seismic evaluation of blood banks in nepal

8/7/2019 Seismic Evaluation of Blood Banks in Nepal

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ability Assessment of Blood Bank Buildings in Nepal

National Society for Earthquake Technology- Nepal (NSET)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................1

1.1 SCOPE OF WORK..............................................................................................................1

1.2 OVERALL METHODOLOGY ..............................................................................................1

1.3 LIMITATIONS ...................................................................................................................2

2. SEISMIC HAZARD AND DESIGN GROUND MOTION ...............................................................2

2.1 SEISMIC HAZARD ............................................................................................................2

2.2 DESIGN BASIS EARTHQUAKE ..........................................................................................2

3. DATA COLLECTION AND ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY .....................................................3

3.1 SURVEY METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................3

3.2 LOCATION OF BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC HAZARD MAP OF NEPAL .....................................3

3.3 INTERVIEW ......................................................................................................................4

3.4 FIELD EXPLORATION.......................................................................................................4

3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDING TYPOLOGY.....................................................................4

3.6 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY.............................................................5

3.6.1 FRAGILITY OF THE IDENTIFIED BUILDING TYPOLOGY ...............................................5

3.6.2 IDENTIFICATION OF VULNERABILITY FACTORS .........................................................6

3.6.3 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS TO THE SEISMIC

PERFORMANCE OF THE BUILDING ..............................................................................6

3.6.4 VULNERABILITY OF INDIVIDUAL BUILDING VS. A GROUP OF BUILDINGS .................6

4. SURVEY FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS RESULT...........................................................................6

4.1 DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING .............................................................................................6

4.2 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION ...............................................6

4.3 WEAKNESSES IN BUILDINGS ...........................................................................................7

4.3.1 MATERIAL WEAKNESS ................................................................................................7

4.3.2 LACK OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURAL

COMPONENTS ...........................................................................................................................7

4.3.3 TYPICAL WEAKNESSES IN THE ASSESSED BUILDINGS ................................................7

4.4 IDENTIFICATION OF NON STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS ...................................................9

4.5 INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS TO THE SEISMIC PERFORMANCE

OF THE BUILDING ..........................................................................................................10

4.6 REINTERPRETATION OF THE BUILDING FRAGILITY BASED ON OBSERVED

VULNERABILITY FACTORS ............................................................................................12

4.7 PROBABLE PERFORMANCE OF THE BUILDING AT DIFFERENT INTENSITIES..................12

5. INTERVENTION OPTIONS FOR BETTER SEISMIC PERFORMANCE .......................................14



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5.1 LESSONS FROM PAST EARTHQUAKES ...........................................................................14

5.1.1 LOAD BEARING UNREINFORCED MASONRY BUILDINGS..........................................14

5.1.2 RC FRAME BUILDINGS..............................................................................................14

5.2 SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF BUILDINGS.........................................................................15

5.2.1 PHILOSOPHY AND APPROACH ...................................................................................15

5.2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF RETROFITTING METHODOLOGY .................................................15

5.3 RETROFITTING METHODS .............................................................................................16

5.3.1 GENERAL IMPROVEMENT .........................................................................................16

5.4 RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES .........................................................................................16

5.4.1 MASONRY BUILDINGS IN CEMENT SAND MORTAR ..................................................16

5.4.2 RC FRAME BUILDING STRUCTURE ...........................................................................18

6. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION..........................................................18

6.1 SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................18

6.2 CONCLUSIONS ...............................................................................................................19

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................................19



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APPENDIX

ANNEX I: EUROPEAN MACRO SEISMIC SCALE (EMS 98)...........................................................21

ANNEX 2: MODIFIED MERCALLY INTENSITY SCALE (MMI SCALE) ............................27

ANNEX III-1(BLOOD BANK-KATHMANDU): CHECKING DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY

FACTORS OF THE BUILDING .........................................................................................................29

ANNEX III-2 (BLOOD BANK- BIRATNAGAR): CHECKING DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY

FACTORS OF THE BUILDING .........................................................................................................32

ANNEX III-3 (BLOOD BANK- POKHARA): CHECKING DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS

OF THE BUILDING ..........................................................................................................................35

ANNEX III-4 (BLOOD BANK- NEPALGUNJ): CHECKING DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS

OF THE BUILDING ..........................................................................................................................39

ANNEX III-5 (BLOOD BANK- DHANGADI): CHECKING DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS

OF THE BUILDING ..........................................................................................................................42

ANNEX III-6(BLOOD BANK- BIRGUNJ): CHECKING DIFFERENT VULNERABILITY FACTORS OF

THE BUILDING ...............................................................................................................................45

ANNEX IV-1 (BLOOD BANK BUILDING-KATHMANDU): SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ...................48

ANNEX IV-3 (BLOOD BANK BUILDING-POKHARA): SAMPLE CALCULATIONS .........................50

ANNEX IV-4 (BLOOD BANK BUILDING-NEPALGUNJ): SAMPLE CALCULATIONS .....................53

ANNEX IV-5 (BLOOD BANK BUILDING-DHANGADI): SAMPLE CALCULATIONS .......................55

ANNEX IV-6 (BLOOD BANK BUILDING-BIRGUNJ): SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ...........................57

