session 12 technology issues in emergency management public administration and emergency management

Session 12Session 12Technology Issues in Technology Issues in

Emergency Emergency ManagementManagement

Public Administration and Public Administration and Emergency ManagementEmergency Management

ObjectivesObjectives

► At the conclusion of this session, students At the conclusion of this session, students will be able towill be able to

Discuss the nature of information technology Discuss the nature of information technology and its application in managing organizations and its application in managing organizations and decision makingand decision making

Discuss the application of information Discuss the application of information technology to emergency managementtechnology to emergency management

Discuss the uses of the Internet in emergency Discuss the uses of the Internet in emergency managementmanagement

Discuss other examples of technological Discuss other examples of technological innovations affecting emergency managementinnovations affecting emergency management

Required Student ReadingsRequired Student Readings

►Susan L. Cutter, Christopher T. Emrich, Susan L. Cutter, Christopher T. Emrich, Beverley J. Adams, Charles K. Huyck, and Beverley J. Adams, Charles K. Huyck, and Ronald T. Eguchi, “New Information Ronald T. Eguchi, “New Information Technologies in Emergency Technologies in Emergency Management,” in Management,” in Emergency Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Management: Principles and Practice for Local GovernmentLocal Government, 2nd Edition , 2nd Edition (Washington, DC: International (Washington, DC: International City/County Management Association, City/County Management Association, 2007), pp. 279-297.2007), pp. 279-297.

Nature of Information Nature of Information TechnologyTechnology

► Information is derived from analyzed data Information is derived from analyzed data or facts and, when gathered and analyzed or facts and, when gathered and analyzed in large quantities, becomes knowledge in large quantities, becomes knowledge (Starling, 1998: 562).(Starling, 1998: 562).

► Since World War II, the growth of Since World War II, the growth of technologies for gathering, storing, and technologies for gathering, storing, and analyzing data has lead to a revolution in analyzing data has lead to a revolution in how people communicate, how decisions how people communicate, how decisions are made, and how organizations are made, and how organizations function.function.

Nature of Information Nature of Information TechnologiesTechnologies

► Information technologies affect lines Information technologies affect lines of authority, management control, of authority, management control, the level of the organization at the level of the organization at which decisions can be effectively which decisions can be effectively made, and the speed of decision made, and the speed of decision making.making.


►For example, if information is conveyed For example, if information is conveyed to personnel in the field so that they can to personnel in the field so that they can make decisions on their own, the role of make decisions on their own, the role of central authorities changes from one of central authorities changes from one of control (i.e., interpreting data and telling control (i.e., interpreting data and telling personnel what they should be doing) to personnel what they should be doing) to oversight (i.e., ensuring that personnel oversight (i.e., ensuring that personnel in the field have the information they in the field have the information they need to make decisions and that they need to make decisions and that they act upon it correctly).act upon it correctly).


► It generally is faster to let decisions be It generally is faster to let decisions be made as low in the organization as made as low in the organization as possible rather than attempting to possible rather than attempting to communicate them from afar, and it communicate them from afar, and it generally is more effective to let generally is more effective to let personnel on site, who understand the personnel on site, who understand the situation better, make operational situation better, make operational decisions. Coordination is usually decisions. Coordination is usually handled at higher levels.handled at higher levels.


I.I. Computer-based technologies can Computer-based technologies can transfer information from central transfer information from central offices to regional and district offices offices to regional and district offices and even into employees’ homes and even into employees’ homes and automobiles via land-based and automobiles via land-based telephone systems, satellite-based telephone systems, satellite-based telephone systems, and radio.telephone systems, and radio.


► The integration of computer The integration of computer technologies into organizations has technologies into organizations has followed a general pattern of followed a general pattern of

office automation, in which data office automation, in which data processing, word processing, and processing, word processing, and similar functions were computerized, similar functions were computerized, with each usually contained within a with each usually contained within a “center” or “office” to facilitate “center” or “office” to facilitate management control;management control;


information resource management, in information resource management, in which data processing, word processing, which data processing, word processing, and other automated functions are and other automated functions are integrated to permit access via integrated to permit access via computer networks and to link agency computer networks and to link agency planning and management processes planning and management processes horizontally; andhorizontally; and


knowledge management, in which knowledge management, in which databases, communication systems, databases, communication systems, decision support systems, and other decision support systems, and other information technologies are linked information technologies are linked through networked systems to facilitate through networked systems to facilitate decision making, planning, and other decision making, planning, and other functions throughout the organization functions throughout the organization (vertically and horizontally) (adapted from (vertically and horizontally) (adapted from Vasu, Stewart, and Garson, 1998: 318). Vasu, Stewart, and Garson, 1998: 318).

Authority and Information Authority and Information FlowFlow

I.I. Organizational theorists have Organizational theorists have argued that the management of argued that the management of knowledge or information resources knowledge or information resources will change the authority structure will change the authority structure of organizations as “information of organizations as “information managers” control the flow of managers” control the flow of information (see, e.g., Vasu, information (see, e.g., Vasu, Stewart, and Garson, 1998: 318).Stewart, and Garson, 1998: 318).

Information Systems Information Systems

► The analysis of data and its The analysis of data and its translation into useful information is translation into useful information is done in an information system. In done in an information system. In brief, an information system brief, an information system involvesinvolves

inputs, i.e., data gathered;inputs, i.e., data gathered; processing, i.e., data manipulation, processing, i.e., data manipulation,

organization, and analysis;organization, and analysis;

Information SystemsInformation Systems

storage, i.e., data stored in an organized storage, i.e., data stored in an organized manner to facilitate retreival and manner to facilitate retreival and manipulation;manipulation;

control, i.e., determining whether the control, i.e., determining whether the information produced is accurate, timely, information produced is accurate, timely, complete, and useful; and,complete, and useful; and,

outputs, i.e., the analyses (e.g., reports) outputs, i.e., the analyses (e.g., reports) conducted for users (Starling, 1998: 563-conducted for users (Starling, 1998: 563-564).564).

Information Systems Information Systems

► Computerized information systems Computerized information systems includeinclude

transaction processing systems to keep transaction processing systems to keep track of routine activities, such as track of routine activities, such as disbursements or personnel work disbursements or personnel work records;records;

management information systems to management information systems to assist managers in the routine assist managers in the routine administration of programs, projects, administration of programs, projects, offices, etc.; offices, etc.;



decision support systems to provide decision support systems to provide information to assist administrators in information to assist administrators in making decisions when problems are not making decisions when problems are not routine and greater flexibility is needed. routine and greater flexibility is needed. Decision makers can ask for specific Decision makers can ask for specific analyses and may ask for options rather analyses and may ask for options rather than simple answers;than simple answers;


artificial intelligence to advise the decision artificial intelligence to advise the decision maker or even to make decisions within maker or even to make decisions within specific or general guidelines. Expert specific or general guidelines. Expert systems, a form of artificial intelligence, are systems, a form of artificial intelligence, are used to find patterns in large amounts of used to find patterns in large amounts of data, prompt decision makers to examine data, prompt decision makers to examine aspects of problems that should be aspects of problems that should be considered, and to make complex decisions considered, and to make complex decisions for which the decision rules are relatively for which the decision rules are relatively clearly understood (Starling, 1998: 564-clearly understood (Starling, 1998: 564-565). 565).

