly compete with human use of wildlife habitats (e.g. crop cultivation, livestock grazing, wood cutting, grass harvesting, etc.). Based on interviews and discussions held with resident land users we can conclude that an extension of the National Park with its strict regulations and prohibited activities to these areas is not welcomed, but the definition of specific management zones under the supervision of the Kebele Administration would be an option not totally rejected. On several occasions even the reintroduction of Walia ibexes in areas far outside the SMNP was

vpreliminary analysis of aerial photographs, maps, field surveys and discussions with resident land users, it can be concluded that several areas exist outside the SMNP which could be considered as habitat for Walia ibex or other endangered species.

2.5.1. TYPES

The park is home to a number of threatened and endemic species. Of the wildlife, the Walia ibex (Copra walie)- a type of wild goat- is worthy of note as it is one of the major justifications for making this region into a national park. The other major wildlife resources found in the SMNP are the Simen fox (commonly known as the Ethiopian wolf), Gelada baboon, Klipspringer and menilik bushbuck are endemic to the country. Of the 21 large mammal species that can be found in the park, three are locally endemic (Walia ibex) or endemic to Ethiopia (Ethiopian wolf and Gelada baboon) these are the flagship species of SMNP. The Walia ibex (Capra walie) and the Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis; also called Simen fox) are considered critically endangered and endangered, respectively (IUCN 2006 Red List). The Walia ibex can only be found in the Simen Mountains, the Ethiopian wolf is the rarest canid in the world (IUCN 2006 Red List). Other large mammal species include the Anubis baboon, Hamadryas baboon, klipspringer, leopard and golden jackal. The mountains are also home to 5 small mammal species and 14 bird species endemic to Ethiopia. Similarly, 63 bird species have been recoded and 10 of them are endemic to

thiopia. among the bird species 25 are vultures and 4 species are raptors the endemic bird ecies are, spot billed plover (haplopterus melanocephalus), white collared pigeon (colmba

lbitorques), black winged love bird (agopornis taranta), black headed forest oriole (orioles menarc h chat (myrmicocichla semirufa), ruppels chat (myrmicocichla

elaena), black headed siskin (serinous nigiceps), abyssinian cat bird (parophasma galinieri),

Espa

he), w ite winged cliff mabyssinian long claw (macrnyx flaricorlis), white billed starling (orychognathus albirostris).

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2.5.2. POPULATIONS According to the draft Management plan report, the most recent number of Walia ibex is 623, the Ethiopian Wolf 70, Klipspringer 23, and Gelada Baboon to be 5000. A census carried out in 2005 estimated the population of the Simen fox in the Simen Mountains at 78 animals.

2.5.3. OBSERVED TREND

The number of Walia ibex as counted and estimated in 1994, 1996 and 2004 is shown. It is very positive to see that the number of Walia has doubled within the past 10 years. In other words, the Walia population grew by about 7% per year. Such a high growth rate can be expected in populations recovering from serious stress in situations of relatively undisturbed conditions. It seems that the conditions were favorable during the last 10 years i.e. habitats were less disturbed than before, poaching could be sufficiently controlled, and food availability and habitat size were not limiting factors. Considering the increase of human and livestock population leading to considerable pressure on Walia habitats, such high growth rates for the Walia

, as (i) Walia habitats are also intensively used by domestic

abitat or ent of might

discourage movements o prefer non-riparian h as desert, steppe, b, heath, or upla ts. Th m of protected areas and links function for the red l ibex or Simen fox, but port, as a wake e he rec gered species

population cannot be expected in future, unless drastic measures are taken to reduce pressure on habitats or to (re-)introduce Walia in habitats outside of the current Park boundary. Similar conclusions can be made regarding the Klipspringer population, which seems to have recovered to a certain degree, but for which special emphasis of habitat protection for the future will be needed. As the Ethiopian Wolf population was not systematically observed, no conclusive statements can be made. With an estimated population of more than 623 Walia, the existence of the species seems at the moment not to be endangered in its long-term survival. However, as the whole population exists in one area only, the spread of a disease could still have a devastating impact. The outbreak of diseases becomes even more realisticanimals, including goats, which could easily transmit diseases affecting Walia, and (ii) the general nutritional status of Walia seemed to be low, as internal and external parasite infestation suggests. Immediate actions are thus necessary: A first measure could be the vaccination of domestic animals against easily transmitted diseases. Th