ANNEX V-1: BUILDING DESCRIPTION ( BLOOD BANK-KATHMANDU) ......................................59

ANNEX V-2: BUILDING DESCRIPTION (BLOOD BANK-BIRATNAGAR).......................................60

ANNEX V-3: BUILDING DESCRIPTION ( BLOOD BANK-POKHARA)............................................61

ANNEX V-4: BUILDING DESCRIPTION (BLOOD BANK-NEPALGUNJ) .........................................62

ANNEX V-5: BUILDING DESCRIPTION ( BLOOD BANK-DHANGADI) ..........................................63

ANNEX V-6: BUILDING DESCRIPTION (BLOOD BANK-BIRGUNJ)...............................................64

ANNEX VI-1: PHOTOGRAPHS ( BLOOD BANK-KATHMANDU)....................................................66

ANNEX VI-2: PHOTOGRAPHS (BLOOD BANK-BIRATNAGAR).....................................................71

ANNEX VI-3: PHOTOGRAPHS (BLOOD BANK-POKHARA) ..........................................................77

ANNEX VI-4: PHOTOGRAPHS (BLOOD BANK-NEPALGUNJ).......................................................82

ANNEX VI-5: PHOTOGRAPHS (BLOOD BANK-DHANGADI).........................................................87

ANNEX VI-6: PHOTOGRAPHS ( BLOOD BANK-BIRGUNJ)............................................................92

ANNEX VII-1: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS ( BLOOD BANK-KATHMANDU) ...........................97

ANNEX VII-2: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS (BLOOD BANK-BIRATNAGAR)…..…………... 104

ANNEX VII-3: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS ( BLOOD BANK-POKHARA)…………………. 111

ANNEX VII-4: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS ( BLOOD BANK-NEPALGUNJ)……………….. 114

ANNEX VII-5: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS ( BLOOD BANK-DHANGADI)……………… 118

ANNEX VII-6: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS ( BLOOD BANK-BIRGUNJ)…………………. 123



Qualitative Structural Vulnerability Assessment of Blood Bank Buildings in Nepal


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1. Introduction

This report is prepared by National Society for Earthquake Technology-Nepal (NSET) under the

contract agreement with World Health Organization in Nepal for earthquake vulnerability

assessment of blood bank buildings in district centers of Nepal. It includes qualitative earthquake

vulnerability assessment of blood bank building in Kathmandu and five other district centersBiratnagar, Pokhara, Nepalgunj, Dhangadi and Birgunj. The report describes the method and

findings of the assessment. The study was conducted within a time range from November 2006 to

February 2007. Recommendations are provided for improving seismic performance of the

assessed building.

This report is based on the methodology described in section 2 to 4 and best engineering judgment

arrived at from the site visit, study of structural systems, limited number of field exploration and

prevailing practices of building construction in the region. All possible efforts have been made to

provide accurate and authoritative seismic vulnerability assessment of the building in the given

circumstances of information provided by the client on the design and construction details of the

building and limited number of field tests (both destructive and non-destructive). So neither

NSET nor any of its employees make any warranty, expressed or implied, nor assumes anyresponsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the statement made in this report in

case the starting information does not stand correct.

The report has six chapters. Chapter one introduces the background, scope of work, methodology

and limitation. Chapter two presents the general understanding of the existing seismic hazard and

potential ground motions. Chapter three presents data collection and assessment methodology,

chapter four discusses the survey findings, chapter five describes the various possible intervention

options to improve the seismic response of the buildings and chapter six presents the summary of

findings, conclusions and recommendation.

In addition, this main report also includes seven appendices that provide supporting on issues

discussed in the main report. These include details of Modified Mercalli Intensity scale and

EMS98 with damage grades, survey checklists, short check calculations, building description withattached photographs and architectural drawings of the buildings.

1.1 Scope of Work

The following scope of work has been defined:

1 Prepare as-built drawings of existing buildings to be assessed.

2 Conduct a survey to determine the structural characteristic of the blood bank building

3 Assess the seismic structural vulnerability of the buildings

4 Identify non-structural vulnerability in the buildings

5 Compilation of report detailing procedures and presenting findings andrecommendations for improving their seismic resilience.

1.2 Overall Methodology

The overall methodology for this study is summarized as follows.

1) Definition of hazard and design basis ground motion based on past studies and Nepal

Building codes.

2) Reconnaissance of building structures.

3) Identification of building typology based on construction materials and structural

systems.

4) Detail visual survey of individual buildings which included:





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i Identification of strengths and deficiencies

ii Identification of structural vulnerability factors: Plan and vertical irregularities, load path,

configuration problems, lateral force resisting system, material deterioration etc.

5) Identification of building design criteria and structural systems and calculation of

design shear forces and checking of stresses in ground floor bearing walls or columns

as required.

6) General earthquake performance evaluation of the buildings. The building

performance was evaluated based on the available fragility functions developed by

Nepal Building Code Development Project for Nepalese buildings.

7) Recommendations for improving the seismic performance of the buildings.

8) Finally documentation on detail methodology, procedures of assessment, findings,

conclusions and recommendation in the form of a report.