Information ProcessingInformation Processing

► Computers may be linked into large Computers may be linked into large networks and integrated with networks and integrated with telecommunications systems to telecommunications systems to facilitate the processing of information.facilitate the processing of information.

► Telecommunications systems includeTelecommunications systems include electronic mail (email);electronic mail (email); facsimile (fax) machines;facsimile (fax) machines; voice mail; andvoice mail; and videoconferencing (Starling, 1998: 570-videoconferencing (Starling, 1998: 570-

572).572).


► Increasingly, voice recognition systems that Increasingly, voice recognition systems that can input data and imaging technologies that can input data and imaging technologies that can input scanned images are speeding up can input scanned images are speeding up information processing (Starling, 1998: 572).information processing (Starling, 1998: 572).

► Information technologies make it easier for Information technologies make it easier for organizations to engage in rational-organizations to engage in rational-comprehensive decision making, because comprehensive decision making, because they can process more data faster and, they can process more data faster and, thereby, can weigh the costs and benefits of thereby, can weigh the costs and benefits of more alternatives (Rosenbloom, 1998: 356). more alternatives (Rosenbloom, 1998: 356).


► Information technologies can encourage either Information technologies can encourage either decentralization of decision making as decentralization of decision making as responsibility is delegated to the lowest level at responsibility is delegated to the lowest level at which there is sufficient information to make which there is sufficient information to make decisions, or centralization as data is collected decisions, or centralization as data is collected and analyzed at a high level and decisions are and analyzed at a high level and decisions are communicated downward (see, e.g., Vasu, communicated downward (see, e.g., Vasu, Stewart, and Garson, 1998: 329-331).Stewart, and Garson, 1998: 329-331).

► Computerization can empower workers by Computerization can empower workers by sharing more information with them and sharing more information with them and permitting them to participate in decision permitting them to participate in decision processes, thereby reducing the need for processes, thereby reducing the need for management control (Rosenbloom, 1998: 356).management control (Rosenbloom, 1998: 356).

Technology ProblemsTechnology Problems

► Computerized information Computerized information technologies also present problems technologies also present problems in that they in that they

require maintenance and updating, require maintenance and updating, can suffer mechanical and power can suffer mechanical and power

failures, and failures, and require frequent training sessions for require frequent training sessions for

operators.operators.


I.I. Computers may also suffer Computers may also suffer information overload (Starling, 1998: information overload (Starling, 1998: 574). Therefore, effective information 574). Therefore, effective information management is necessary to ensure management is necessary to ensure that the amount and types of data and that the amount and types of data and the functions being performed are the functions being performed are within the capacities of the machines within the capacities of the machines and the needs of information users.and the needs of information users.


► The increased use of information The increased use of information technologies, too, has raised questions technologies, too, has raised questions concerning concerning

the security of data (particularly data the security of data (particularly data pertaining to individuals and military secrets),pertaining to individuals and military secrets),

the ethics of collecting and using certain kinds the ethics of collecting and using certain kinds of data (even if available from other of data (even if available from other information systems), and information systems), and

the accuracy of data itself when decisions the accuracy of data itself when decisions about jobs, bank loans, and other important about jobs, bank loans, and other important issues may rest upon the data analysis.issues may rest upon the data analysis.


► Computers also can be distractions for Computers also can be distractions for personnel who become fascinated by the personnel who become fascinated by the technology or applications (e.g., game technology or applications (e.g., game playing, communication with friends, and playing, communication with friends, and Internet “surfing”).Internet “surfing”).

► Information overload can be a problem Information overload can be a problem for busy personnel who receive too many for busy personnel who receive too many messages and have to spend long periods messages and have to spend long periods of time determining what is and what is of time determining what is and what is not important. not important.

Social MediaSocial Media

► Increasing attention is being paid to Increasing attention is being paid to social media, such as Facebook and social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, because information Twitter, because information circulates among users that has circulates among users that has utility for emergency management utility for emergency management officials and information can also be officials and information can also be disseminated to users to reduce disseminated to users to reduce exposure to hazards and other risks. exposure to hazards and other risks.


►A. Social media, for example, have been A. Social media, for example, have been instrumental in monitoring wildfires in instrumental in monitoring wildfires in California and political violence in Iran. California and political violence in Iran.

►B. Increasing numbers of agencies are B. Increasing numbers of agencies are monitoring social media to identify risks monitoring social media to identify risks and creating social media sites and creating social media sites themselves to encourage public themselves to encourage public attention to hazards, potential disasters, attention to hazards, potential disasters, training programs, and other training programs, and other information. information.

ExerciseExercise

►What information technologies do you What information technologies do you use frequently what do you use them use frequently what do you use them for? for?

►Are you a “friend” with or “fan” of an Are you a “friend” with or “fan” of an emergency management agency or emergency management agency or site?site?

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

► What kinds of information technology might be What kinds of information technology might be found in a typical American home? In a typical found in a typical American home? In a typical workplace? And, how can those technologies be workplace? And, how can those technologies be applied to emergency management?applied to emergency management?

► What is the difference between a management What is the difference between a management information system and a decision support system?information system and a decision support system?

► Why can computer-based information systems Why can computer-based information systems permit organizations to decentralize decision permit organizations to decentralize decision making?making?

► What problems can arise in computerized What problems can arise in computerized information systems?information systems?

► How might social media, such as Facebook and How might social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, facilitate disaster operations? Twitter, facilitate disaster operations?

IT and Emergency IT and Emergency ManagementManagement

► Accurate and timely information is critical Accurate and timely information is critical in hazard management and disaster in hazard management and disaster operations and can help reduce losses of operations and can help reduce losses of lives and property. For example,lives and property. For example,

floodplain data gathered through remote sensing floodplain data gathered through remote sensing technologies and/or computer modeling and analyzed technologies and/or computer modeling and analyzed with geographic information system (GIS) software can with geographic information system (GIS) software can be used to relocate buildings to safer ground,be used to relocate buildings to safer ground,

stream gauge data communicated via satellite stream gauge data communicated via satellite or radio can provide warning of flooding,or radio can provide warning of flooding,

vegetation and drought data gathered through vegetation and drought data gathered through remote sensing technologies (e.g., satellite remote sensing technologies (e.g., satellite imaging) can help identify wildfire hazards,imaging) can help identify wildfire hazards,


modeling chemical dispersion can provide modeling chemical dispersion can provide information to aid evacuation, information to aid evacuation,

emergency responders and disaster victims have emergency responders and disaster victims have access to critical, life-saving information through access to critical, life-saving information through the Internet,the Internet,

new warning systems, such as reverse 911, serve new warning systems, such as reverse 911, serve to transform familiar technologies into more to transform familiar technologies into more effective tools for emergency management,effective tools for emergency management,

information on hazardous chemicals, infectious information on hazardous chemicals, infectious diseases, and any number of other threats is diseases, and any number of other threats is available through the Internet and other electronic available through the Internet and other electronic media,media,


emergency response personnel and other emergency response personnel and other officials can be trained to address hazards and officials can be trained to address hazards and respond to disasters through distance learning, respond to disasters through distance learning, computer-aided learning, and other technologies,computer-aided learning, and other technologies,

hazardous materials information (e.g., transport hazardous materials information (e.g., transport vehicle signage) determines the response vehicle signage) determines the response protocols for firefighters and other emergency protocols for firefighters and other emergency responders if there is a spill or leak, andresponders if there is a spill or leak, and

improvements in office automation and other improvements in office automation and other common technologies are improving the speed common technologies are improving the speed and efficiency of emergency management and efficiency of emergency management operations.operations.