The detail descriptions of each step are described in respective chapters.

1.3 Limitations

The survey is carried mainly by visual inspection with limited material exploration to understand

the building typology. Few holes are drilled and plaster stripped off as destructive tests

considering identical condition in the overall building structure. Hilti Ferroscan detector is used to

verify structural details at possible locations as non-destructive tests for exploration of material.

No material testing is conducted to determine the material properties of building materials.

Structural drawings of the surveyed buildings are not available. Since all the buildings are

covered with plaster work, many times it is difficult to make firm decision on material quality,

state of their deterioration and overall structural system with limited field exploration. In such

cases only educated guess could be made.

2. Seismic Hazard and Design Ground Motion

2.1 Seismic Hazard

Nepal lies on an active seismic zone ranging from Java-Myanmar-Himalayas-Iran and turkey,

which is susceptible to great earthquakes. According to historical data, many large earthquakes

have occurred in the past. The assessment of Seismic Hazard of Kathmandu valley done by

UNDP /UNCHS, 1994 and Nippon Koei and Oyo, 2001, identifies several faults in the

Kathmandu Valley. Different fault models are liable to produce earthquakes of intensity IX in

many parts of the country. It is pointed out that there is a high possibility that a huge earthquake

will occur around the Himalayan region based on the difference between energy accumulation in

this region and historic earthquake occurrence (“Himalayan Seismic Hazard” by R. Blham, V.K.

Gaur and P.Molnar).

2.2 Design Basis Earthquake

Design basis ground motion is the ground motion that has a 10% probability of being exceeded

within 50 years, as determined by a site-specific hazard analysis or from a hazard zoning map of

Nepal. Nepal National Building Code NBC 105-1994 has been followed for seismic design of

buildings in Nepal. The seismic design coefficient according to Nepal National Building Code is

given by,

Seismic Design Coefficient,

Cd = C I Z K

where,





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3.3 Interview

The study team gathered information on the construction technology of the building from the

people having information on the design and construction. The interview is limited to some blood

bank staffs that have knowledge on particular building construction. Building design and

supervision overseer/engineer, who were involved during construction phase, are also interviewed

where possible. It is found that all the six buildings were constructed 20-30 years back. Since thebuildings were built long time back, the only information that could be collected is year of

construction, construction material and some structural details.

3.4 Field Exploration

Limited number of material exploration of the buildings is done to understand the material type

and their quality. The field test consists of hand drilling in walls, stripping off the plaster at some

strategic locations and the use of Hilti PS 200 Ferroscan detector to verify some of the structural

details such as availability of sill, lintel and roof band, vertical reinforcement etc. However the

process is very limited as all the buildings are in operation.

3.5 Classification of Building Typology Based on site observations, interviews, material exploration, observed construction practice in the

areas and identified structural systems, buildings are grouped into classes of similar or near

similar typologies for earthquake vulnerability assessment. The major building types in Nepal are

given in the following table. From the visual observation and field tests, blood bank buildings in

Kathmandu, Nepalgunj and Birgunj are identified as a system with brick in cement (Type 2)

mortar with rigid floors and roof system, buildings in Biratnagar and Pokhara are identified as

Reinforced Concrete Ordinary Moment Resisting Frame with masonry infill (Type 3) and the

building in Dhangadi as well built brick in mud (Type 2) with rigid floors.

No. Building Types inNepal Description

1Adobe, stone in

mud, brick-in-mud

(Low Strength

Masonry).

Adobe Buildings: These are buildings constructed in sun-dried

bricks (earthen) with mud mortar for the construction of structural

walls. The walls are usually more than 350 mm.

Stone in Mud: These are stone-masonry buildings constructed using

dressed or undressed stones with mud mortar. These types of

buildings have generally flexible floors and roof.

Brick in Mud: These are the brick masonry buildings with fired

bricks in mud mortar

2Brick in Cement,

Stone in Cement

Well built brick in

mud

These are the brick masonry buildings with fired bricks in cement or

lime mortar and stone-masonry buildings using dressed or undressed

stones with cement mortar.

3Reinforced Concrete

Ordinary-Moment-

Resisting-Frame

Buildings

These are the buildings with reinforced concrete frames and

unreinforced brick masonry infill in cement mortar. The thickness of

infill walls is 230mm (9”) or even 115mm (41/2”) and column size

is predominantly 9”x 9”. The prevalent practice of most urban areas

of Nepal for the construction of residential and commercial

complexes is generally of this type.

4Reinforced Concrete

Intermediate-

Moment-Resisting-

Frame Buildings

These buildings consist of a frame assembly of cast-in-place

concrete beams and columns. Floor and roof framing consists of

cast-in-place concrete slabs. Lateral forces are resisted by concrete

moment frames that develop their stiffness through monolithicbeam-column connections. These are engineered buildings designed





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without earthquake load or with old codes or designed for small

earthquake forces. Some of the newly constructed reinforced

concrete buildings are likely to be of this type.

5Reinforced concrete

special-moment-

resistant-frames(SMRF)

These buildings consist of a frame assembly of cast-in-place

concrete beams and columns. Floor and roof framing consists of

cast-in-place concrete slabs. Lateral forces are resisted by concretemoment frames that develop their stiffness through monolithic

beam-column connections. These buildings have joint reinforcing,

closely spaced ties, and special detailing to provide ductile

performance. Despite the fact that this system should be adopted

ideally for all new RC frame buildings in Nepal, it is now only used

as an exception.

6Others Mixed buildings like Stone and Adobe, Stone and Brick in Mud,

Brick in Mud and Brick in cement etc. are other building type in

Kathmandu valley.

3.6 Vulnerability Assessment Methodology

3.6.1 Fragility of the Identified Building Typology

The probable damage to the building structures at different intensities derived based on “The

Development of Alternative Building Materials and Technologies for Nepal, Appendix-C:

Vulnerability Assessment, UNDP/UNCHS 1994” and “European Macro-seismic Scale (EMS 98)” http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb5/pb53/projekt/ems/core/emsa_cor.htm is given in Table 3.6. The

table shows that the weaker buildings of type 2 building get damage degree of five (DG5) at

intensity IX where as good buildings of this category will suffer damage degree of three (DG3) at

the same intensity as shown in Table 3.6-A. Similarly, the weaker buildings of type 3 building get

damage degree of four (DG4) at intensity IX where as good buildings of this category will suffer

damage degree of two (DG2) at the same intensity as shown in Table 3.6-B. The details of MMIscale is given in Annex II of this report.

Table 3.6 -A: Fragility of Masonry Buildings (Brick in cement, stone in cement and well

built brick in mud)

MMI VI VII VIII IX

Weak DG2 DG3 DG4 DG5

Average DG1 DG2 DG3 DG4

D a m a g e

G r a d e s f o r

D i f f e r e n t

C l a s s e s o f

B u i l d i n g s

Good - DG1 DG2 DG3

Table 3.6-B: Fragility of Reinforced Concrete Ordinary Moment Resisting Frame

(< 3 story)

MMI VI VII VIII IX

Weak DG1 DG2 DG3 DG4

Average - DG1 DG2 DG3

D a m a g e

G r a d e s f o r

D i f f e r e n t

C l a s s e s o f

B u i l d i n g s

Good - - DG1 DG2

Note: The description of different damage degrees is provided in Annex I of this report

http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb5/pb53/projekt/ems/core/emsa_cor.htm

http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb5/pb53/projekt/ems/core/emsa_cor.htm





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3.6.2 Identification of Vulnerability Factors

Different Vulnerability factors associated with the particular type of buildings are checked with a

set of appropriate checklist from FEMA 310, "Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of

Buildings". The basic vulnerability factors related to Building system, Lateral force resisting

system, Connections, Diaphragms are evaluated based on visual inspection and field visit. The

checklists used for checking different vulnerability factors of the assessed building are given inAnnex III of this report.

3.6.3 Influence of Different Vulnerability Factors to the Seismic Performance of the Building

Different structural parameters such as deterioration of material, vertical and horizontal

configuration of building, type of floor etc affect the level of vulnerability of the building to

different extents. Table 4.5 shows the influence of different vulnerability factors to the buildings

in qualitative terms. These are based on visual observation, field explorations and short

calculations (Annex IV) of the building. However, no mathematical calculations are carried for

the building in Biratnagar as the overall building system is complex and distribution of lateral

load bearing elements is not uniform though the building is reinforced concrete frame structure.

3.6.4 Vulnerability of Individual Building vs. a Group of Buildings

In actual practice, the performance of similar buildings in the same site could be considerably

different. It is due to the random differences in the level of workmanship, material strength, and

condition of each structure, amount of imposed load present at the time of earthquake, influence

of non-structural elements, and the response of foundation soil. The meaning is that buildings of

any type say 'A' in a given intensity area will collectively show a degree of damage (say collapse)

as qualified by the terms Few, Many or Most, although each one may have the same vulnerability

of collapse individually. While looking at each of the buildings from the point of view of potential

damage (or “damageability”), the vulnerability of an individual building will be more relevant

than a large group of similar buildings in the same intensity areas. However, the vulnerability

functions used here have been developed for group of buildings.

4. Survey Findings and Analysis Result

4.1 Description of building

Altogether six important blood bank buildings are surveyed in different parts of Nepal. These

include buildings in Kathmandu, Biratnagar, Pokhara, Nepalgunj, Dhangadi and Birgunj. These

buildings come under the category of critical facilities of the nation. From the survey, it is

gathered that all the buildings were constructed between 2035 BS and 2045 BS. However some

extensions and addition of storey is observed in the past few years. No structural drawings are

available and architectural drawings are also not available in most of the cases which is the

general trend in the contemporary period. It is found that all the buildings were built as per theconstruction practice in the region and no due consideration is given for seismic safety. Out of the

six buildings studied, three buildings in Kathmandu , Nepalgunj and Birgunj are of load bearing

brick masonry structure in cement mortar, the building in Dhangadi is built of traditional material

with brick in mud load bearing strcuture, the buildings in Biratnagar and Pokhara are weak frame

structures with masonry infill. Floor and roof slabs of all the buildings are rigid with reinforced

concrete cement material. However, configuration is not much of a problem in most of the

buildings except the one in Dhangadi which is U shaped. Building details are given in Annex V.