► The growth in information technologies has The growth in information technologies has provided new tools for disaster management, provided new tools for disaster management, including applications ofincluding applications of

the Internet to transfer data on hazards and disasters the Internet to transfer data on hazards and disasters statewide, as in California’s OASIS system (Winslow, statewide, as in California’s OASIS system (Winslow, 1996), and even internationally, as in the 1996), and even internationally, as in the Global Global Disaster Information NetworkDisaster Information Network (Disaster Information (Disaster Information Task Force report to the Vice President, 1997); [GDIN Task Force report to the Vice President, 1997); [GDIN stopped operations in 2007.]stopped operations in 2007.]

weather satellites and satellite imaging technologies to weather satellites and satellite imaging technologies to identify and monitor hazards and disasters; identify and monitor hazards and disasters;

cellular telephone technologies to permit cellular telephone technologies to permit communication, voice and data, via satellite when land-communication, voice and data, via satellite when land-based communications systems are disrupted or based communications systems are disrupted or absent; absent;


telecommunications technologies that facilitate the telecommunications technologies that facilitate the communication of disaster warnings (e.g., reverse 911 communication of disaster warnings (e.g., reverse 911 systems that can issue warnings to residents in an area via systems that can issue warnings to residents in an area via telephone and National Weather Service severe storm and telephone and National Weather Service severe storm and tornado warnings via weather radio); tornado warnings via weather radio);

global positioning systems (GPSs) to permit the accurate global positioning systems (GPSs) to permit the accurate location of people and other objects on the ground;location of people and other objects on the ground;

geographic information systems that permit the spatial geographic information systems that permit the spatial analysis of data, ranging from demographic data on the analysis of data, ranging from demographic data on the population in an actual or potential disaster area to data on population in an actual or potential disaster area to data on the physical attributes (e.g., terrain, vegetation, the physical attributes (e.g., terrain, vegetation, waterways, etc.) of the area, to facilitate operational and waterways, etc.) of the area, to facilitate operational and strategic decision making; andstrategic decision making; and

computer-based modeling and simulation techniques, computer-based modeling and simulation techniques, including “virtual reality” exercises for firefighters and including “virtual reality” exercises for firefighters and other emergency responders.other emergency responders.


► Cellular telephones and cellular modems Cellular telephones and cellular modems for computers have also had a profound for computers have also had a profound impact on emergency management. impact on emergency management. Cellular telephones Cellular telephones

provide greater capability of communicating provide greater capability of communicating with on-site personnel from the EOC and other with on-site personnel from the EOC and other decision and support centers;decision and support centers;

provide greater capability to victims for provide greater capability to victims for communicating with public safety and other communicating with public safety and other emergency personnel; andemergency personnel; and

are easily maintained and operatedare easily maintained and operated..

IT Problems IT Problems

► However, there are problems with However, there are problems with cellular telephones, such as cellular telephones, such as

cellular telephone systems may be cellular telephone systems may be overloaded during an emergency; and overloaded during an emergency; and

cellular telephone calls may be cellular telephone calls may be distracting to busy personnel in the distracting to busy personnel in the field because of frequent interruptions field because of frequent interruptions and information overload. and information overload.

EmailEmail

► The use of electronic mail systems (i.e., The use of electronic mail systems (i.e., email) is having a profound impact on email) is having a profound impact on emergency management and interpersonal emergency management and interpersonal communications in general. Emailcommunications in general. Email

increases access to information by permitting increases access to information by permitting transfers of data that would be too cumbersome transfers of data that would be too cumbersome to transfer by voice over telephone;to transfer by voice over telephone;

increases the resources accessible to individual increases the resources accessible to individual emergency managers and disaster workers emergency managers and disaster workers because requests for information can be because requests for information can be broadcast much more widely, even broadcast much more widely, even internationally;internationally;

EmailEmail

alters organizational decision making alters organizational decision making because data can be transferred to because data can be transferred to workers in the field (thus making it workers in the field (thus making it possible to decentralize decision possible to decentralize decision processes) and information can be processes) and information can be gathered more readily from the field; and gathered more readily from the field; and

reduces the need to copy and distribute reduces the need to copy and distribute messages and, through electronic messages and, through electronic archiving, reduces the need to collect and archiving, reduces the need to collect and store copies of communications manually.store copies of communications manually.

EmailEmail

► Of course, email alsoOf course, email also reduces the content of communications, because reduces the content of communications, because

senders and receivers cannot see one another senders and receivers cannot see one another and read nonverbal communication; and read nonverbal communication;

may overwhelm individuals because of the lack of may overwhelm individuals because of the lack of a system for prioritizing communications; anda system for prioritizing communications; and

can overwhelm systems with the sheer volume of can overwhelm systems with the sheer volume of messages. For example, during winter storms in messages. For example, during winter storms in January 2000, computer usage (particularly January 2000, computer usage (particularly Internet access and e-mail traffic) overwhelmed Internet access and e-mail traffic) overwhelmed telephone and other communications lines along telephone and other communications lines along the East Coast, making it difficult for officials to the East Coast, making it difficult for officials to send and receive electronic messages.send and receive electronic messages.

Priority Access to Priority Access to CommunicationsCommunications

► To prevent similar problems, the Government To prevent similar problems, the Government Emergency Telecommunications Service is Emergency Telecommunications Service is offered through the Office of the Manager, offered through the Office of the Manager, National Communications System (OMNCS), to National Communications System (OMNCS), to ensure access to telephone service during a ensure access to telephone service during a national security crisis or disaster. national security crisis or disaster.

Authorized users, using a personal identification Authorized users, using a personal identification number, can get priority access on major long-distance number, can get priority access on major long-distance telephone networks, local networks, and government-telephone networks, local networks, and government-leased networks (OMNCS brochure, n.d.).leased networks (OMNCS brochure, n.d.).

The systems created to give priority to emergency The systems created to give priority to emergency management and other officials is a means of reducing management and other officials is a means of reducing the likelihood that telephone systems will be too the likelihood that telephone systems will be too overloaded to permit critical communication, however overloaded to permit critical communication, however the use of satellite telephones is reducing the reliance the use of satellite telephones is reducing the reliance on land-line and cell telephone communications.on land-line and cell telephone communications.