4.2 Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction

Based on the study, it can be concluded that none of the buildings surveyed incorporated aseismic

design or detailing. Some parts of buildings designed and constructed within the past 2-3 years

were also not constructed for seismic resilience. However, this is a qualitative and subjectiveconclusion as structural drawings of most of the modern buildings are not available to the study





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team. From the available data and field exploration, it shows that the buildings have not been

constructed adopting ductile detailing, a key for survival of building against earthquake.

4.3 Weaknesses in Buildings

4.3.1 Material weakness

Since material testing has not been conducted, only qualitative judgment is made based on past

experience on investigation as follows:

Brick masonry in mud/lime mortar has very low compressive, tensile and shearing strengths and

can easily disintegrate if proper maintenance is not given. Further, it is inherently a brittle

material.

Brick in cement mortar is relatively a better material. However, it is inherently weak, especially in

tension and shear and brittle material unless it is reinforced.

Reinforced concrete is a good material in terms of strength as well as ductility if properly

constructed and ductile detailing implemented. These considerations are taken into account,

together with other relevant factors for assessing the conditions of each building which has been

assessed.

4.3.2 Lack of Earthquake Resistant Design and Construction of Structural Components

From the visual and field observations of different structural components of the buildings, it is

observed that neither earthquake resistant features nor integrity improvement measures are

introduced in all the six blood bank buildings that are assessed.

4.3.3 Typical Weaknesses in the assessed buildings

The weaknesses and typical deficiencies of the buildings are briefly described below.

4.3.3.1 Blood Bank Building-Kathmandu

1) Building is irregular in plan and in elevation with only a central portion extended up

to first floor while large area is covered in ground floor.

2) Exterior bearing walls in first floor is supported on cantilever beam projecting from

main wall inside

3) Reinforced concrete slab floor level varies at different portion of the building

4) Staircase cover is sloped with truss roof structure without roof and gable band

resulting in free standing walls without lateral support

5) The building lacks earthquake resistant features such as vertical reinforcement at

corners and wall junctions and at jambs of opening, sill, lintel and roof bands, cornerstitches etc.

6) Cracks as well as deterioration of concrete are observed in many locations of the

building.

7) Ventilator is provided immediately below floor slab without any floor band

8) Non structural elements are not given due consideration to restrain against lateral

movement of earthquakes.

4.3.3.2 Blood Bank Building-Biratnagar

1) The building is comprised of four blocks built at different time but all attached together atfirst floor level with columns adjacent to each other without any seismic gap.





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2) Overall building system is not regular.

3) Block 1 at North West side is reinforced concrete frame without floor beam at ground

floor along the periphery of the building creating a complexity in the overall building

system.

4) No proper distribution of walls along both directions. Usually the front faces of the blocks

are open in ground floor for commercial purposes.

5) Wall cracks exist at few places and also at the junction of individual blocks.

6) Ductile detailing is not enforced at site which is a key factor to survive the building at

large earthquakes.

7) No integrity between frame and wall elements.

8) Non-structural elements are not restraint against lateral movement.

4.3.3.3 Blood Bank Building-Pokhara

1) The building is attached with another building of one storey height which is liable topounding during large earthquakes

2) Lintel is not provided throughout from column to column but only a piece lintel is

provided over door and window opening.

3) The building lacks ductile detailing. Though column size is 230 X 300 mm,

reinforcement is very lean and stirrup is provided with a wide gap of about 250 mm

centre to centre throughout the column.

4) There is no connector between frame and infill masonry to tie them together.

5) Ground floor is open at front face for shops.

6)

Cracks are observed at number of places originating specially from door/windowopenings.

7) Non-structural elements are not restraint against lateral movement.

4.3.3.4 Blood Bank Building-Nepalgunj

1) Load path is not proper in staircase portion and 230mm thick wall is supported on floor

slab in a blood storage room at south west side.

2) Staircase and medical shop extension portion is weak without proper load path, open

ground floor and weak columns with lean columns in terms of size and reinforcement.

3)

Ductile detailing, to prevent the building from failing during large earthquakes, is notenforced during the construction of the building. No reinforcement is provided at corners,

junctions and jambs of opening, no floor band in both the floors and only a piece lintel

over door and windows is provided in first floor.

4) Walls have cracks at number of places showing weak connection between different

structural elements.

5) Non structural elements are not given due consideration from preventing damage during

earthquake shaking.

4.3.3.5 Blood Bank Building-Dhangadi

1) The building is U-shaped with large wings as compared to the main body of the building.

Wing in east side is comparatively larger than the wing on west side.





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2) The building is constructed without any consideration of earthquake shaking, hence lacks

ductile detailing.

3) The building is attached with another building in east side.

4) Cracks are propagated at number of places in wall and at junctions of wall and slab.

5) Front face of the building is open for commercial purpose.

6) No ring beam is provided at floor level.

7) Non structural mitigation is not implemented.

4.3.3.6 Blood Bank Building-Birgunj

1) Though the overall building shape is quite regular, the building lacks proportionate

distribution of walls and cross walls.

2) Integrity between walls is not adequate to sustain moderate to large earthquake.

3) Earthquake resisting elements are not provided during construction of the building.

4) Staircase landing is cantilever projecting from beam supported on walls.

5) No ring beam is provided at floor level and only a piece lintel provided over door/window

opening.

6) Heavy weight of reinforced concrete overhead water tank is supported on staircase cover

which does not have proper load path.

7) Non structural elements are not considered for earthquake safety.

8) Cracks are observed at few places and even deterioration of concrete and plaster due to

water leakage through pipelines.

4.4 Identification of Non Structural Components

Investigation of nonstructural components is carried merely by visual inspection. Concealed items

are not verified for seismic safety. The immediately visible components or piece of equipment are

checked whether these are braced or anchored. Components such as connections and framing are

often concealed and are not opened to conduct evaluation. These critical components are verified

from interview with technicians or contractors whosoever involved during the construction phase

and from prevalent practice of building construction in that area. From the field observation it is

found that no attention is given for seismic safety of nonstructural components in all the six blood

bank buildings that are assessed. Hence, these pose significant hazards to life safety. The

following different types of deficiencies are identified.

1) Building contents such as freeze, cupboards, racks, tables, computers and otherequipments are not anchored to the floor slab or adjacent walls.

2) All water piping has rigid couplings.

3) Parapet walls are not tied properly.

4) Contents of cabinet/rack are not properly secured using straps and tie strings. Fragile

glass items are found to be simply placed with no due consideration to prevent from

dislodging. These items can easily fall and are likely to cause injury even at low

intensities of earthquake. Likewise heavy load is placed at the top of these cupboards

which is liable to cause injury at the time of earthquake disaster.

5) Water tanks are not braced adequately to the floor.

6) Wall hangings are not properly hooked.





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However, further evaluation and judgment is required to ascertain the extent of the deficiency and

the consequences of failure. Some simple calculations of weights, dimensional ratios, forces and

detail analysis is required to justify the ability to withstand forces and drifts and achievement of

the desired performance level.

4.5 Influence of Different Vulnerability Factors to the Seismic Performance of the Building

The Table 4.5 shows the influence of different vulnerability factors to the building in terms of low

(L), medium (M) and high (H) on the basis of visual inspection, field investigation and short

analysis of the building.





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Table 4.5: Influence of Different Vulnerability Factors to the Building

Note: NA-Not Applicable; NK-Not Known

Increasing Vulnerability of the Building by Different

Vulnerability Factors

Vulnerability Factors

B l o o d B a n k -

K a t h m a n d u

B l o o d B a n k -

B i r a t n a g a r

B l o o d B a n k -

P o k h a r a

B l o o d B a n k -

N e p a l g u n j

B l o o d B a n k -

D h a n g a d i

B l o o d B a n k -

B i r g u n j

Load Path H M L H L M

Weak Story L NK L L NA L

Soft Story L NK L L NA L

Geometry H L L L L L

Vertical

DiscontinuityH L L H L L

Mass L L L L L L

Torsion L L H L H L

Deterioration of

MaterialM L L L M M

Cracks in Wall M M H H H M

Cantilever H L L L L H

General

Openings L L H L H L

Redundancy L L L L L L

Shear Stress Criteria H NK H H H H

Proportions M M M M H H

Lateral Force

Resisting

System

Masonry lay up L L L L L L

Connection

Connectivity

between different

structural elements

H H H H H H

Diaphragm

Continuity/ Stiffness H M L L L L

Plan Irregularities M M L L H MDiaphragm

Diaphragm

Reinforcement at

Openings

L L L L L NK

Pounding Effect NA H H M H NA

Others Nonstructural

ElementsH H H H H H





12

4.6 Reinterpretation of the Building Fragility Based on Observed Vulnerability Factors

The probable performance of buildings to different earthquake intensity is given in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6: Reinterpreted Fragility of the Building

S.N. Buildings MMI VII MMI VIII MMI IX

1 Blood Bank-Kathmandu DG3 DG4 DG5

2 Blood Bank-Biratnagar DG2 DG3 DG4

3 Blood Bank-Pokhara DG2 DG2-DG3 DG3-DG4

4 Blood Bank-Nepalgunj DG3 DG3-DG4 DG4-DG5

5 Blood Bank-Dhangadi DG3 DG4 DG5

6 Blood Bank-Birgunj DG3 DG4 DG4-DG5

4.7 Probable Performance of the Building at Different Intensities

The performance of the buildings in terms of structural and non-structural vulnerability is given in

Table 4.7 as per the qualitative assessment done above.

Table 4.7: Probable Performance of the Building

Performance of the BuildingBlood-Bank

ItemMMI = VII MMI =VIII MMI = IX

Structural

DamageModerate Heavy Very Heavy

Blood Bank-

KathmanduNonstructural


Structural

DamageSlight Moderate Heavy

Blood Bank-

BiratnagarNonstructural

Damage Moderate Heavy Very Heavy

Structural

DamageSlight Slight to Moderate Moderate to Heavy

Blood Bank-

PokharaNonstructural


Structural

DamageModerate Moderate to Heavy

Heavy to Very

HeavyBlood Bank-

NepalgunjNonstructural






13

Structural


Blood Bank-

DhangadiNonstructural


Structural

DamageModerate Moderate to Heavy

Heavy to Very

HeavyBlood Bank-

BirgunjNonstructural






14

5. Intervention options for better Seismic Performance

This chapter identifies possible intervention options for improved seismic protection of buildings.