Impact of ITImpact of IT

► Computer technologies in general have Computer technologies in general have had a profound impact on emergency had a profound impact on emergency management because they management because they

increase capabilities to analyze large amounts increase capabilities to analyze large amounts of data,of data,

increase capabilities to transfer data to increase capabilities to transfer data to support operational and policy decision support operational and policy decision making,making,

can produce information graphically to aid can produce information graphically to aid decision making, anddecision making, and

support modeling and other analytical tools.support modeling and other analytical tools.


► Computer technologies may also create Computer technologies may also create problems in that problems in that

they may not work as expected, which is a major they may not work as expected, which is a major problem when decision makers and organizations are problem when decision makers and organizations are dependent upon the information they provide;dependent upon the information they provide;

they are only as useful as the software applications are they are only as useful as the software applications are useful and their users are skillful; useful and their users are skillful;

they often entail large investments of time and money they often entail large investments of time and money in user training, hardware and software maintenance, in user training, hardware and software maintenance, and data entry; andthey usually are not integrated with and data entry; andthey usually are not integrated with the systems used by other governments, by other the systems used by other governments, by other agencies within the same government, or even by agencies within the same government, or even by different parts of the same agency.different parts of the same agency.


► Computer technologies change significantly every Computer technologies change significantly every two to three years and maintaining near state-of-two to three years and maintaining near state-of-the-art systems requires continuous investment the-art systems requires continuous investment and a strategy for upgrading and replacing entire and a strategy for upgrading and replacing entire systems.systems.

► Because of the potential for problems due to Because of the potential for problems due to power failures and other technological “glitches,” power failures and other technological “glitches,” many organizations still maintain manual systems many organizations still maintain manual systems as a backup. For example, during the Y2K as a backup. For example, during the Y2K transition, many government agencies and private transition, many government agencies and private firms provided hardcopy forms, such as report firms provided hardcopy forms, such as report forms and sales receipts, to ensure that they could forms and sales receipts, to ensure that they could continue to operate without their automated continue to operate without their automated systems.systems.


► Notwithstanding the challenges inherent in the Notwithstanding the challenges inherent in the use of technology, computer-based information use of technology, computer-based information systems are increasingly being used to support systems are increasingly being used to support emergency management.emergency management.

► In 1991, the “operational area” concept was In 1991, the “operational area” concept was implemented in California to create focal points implemented in California to create focal points for the statewide emergency management for the statewide emergency management system. The “operational area” can be a county system. The “operational area” can be a county or a city or a group of governments. Each or a city or a group of governments. Each designated operational area is linked to regional designated operational area is linked to regional and state emergency management officials and state emergency management officials through their emergency operations centers through their emergency operations centers (EOCs) (Winslow, 1996: 114-121). (EOCs) (Winslow, 1996: 114-121).

Impact of IT Impact of IT The links are dedicated low band radio frequencies, data The links are dedicated low band radio frequencies, data

channels, amateur voice radio, facsimile machines, and channels, amateur voice radio, facsimile machines, and telephones. telephones.

The The Operational Area Satellite Information SystemOperational Area Satellite Information System (OASIS), a satellite-based telephone system, provides (OASIS), a satellite-based telephone system, provides linkages when land-based telephone service is linkages when land-based telephone service is unavailable or slow. unavailable or slow.

OASIS permits the transmittal of situation analysis OASIS permits the transmittal of situation analysis information from local governments and other agencies information from local governments and other agencies (e.g., school districts) to regional and state authorities, (e.g., school districts) to regional and state authorities, speeding such processes as damage assessment for speeding such processes as damage assessment for Presidential disaster declarations. Information can be Presidential disaster declarations. Information can be standardized, as well.standardized, as well.

OASIS also permits the communication of information to OASIS also permits the communication of information to local governments regarding resource allocations and local governments regarding resource allocations and other operational concerns.other operational concerns.

GIS and Hurricane AndrewGIS and Hurricane Andrew► When Hurricane Andrew came ashore in south Florida in When Hurricane Andrew came ashore in south Florida in

September 1992, the Miami-Dade County Geographic September 1992, the Miami-Dade County Geographic Information System (GIS) Office had computerized base maps Information System (GIS) Office had computerized base maps but no means of generating information to address specific but no means of generating information to address specific disaster response needs (Bales and Waugh, 1996: 331-332).disaster response needs (Bales and Waugh, 1996: 331-332).

► A. The South Florida Water Management District and the A. The South Florida Water Management District and the National Hurricane Center in Miami had GIS capabilities, but National Hurricane Center in Miami had GIS capabilities, but they were primarily focused on their own informational needs. they were primarily focused on their own informational needs.

► B. A local software development firm, Digital Matrix Services, B. A local software development firm, Digital Matrix Services, Inc., set up a GIS center in the FEMA field office and Inc., set up a GIS center in the FEMA field office and networked ten workstations to analyze data and generate networked ten workstations to analyze data and generate spatial analyses for disaster response and recovery agencies.spatial analyses for disaster response and recovery agencies.

► C. The principal use of the GIS center was to generate maps C. The principal use of the GIS center was to generate maps with geographic landmarks so that responders could locate with geographic landmarks so that responders could locate shelters, medical facilities, debris-burning areas, and other shelters, medical facilities, debris-burning areas, and other sites.sites.

GIS GIS ► Because of the Hurricane Andrew experience, the State of Because of the Hurricane Andrew experience, the State of

Florida created the Florida created the Emergency Management Information Emergency Management Information SystemSystem (EMIS) and located the system in the Department of (EMIS) and located the system in the Department of Community Affairs’ Division of Emergency Management (Bales Community Affairs’ Division of Emergency Management (Bales and Waugh, 1996: 333-339). and Waugh, 1996: 333-339).

► A. A surcharge on homeowners’ and business insurance A. A surcharge on homeowners’ and business insurance helps pay for the system.helps pay for the system.

► B. The GIS Center maintains a digital map of the state and B. The GIS Center maintains a digital map of the state and can integrate aerial and satellite photography and other maps can integrate aerial and satellite photography and other maps and images.and images.

► C. The objective was to build a seamless map of the state C. The objective was to build a seamless map of the state that could be used for state emergency management and that could be used for state emergency management and could be provided to county and city governments to support could be provided to county and city governments to support their efforts. their efforts.

GISGIS

► D, The maintenance of GIS systems is labor D, The maintenance of GIS systems is labor intensive (thus expensive) because of the cost of intensive (thus expensive) because of the cost of entering and updating data and training personnel entering and updating data and training personnel to use the system. Therefore it is generally more to use the system. Therefore it is generally more cost effective for federal or state agencies to cost effective for federal or state agencies to maintain datasets for local agencies and to provide maintain datasets for local agencies and to provide training centrally. Centralized maintenance of GIS training centrally. Centralized maintenance of GIS systems also facilitates standardization, so that systems also facilitates standardization, so that local systems are more compatible.local systems are more compatible.

► 1. Information can also be communicated to and 1. Information can also be communicated to and collected from emergency management personnel collected from emergency management personnel in the field via laptop computers with cellular in the field via laptop computers with cellular modems. modems.

► 2. The GIS Center also trains state and local 2. The GIS Center also trains state and local emergency managers to use EMIS technologies.emergency managers to use EMIS technologies.

GISGIS

► GIS applications are increasingly being used in GIS applications are increasingly being used in emergency management.emergency management.

► In 1998 when Hurricane Georges approached Key In 1998 when Hurricane Georges approached Key West, Florida, the evacuation was coordinated by West, Florida, the evacuation was coordinated by Monroe County sheriff deputies linked by a wide Monroe County sheriff deputies linked by a wide area network accessed through desktop and laptop area network accessed through desktop and laptop computers. 40,000 people were evacuated from the computers. 40,000 people were evacuated from the Keys on a two-lane highway (Dussault, 1999).Keys on a two-lane highway (Dussault, 1999).

► The San Francisco Bay Area chapter of the The San Francisco Bay Area chapter of the American Red Cross and Autodesk are developing a American Red Cross and Autodesk are developing a GIS-based disaster recovery program and it was GIS-based disaster recovery program and it was used during the Hurricane Georges recovery effort used during the Hurricane Georges recovery effort in Alabama in September 1998. The program was in Alabama in September 1998. The program was used for resource allocation and fund-raising used for resource allocation and fund-raising (McGarigle, 1999).(McGarigle, 1999).

GISGIS► GIS technologies have been integrated into dispatching GIS technologies have been integrated into dispatching

systems for fire departments and emergency medical systems for fire departments and emergency medical personnel. Besides providing maps to locate victims, the personnel. Besides providing maps to locate victims, the integrated systems can identify duplicate calls so that only integrated systems can identify duplicate calls so that only one response unit will be dispatched to that location (Scott, one response unit will be dispatched to that location (Scott, 1998). \1998). \

► The GIS system can also store floor plans and other The GIS system can also store floor plans and other information about malls, apartment buildings, and other information about malls, apartment buildings, and other structures to aid response. Emergency vehicles can be structures to aid response. Emergency vehicles can be routed around congested streets. The boundaries of routed around congested streets. The boundaries of jurisdictions can be identified (Scott, 1998). jurisdictions can be identified (Scott, 1998).

► Spatial information can also be used to locate emergency Spatial information can also be used to locate emergency operations centers, temporary morgues, landing areas for operations centers, temporary morgues, landing areas for medical evacuation helicopters (with precise coordinates for medical evacuation helicopters (with precise coordinates for the pilots), staging areas, and security perimeters (Scott, the pilots), staging areas, and security perimeters (Scott, 1998).1998).

GISGIS

► Some states, like Georgia and North Carolina, Some states, like Georgia and North Carolina, have or are developing GIS data clearinghouses to have or are developing GIS data clearinghouses to provide spatial data to local and state agencies, provide spatial data to local and state agencies, universities, and other GIS users.universities, and other GIS users.

The North Carolina Center for Geographic Information The North Carolina Center for Geographic Information and Analysis (CGIA) was created in 1994. Before and Analysis (CGIA) was created in 1994. Before Hurricane Fran hit North Carolina in September of 1996, Hurricane Fran hit North Carolina in September of 1996, CGIA prepared “hurricane storm surge inundation area” CGIA prepared “hurricane storm surge inundation area” maps, based upon NOAA’s Sea, Lake and Overland maps, based upon NOAA’s Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricane (SLOSH) model, for four coastal Surges from Hurricane (SLOSH) model, for four coastal counties in the storm’s path (Dymon, 1999). counties in the storm’s path (Dymon, 1999).

Evacuation maps were prepared from the storm surge Evacuation maps were prepared from the storm surge maps for a range of storm types (e.g., fast and slow maps for a range of storm types (e.g., fast and slow moving and categories 2, 3, and 5) (Dymon, 1999). moving and categories 2, 3, and 5) (Dymon, 1999).

GISGIS Data was provided to FEMA to aid in disaster recovery efforts, Data was provided to FEMA to aid in disaster recovery efforts,

to the North Carolina Division of Forest Resources to estimate to the North Carolina Division of Forest Resources to estimate forest damage, and to a number of disaster response and forest damage, and to a number of disaster response and recovery agencies to deal with everything from the recovery agencies to deal with everything from the distribution of disaster assistance to the spraying for distribution of disaster assistance to the spraying for mosquitos due to standing water after the storm (Dymon, mosquitos due to standing water after the storm (Dymon, 1999). 1999).

Situation reports were put on the World Wide Web (WWW) to Situation reports were put on the World Wide Web (WWW) to keep emergency responders and support agencies, keep emergency responders and support agencies, government officials, and the public informed. Requests for government officials, and the public informed. Requests for assistance, some from volunteers and other resources from assistance, some from volunteers and other resources from the community, were also broadcast (Dymon, 1999). the community, were also broadcast (Dymon, 1999).

The North Carolina program, CGIA, speeded up the response The North Carolina program, CGIA, speeded up the response and recovery processes because critical information was and recovery processes because critical information was available before the disaster and distributed to officials and available before the disaster and distributed to officials and agencies in forms to meet their decision making needs agencies in forms to meet their decision making needs (Dymon, 1999).(Dymon, 1999).

GIS GIS ► Federal and state assistance with GIS systems may be critical Federal and state assistance with GIS systems may be critical

for small governments, in particular. However, GIS for small governments, in particular. However, GIS workstations and datasets are getting less expensive and may workstations and datasets are getting less expensive and may be within the means of many more governments than they be within the means of many more governments than they were only a few years ago.were only a few years ago.

► The The National Geographic Data SystemNational Geographic Data System has developed a has developed a GIS data standard and a data transfer standard to facilitate GIS data standard and a data transfer standard to facilitate the sharing of data among public and private users and the the sharing of data among public and private users and the integration of datasets.integration of datasets.

► The The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Geophysical Data Center(NOAA) National Geophysical Data Center provides a provides a wealth of information on natural hazards, such as earthquakes wealth of information on natural hazards, such as earthquakes and tropical cyclones (hurricanes). The center makes and tropical cyclones (hurricanes). The center makes available data in a variety of formats from photographic available data in a variety of formats from photographic images to DVDs and CDs to posters.images to DVDs and CDs to posters.

EIIP’s EmforumEIIP’s Emforum

► The The Emergency Information Emergency Information Infrastructure PartnershipInfrastructure Partnership (EIIP) which (EIIP) which includes public agencies, private firms, includes public agencies, private firms, nonprofit organizations, and universities was nonprofit organizations, and universities was formed in 1997 to facilitate the sharing of formed in 1997 to facilitate the sharing of information on emergency management information on emergency management practices, technologies, and lessons. The practices, technologies, and lessons. The partnership sponsors informal chat sessions partnership sponsors informal chat sessions and on-line presentations and posts research and on-line presentations and posts research papers, documents, and other materials at papers, documents, and other materials at <www.emforum.org>.<www.emforum.org>.

IDNDR and ISNDRIDNDR and ISNDR

►The development of such information The development of such information sharing and technology transfer efforts sharing and technology transfer efforts was a primary goal of the United was a primary goal of the United Nation’s Nation’s International Decade for International Decade for Natural Hazard Reduction Natural Hazard Reduction and and remains a goal of theremains a goal of the International International Strategy for Natural Hazard Strategy for Natural Hazard Reduction.Reduction.