The intervention options are based on past experience on similar building typology and study of

available literature. The proposed interventions have been identified based on technical and

financial feasibility of implementing in the present context of Nepal. A detailed technical designshould be done before implementation of retrofitting work.

Different options for intervention have been considered. Intervention in an existing building to

improve their seismic resistance involves four main issues: First is the engineering method

employed and considerations of technicalities of code requirements, design approach, and

materials and construction techniques. Second is the cost of the program, such as cost of design

and testing, construction, and the cost of permits and approvals. Third is the indirect cost of

retrofitting such as relocation cost. Fourth is the question of the effectiveness of the strengthening

in reducing the likely damage.

The fourth issue raises the acceptability of a certain level of risk. With increasing level of

intervention for retrofitting the safety would increase but at the same time capital cost will also

increase which might make the option unfeasible.

In few of the buildings, particularly the traditional ones, a part of it is severely suffering from

cracking, and wall deterioration. These parts are proposed to demolish and reconstruct as repair

and retrofitting of these parts would not be that economically feasible even if rest of the building

is retrofitted.

5.1 Lessons from Past Earthquakes

5.1.1 Load Bearing Unreinforced Masonry Buildings

The following appear to be the major types of likely problems to be faced during earthquake

excitation in the different types of masonry buildings and their components:

• Non-integrity of wall, floor and roof structures and their components could be

one of the major problems.

• Upper parts of the wall of the flexible roof buildings suffer more threat of out-of-

plane collapse due to lack of anchoring elements.

• Cracking at wall junctions.

• Buildings with rigid floor and roof (RC/ RB floor, roof) suffer diagonal cracking

of piers in lower story.

• Collapse of gable wall is common because it behaves as a free cantilever.

• These buildings are brittle in nature so these cracks disintegrate very rapidly

leading to collapse.

• Due to high vertical acceleration and frequency, the mud walls may just crumble

as it happened during Bam Earthquake in Bam (Langenbach, 2004). The

buildings could suffer large-scale compression failure.

The blood bank buildings in Kathmandu, Nepalgunj and Birgunj which are built in brick in

cement and the building in Dhangadi built in brick in mud load bearing unreinforced masonry

buildings and is liable to suffer any of these damages in strong ground shaking.

5.1.2 RC Frame Buildings

The RC framed buildings of blood banks in Biratnagar and Pokhara do not appear to follow any

ductile detailing. These buildings may suffer very brittle failure. The following structural

problems may arise during earthquake excitation as seen in past earthquakes.





15

• The infill masonry walls are not tied-up with the structure. These walls may

topple even in small to medium event causing human and property loss and

throwing building out of function even though the building may survive.

• Out-of-plane collapse, diagonal cracking or bed-joint sliding, dislodging of

walling units could be the most common behavior of unanchored and

unreinforced masonry infill walls.

• The structural walls and column, beams, beam-column joint may suffer severe

shear failure because of lack of ductile detailing.

• The failure of column may lead to a partial- to- total collapse of the buildings.

• A common problem in the framed building is to artificially “shorten” a column

by adding partial-height nonstructural walls that restrict the deformation of the

column. The resulting short columns are stiff and attract much higher shear forces

than they were designed to carry and then fail in shear failure

• The problem of shear strength and confinement are commonly more severe in

corner columns especially if the building is torsionally active because of very

high bi-axial displacement demand. It has been one of the common phenomena in

past earthquakes.

5.2 Seismic Retrofitting of Buildings

5.2.1 Philosophy and Approach

Various alternatives have been developed for retrofitting of the buildings. These alternatives

would provide different level of seismic safety and will require different level of intervention and

obviously the capital investment. Philosophy adopted for development of retrofitting alternatives

are: i) Meet codal provisions if possible, ii) achieving fail-safe damage: delayed collapse allowing

occupants to escape during an earthquake for traditional buildings where it is not possible to bring

them up to the codal requirements, and ii) achieving reduction in the likely damage allowing post-earthquake repair and re-strengthening at nominal costs. Additional requirements as follows are

also considered:

• Compatibility of the solution with the functional requirements of the structure

• Feasibility of the construction, including availability of materials, construction

equipment and personnel

• Aesthetics

• Importance of the building

5.2.2 Development of Retrofitting Methodology

The building stock has been classified into two major groups according to the vertical load

bearing system and walling material. These are load bearing masonry building structures and

infilled masonry frame building structures.

Various methodologies are available for analysis and retrofitting of both these building types. The

proposed retrofitting schemes are based on predicted behavior of these buildings which is based

on observed behavior in the past earthquakes. However, these buildings could be brought to

seismic safety level recommended by various Building Codes within economic limits. The

economically viable option with less intervention would be more desirable though various

intervention options are available in the literatures.





16

5.3 Retrofitting Methods

5.3.1 General Improvement

The response of the building structures can well be improved by simple and general improvement

in plan and elevation shape, load path, rescheduling door window openings, well distribution of

shear walls etc.