Computer Modeling Computer Modeling

► Advanced computing is also revolutionizing the Advanced computing is also revolutionizing the modeling of natural and technological hazards, modeling of natural and technological hazards, as well as aiding in the prediction of phenomena as well as aiding in the prediction of phenomena such as hurricanes. such as hurricanes.

► The annual predictions of the number of named The annual predictions of the number of named storms, number of hurricanes, and number of storms, number of hurricanes, and number of hurricane landfalls issued by NOAA and by Dr. hurricane landfalls issued by NOAA and by Dr. William Gray’s team at Colorado State University William Gray’s team at Colorado State University provide information to help residents of coastal provide information to help residents of coastal areas, as well as emergency planners, prepare areas, as well as emergency planners, prepare for potential disasters. The computer models are for potential disasters. The computer models are increasingly accurate and are adjusted during the increasingly accurate and are adjusted during the hurricane season if conditions change. hurricane season if conditions change.

Satellite Imaging and GPSSatellite Imaging and GPS

► GoogleEarth provides a means of monitoring GoogleEarth provides a means of monitoring hazards and disasters. For example, the Centers hazards and disasters. For example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention monitored for Disease Control and Prevention monitored open spaces in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, following open spaces in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, following the January 2010 earthquake to estimate the the January 2010 earthquake to estimate the number of survivors who might need assistance. number of survivors who might need assistance. Displaced persons gathered in camps on soccer Displaced persons gathered in camps on soccer and baseball fields, in parks, and other open and baseball fields, in parks, and other open areas away from vulnerable structures. areas away from vulnerable structures.

► Global positioning system (GPS) technology also Global positioning system (GPS) technology also helps provide geographically accurate helps provide geographically accurate information for emergency operations. information for emergency operations.

Computer AnalysisComputer Analysis

► Information technology can be used Information technology can be used for for

loss estimation, loss estimation, hazard and vulnerability assessment,hazard and vulnerability assessment, inventory development for infrastructure,inventory development for infrastructure, early warning,early warning, structural damage detection,structural damage detection, mapping impact areas, andmapping impact areas, and field reconnaissance (Cutter et al., 2007).field reconnaissance (Cutter et al., 2007).

Exercise IExercise I

Tour the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Tour the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Geophysical Data Administration’s (NOAA) National Geophysical Data Center website Center website http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/

• What kinds of information are available?What kinds of information are available?• What kinds of information are available on What kinds of information are available on • Category 5 hurricanes ; andCategory 5 hurricanes ; and• recent tornado outbreaks? recent tornado outbreaks? Tour NASA’s Earth Observatory website Tour NASA’s Earth Observatory website

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards • What kinds of information are available on the What kinds of information are available on the

Eyjafjallajökull Volcano in Iceland and the ash cloud Eyjafjallajökull Volcano in Iceland and the ash cloud that caused the closing of much of Europe’s that caused the closing of much of Europe’s airspace to civil aviation in early 2010? airspace to civil aviation in early 2010?

Exercise IIExercise II

► Find your home county on the Public Entity Find your home county on the Public Entity Risk Institute’s (PERI) Presidential Risk Institute’s (PERI) Presidential Declarations website <Declarations website <http://www.peripresdecusa.org/mainframe.htm>. >.

• How many Presidential Disaster Declarations How many Presidential Disaster Declarations have included that county?have included that county?

• What kinds of disasters have occurred since What kinds of disasters have occurred since Presidential Disaster Declarations have been Presidential Disaster Declarations have been issued?issued?

• Which disasters have caused the highest Which disasters have caused the highest loss of life and property? loss of life and property?

Exercise IIIExercise III

► The CBS News network maintains a website with a The CBS News network maintains a website with a wealth of information on natural and technological wealth of information on natural and technological hazards hazards http://www.cbsnews.com/digitaldan/disaster/disasters.shtml. Research one the major international disasters in . Research one the major international disasters in recent years, such as the 2009 Chinese earthquake, recent years, such as the 2009 Chinese earthquake, the 2010 Haitian earthquake, the 2010 Chilean the 2010 Haitian earthquake, the 2010 Chilean earthquake and tsunami, the 2010 Iceland volcanic earthquake and tsunami, the 2010 Iceland volcanic eruption that disrupted civil aviation in Europe, or eruption that disrupted civil aviation in Europe, or the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. the 2010 BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

• What kinds of information are available on that What kinds of information are available on that disaster?disaster?


► What are some examples of information What are some examples of information technologies now in use in emergency technologies now in use in emergency management?management?

► What are some of the emergency What are some of the emergency management information systems now in management information systems now in use?use?

► How might the Internet information assist How might the Internet information assist emergency management operations?emergency management operations?

► How might GoogleEarth be used to monitor How might GoogleEarth be used to monitor disasters and aid disaster operations? disasters and aid disaster operations?

► How might social media be used by disaster How might social media be used by disaster victims? By emergency responders?victims? By emergency responders?

Uses of the InternetUses of the Internet

► One of the most important technological One of the most important technological innovations has been the use of the Internet to innovations has been the use of the Internet to communicate information to the public, as well communicate information to the public, as well as to emergency management decision as to emergency management decision makers.makers.

► The use of the Internet for e-mail The use of the Internet for e-mail communication (see above) is increasingly communication (see above) is increasingly common, and emergency managers can common, and emergency managers can expect that very high percentages of the expect that very high percentages of the population, particularly in more affluent population, particularly in more affluent communities and communities near colleges communities and communities near colleges and universities, will have access to e-mail at and universities, will have access to e-mail at home and at work.home and at work.


► The Internet has become a household tool The Internet has become a household tool within the last five years. Families can find within the last five years. Families can find on-line encyclopedias and other general on-line encyclopedias and other general references, and they can find specialized references, and they can find specialized information ranging from stir-fry recipes to information ranging from stir-fry recipes to how to protect themselves from tornadoes. how to protect themselves from tornadoes.

► The United Nations held on-line conferences The United Nations held on-line conferences in 1998 on urban hazards and flooding, and in 1998 on urban hazards and flooding, and the participants ranged from university the participants ranged from university faculty and senior emergency management faculty and senior emergency management officials from around the world to high officials from around the world to high school students and community activists. school students and community activists.


► Web sites provide a wide range of Web sites provide a wide range of information on natural and technological information on natural and technological hazards; for example:hazards; for example:

The Natural Hazards Research and The Natural Hazards Research and Applications Center at the University of Applications Center at the University of Colorado has two publications—a monthly Colorado has two publications—a monthly newsletter, newsletter, Hazards Observer,Hazards Observer, in hard and in hard and electronic forms and a periodic electronic electronic forms and a periodic electronic newsletter, newsletter, Disaster ResearchDisaster Research—with inquiries —with inquiries about hazards and disaster responses and about hazards and disaster responses and announcements of conferences, training announcements of conferences, training programs, jobs, grant programs, new laws and programs, jobs, grant programs, new laws and regulations, and so on.regulations, and so on.


The Natural Hazards Center also makes The Natural Hazards Center also makes available copies of working papers and available copies of working papers and quick response reports via its Web site quick response reports via its Web site <www.colorado.edu/ hazards>.<www.colorado.edu/ hazards>.

Disaster-related laws, executive orders, Disaster-related laws, executive orders, presidential decision directives, and other presidential decision directives, and other government documents are available government documents are available from a variety of sources, but most easily from a variety of sources, but most easily accessed through the FEMA Web site accessed through the FEMA Web site <www.fema.gov/ library>.<www.fema.gov/ library>.

Internet InformationInternet Information

Reliance upon Internet information may pose Reliance upon Internet information may pose problems in thatproblems in that

► The information may be inaccurate or old,The information may be inaccurate or old,► there may simply be too much information for there may simply be too much information for

users to sort through and use,users to sort through and use,► the information may be biased because the the information may be biased because the

owner is trying to sell a product, political owner is trying to sell a product, political ideology, or point of view, andideology, or point of view, and

► not all residents of the U.S. or other nations have not all residents of the U.S. or other nations have computers to access the Internet. Computer computers to access the Internet. Computer skills and access are associated with educational skills and access are associated with educational levels and affluence.levels and affluence.


► Social media, such as Twitter, youtube, and Social media, such as Twitter, youtube, and Facebook represent the newest methods of Facebook represent the newest methods of communication. An increasing number of communication. An increasing number of emergency management agencies have emergency management agencies have Facebook sites and invite “fans” to Facebook sites and invite “fans” to subscribe. [Students might access the subscribe. [Students might access the Facebook sites of the San Francisco Facebook sites of the San Francisco Emergency Management Office, the Emergency Management Office, the Pittsburgh (PA) Emergency Management Pittsburgh (PA) Emergency Management Agency, or other emergency management Agency, or other emergency management offices.] offices.]

Professional Emergency Professional Emergency Managers on the WebManagers on the Web

►Professional emergency managers also Professional emergency managers also network via Facebook and other social network via Facebook and other social networking platforms. [Students with networking platforms. [Students with Facebook accounts might check to see Facebook accounts might check to see if well-known emergency managers if well-known emergency managers and disaster researchers also have and disaster researchers also have accounts.]accounts.]

CitizenCorps on the WebCitizenCorps on the Web

► CitizenCorps offers community preparedness CitizenCorps offers community preparedness webinars on a variety of preparedness topics. webinars on a variety of preparedness topics. The topics for May 3, 2010, for example, was The topics for May 3, 2010, for example, was “National Animal Preparedness Day: The “National Animal Preparedness Day: The Community’s Role in Preparing and Planning for Community’s Role in Preparing and Planning for Animals.” Archived programs include webinars Animals.” Archived programs include webinars on flood awareness, earthquake preparedness, on flood awareness, earthquake preparedness, compliance with the Americans with Disabilities compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the 9-1-1 system. [See Act (ADA), and the 9-1-1 system. [See <http://www.citizencorps.gov/news/webcasts.s<http://www.citizencorps.gov/news/webcasts.shtm>].htm>].

Exercise IExercise I

► Grade the websites of state and local emergency Grade the websites of state and local emergency management agencies or offices based upon management agencies or offices based upon

• the amount and kinds of information that is the amount and kinds of information that is available through the sites, available through the sites,

• the ease of access (particularly for those who might the ease of access (particularly for those who might not be experienced Web users), and not be experienced Web users), and

• the value of the information to (a) experienced the value of the information to (a) experienced emergency managers, (b) disaster workers seeking emergency managers, (b) disaster workers seeking information during an emergency, (c) individuals information during an emergency, (c) individuals preparing for careers in the field or seeking preparing for careers in the field or seeking employment information, (d) disaster victims, and employment information, (d) disaster victims, and (e) the general public.(e) the general public.

► Suggested sites include the FEMA, California, Suggested sites include the FEMA, California, Florida, and New York City websites. Florida, and New York City websites.

Exercise IIExercise II

► Participate in one of the one-hour Emergency Participate in one of the one-hour Emergency Information Infrastructure Partnership’s Emforum Information Infrastructure Partnership’s Emforum sessions conducted Wednesdays at noon (Eastern sessions conducted Wednesdays at noon (Eastern Time) [or access one of the sessions on the forum Time) [or access one of the sessions on the forum website website www.emforum.org]. The May 12, 2010 ]. The May 12, 2010 session was on “The Four Essentials of Life: session was on “The Four Essentials of Life: Communications, Transportation, Power and Water." Communications, Transportation, Power and Water." The Emforum website includes an archive of past The Emforum website includes an archive of past programs on a variety of topics, including uses of programs on a variety of topics, including uses of information technologies such as geographic information technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS). More recent programs information systems (GIS). More recent programs are available as taped sessions that can be played in are available as taped sessions that can be played in class and include PowerPoint presentations. class and include PowerPoint presentations.


► What kinds of hazards information can be accessed What kinds of hazards information can be accessed through the web?through the web?

► How might the hazards information benefit populations How might the hazards information benefit populations at risk from natural or technological hazards?at risk from natural or technological hazards?

► Is it a problem if emergency information and plans are Is it a problem if emergency information and plans are not available to the public when a disaster is not available to the public when a disaster is imminent?imminent?

► What problems might arise is emergency management What problems might arise is emergency management offices rely entirely on web-based programs and offices rely entirely on web-based programs and communications?communications?

► What segments of American society do not have ready What segments of American society do not have ready access to Internet information and how might those access to Internet information and how might those people be provided access?people be provided access?

Other Technological Other Technological InnovationsInnovations

► Other technological innovations have had a profound impact Other technological innovations have had a profound impact on emergency management, as well. on emergency management, as well.

► For example, innovations in For example, innovations in warning systemswarning systems are increasing are increasing the lead time for evacuation so that residents can find shelter the lead time for evacuation so that residents can find shelter away from hazards. away from hazards.

► In many communities in the “tornado belt,” warning systems In many communities in the “tornado belt,” warning systems are a very salient political issue. are a very salient political issue.

► During the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak in the Southeast on During the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak in the Southeast on March 1994, a tornado warning was issued by the Weather March 1994, a tornado warning was issued by the Weather Service Forecasting Office in Birmingham about 12 minutes Service Forecasting Office in Birmingham about 12 minutes before a tornado struck the Goshen United Methodist Church before a tornado struck the Goshen United Methodist Church and killed 20 people. The people in the church did not have a and killed 20 people. The people in the church did not have a weather radio or any other means of hearing the warning. Had weather radio or any other means of hearing the warning. Had they heard the warning, they could have moved to a more they heard the warning, they could have moved to a more secure part of the building and possibly survived (NOAA, secure part of the building and possibly survived (NOAA, 1994).1994).


►Many communities have spotters who are Many communities have spotters who are posted strategically to watch for tornadoes posted strategically to watch for tornadoes when the weather conditions are right and when the weather conditions are right and to send information to a central office so to send information to a central office so that a warning can be issued to residents. that a warning can be issued to residents. However, tornadoes may be difficult to see However, tornadoes may be difficult to see at night and during severe thunderstorms.at night and during severe thunderstorms.

► Sirens and similar warning systems may not Sirens and similar warning systems may not be heard in all parts of a community be heard in all parts of a community because of high buildings, dense vegetation, because of high buildings, dense vegetation, and/or faulty equipment. and/or faulty equipment.


► Some communities are implementing Some communities are implementing “reverse 911” systems“reverse 911” systems that can telephone that can telephone residents and give a recorded warning to seek residents and give a recorded warning to seek shelter.shelter.

► Also, research is being done on a variety of Also, research is being done on a variety of potential tornado detectors, including potential tornado detectors, including instruments that can measure the intensity of instruments that can measure the intensity of storms, the frequency of lightning (an evident storms, the frequency of lightning (an evident precursor for tornadoes), and the vibrations precursor for tornadoes), and the vibrations caused as tornadoes touch the ground.caused as tornadoes touch the ground.


► Technological innovation is also improving the detection of Technological innovation is also improving the detection of bombs, firearms, and other weapons before they can be bombs, firearms, and other weapons before they can be carried onto aircraft. The incidence of “skyjackings” and carried onto aircraft. The incidence of “skyjackings” and bombings has declined tremendously since the mid-1970s. bombings has declined tremendously since the mid-1970s. The decline is due to a number of factors, and a major one is The decline is due to a number of factors, and a major one is the use of metal detection devices and other security the use of metal detection devices and other security procedures at airports. procedures at airports.

► The Federal Aviation Administration has been deploying The Federal Aviation Administration has been deploying trace trace detection equipmentdetection equipment which uses a vacuum system or other which uses a vacuum system or other vapor sampling techniques to identify traces of explosives on vapor sampling techniques to identify traces of explosives on objects. The equipment has been installed at all Category X objects. The equipment has been installed at all Category X airports (the nineteen busiest airports in the U.S.) and all airports (the nineteen busiest airports in the U.S.) and all Category 1 airports (sixty other U.S. airports with 2 million or Category 1 airports (sixty other U.S. airports with 2 million or more passengers a year) (GAO, 1998).’more passengers a year) (GAO, 1998).’


► Trace detection equipment is particularly useful Trace detection equipment is particularly useful for screening hand-carried baggage quickly and for screening hand-carried baggage quickly and equipment is being added for screening equipment is being added for screening checked baggage (GAO, 1998).checked baggage (GAO, 1998).

► Similarly, detection devices are priorities for Similarly, detection devices are priorities for identifying and responding to terrorist incidents identifying and responding to terrorist incidents involving nuclear, biological, or chemical agents involving nuclear, biological, or chemical agents (i.e., “weapons of mass destruction”). (i.e., “weapons of mass destruction”).

► Quick identification of the toxic agent will let Quick identification of the toxic agent will let responders know how to deal with the disaster responders know how to deal with the disaster without putting themselves at risk, and whether without putting themselves at risk, and whether more victims will be infected or contaminated. more victims will be infected or contaminated.


► For example, in an incident similar to the For example, in an incident similar to the Sarin gas attack in the Tokyo subway system Sarin gas attack in the Tokyo subway system in 1995, detection devices might be used to in 1995, detection devices might be used to identify the toxic agent so that an appropriate identify the toxic agent so that an appropriate medical response and evacuation can be medical response and evacuation can be organized, stop the trains so that the agent organized, stop the trains so that the agent will not be spread to other stations, and cut will not be spread to other stations, and cut off the station ventilation system so that the off the station ventilation system so that the agent will not be vented to the street level agent will not be vented to the street level where other people may be affected.where other people may be affected.


► Technological innovation is frequently expensive and Technological innovation is frequently expensive and mitigation techniques may simply be too expensive for mitigation techniques may simply be too expensive for the benefit they provide.the benefit they provide.

► Some technological innovations are relatively “low Some technological innovations are relatively “low tech” and inexpensive. For example, tents, clothing tech” and inexpensive. For example, tents, clothing designed for hiking and climbing, and other camping designed for hiking and climbing, and other camping gear are getting lighter and more effective in protecting gear are getting lighter and more effective in protecting campers from rain, heat, and cold. Therefore, such new campers from rain, heat, and cold. Therefore, such new technologies are being adopted by emergency response technologies are being adopted by emergency response personnel because they are readily available and personnel because they are readily available and relatively inexpensive compared to equipment designed relatively inexpensive compared to equipment designed specifically for disaster response.specifically for disaster response.

► Technological innovation does create human resource Technological innovation does create human resource problems. Frequent training is necessary because of problems. Frequent training is necessary because of technological change and because of personnel technological change and because of personnel turnover.turnover.


► Because of the speed of innovation, there is also greater Because of the speed of innovation, there is also greater need for continuing education programs and human need for continuing education programs and human resource development (training) programs to ensure that resource development (training) programs to ensure that decisionmakers understand the impact of the innovations decisionmakers understand the impact of the innovations and adjust their decision processes accordingly.and adjust their decision processes accordingly.

► It must also be pointed out that technology itself may It must also be pointed out that technology itself may pose a hazard. Reliance upon mass transit, automated pose a hazard. Reliance upon mass transit, automated office systems, satellite communications and other office systems, satellite communications and other technological advances leaves society vulnerable to technological advances leaves society vulnerable to disruptions and failures. The threats of biological, disruptions and failures. The threats of biological, chemical, nuclear, and radiological terrorism are also chemical, nuclear, and radiological terrorism are also byproducts of technological innovation. As weaponry byproducts of technological innovation. As weaponry gets more sophisticated, more lethal, the threat it poses gets more sophisticated, more lethal, the threat it poses increases.increases.


► The advent of the “intelligent city” means The advent of the “intelligent city” means that capabilities are being developed to use that capabilities are being developed to use remote sensing and automated warning remote sensing and automated warning systems to alert officials and the public to systems to alert officials and the public to danger and decision support systems to offer danger and decision support systems to offer policy and operational options when the alert policy and operational options when the alert is sounded. Every year technology offers is sounded. Every year technology offers more tools to the emergency manager to more tools to the emergency manager to reduce the loss of life and property. The task reduce the loss of life and property. The task is to integrate those tools into an “intelligent is to integrate those tools into an “intelligent emergency management system” (Stanley emergency management system” (Stanley and Waugh, in press).and Waugh, in press).


► What other emergency management What other emergency management technologies or technologies that can be technologies or technologies that can be applied to emergency management can applied to emergency management can you (the students) identify?you (the students) identify?

► What kinds of hazard reduction What kinds of hazard reduction technologies might one find in a home or technologies might one find in a home or business?business?

► How might technologies themselves pose a How might technologies themselves pose a hazard to people and organizations?hazard to people and organizations?

► What uses might remote sensing be put to What uses might remote sensing be put to in order to monitor potential risks?in order to monitor potential risks?

session 12 technology issues in emergency management public administration and emergency management

Documents

emergency management

new information technologies

management control slide

management processes

growth of technologies

computerbased technologies

data processing

operational decisions