5.3.1.1 Plan Shape

The plan shape of the buildings can be improved from earthquake point of view by separating

wings and dividing into more regular, uniform and symmetrical shapes.

5.3.1.2 Elevation Improvement

The buildings that have storey to storey variation in lateral force resisting system can be corrected

for uniform distribution of rigidity in respective floors along both directions.

5.3.1.3 Rescheduling of openings

Large opening in walls of a building which tend to weaken the walls can be reduced to control the

damage the building suffers during an earthquake. Irregular openings can be avoided by removing

and adding opening to ensure uniform distribution of rigidity so that the building does not twist in

large earthquakes. If it is necessary to have large openings through a building, or if an open first

floor is desired, then special provisions should be made to ensure structural integrity.

5.3.1.4 Load Path

The buildings that suffer from the problem of discontinuous load path need more intervention and

solution may require re-planning of space to create new and more direct load paths.

5.3.1.5 Inserting New Walls

To improve effectiveness of existing walls to mitigate torsional problem due to non-symmetry in

walls, in plan and to improve shear resistance of the buildings, or to provide return walls to

existing walls, new walls are proposed to be added by closing existing openings. Exact location of these walls will be determined during detailed study.

5.4 Retrofitting Techniques Following alternatives have been identified for retrofitting of load bearing masonry building

structures and infill frame building structures. Out of the various available methods, the following

alternatives have been identified as practically feasible and economically viable methods in our

context for retrofitting of buildings.

Here it is pertinent to note that there does not exist as yet, any established methodology for

analysis and retrofitting for mud buildings. The proposed retrofitting schemes are based on

predicted behavior of this class of buildings which is based on observed behavior in the past

earthquakes. The mud houses are very sensitive to vertical acceleration and high frequency.Because of extremely low compressive and tensile strength these walls just crumble leading to

destruction during an earthquake loading. Further, it would be extremely difficult to bring these

buildings to code level safety with limited input, and increasing input for high seismic safety will

make the retrofitting economically unviable option.

5.4.1 Masonry Buildings in Cement Sand Mortar

5.4.1.1 Jacketing

One alternative would be to improve integrity and deformability employing jacketing of the

building structure. The following items will be included:

a) Walls: To improve strength, deformability and reduce risk of disintegration,

delamination of walls resulting in total collapse of the building jacketing of all the





17

walls with reinforced concrete could be a good option. In this alternative two steel

meshes (welded wire fabric mesh) will be placed on the two sides of the wall, and

they will be connected by passing steel (each at spacing of 600 mm). A 40 to 50

mm thick cement mortar or micro-concrete layer is then applied on the two

networks thus giving rise to two interconnected vertical plates.

b) Floor: It is proposed to brace the floor with the walls to improve stiffness of thefloor system and integrity between walls and floor.

c) Steel Roof structure: Tie up of truss roof structure with eaves level band and

ceiling joists are proposed to improve integrity. Further, bracing of roof structure

with steel angle sections is also proposed to improve its stiffness.

Figure 5.4-A: General scheme of jacketing

5.4.1.2 Splint and Bandage

The Splint and bandage system can be considered as an economic version of

shotcrete jacketing where reinforcing bars are provided at most critical locations

(Figure 5.4-B); i.e. wherever tensile stress can develop. Splints are vertical

elements provided along the wall junction. The bandages are horizontal

elements running around all the walls and building to integrate various wallstogether. In addition, openings are also surrounded by splints and bandages to





18

prevent initiation and widening of cracks from their corners. Splints are

provided in the external face only. The bandages could be provided on both the

faces of the walls just above the lintel levels and eaves level. This method is

inferior to jacketing. In addition to split and bandage, the strengthening and

stiffening of the floor and roof is proposed to be enhanced as discussed above

under Jacketing.

Figure 5.4-B: Splint and Bandage System

(IAEE, 1984)

5.4.2 RC Frame Building Structure

Reinforced concrete frame buildings under study severely lack both strength and ductility and

exhibits configuration problem. These buildings need improvement in both strength and ductility.

Following is the technique for strengthening of existing building:

5.4.2.1 Addition of Structural walls

Addition of new shear walls by infilling appropriate bays with in-situ reinforced concrete shear

walls with proper anchorage to the existing frame and strengthening of existing one have been

proposed. It is because the RC frames are strong enough to carry normal loads (i.e. dead load and

imposed load) but lack strength and ductility for lateral load. This solution is more promising as it

will require less time, less resources and will create least disturbance in normal activity in the

building. Adding wall along the periphery is often easier as it least upsets the normal operation

and also improves torsional resistance of building.

5.4.2.2 Jacketing of infill walls

It is proposed to improve seismic resistance of the buildings by jacketing of walls and well tied up

with the floor/ roof and frame structure.

5.4.2.3 Binding Infill walls to frame

The infill walls are quite potential to collapse during a shaking unless these are tied up with the

frame. These walls are proposed to be braced-up with the structure.

6. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendation

6.1 Summary

This study is guided by the principal objective to investigate the seismic vulnerability of the blood

bank buildings in six district centers of Nepal.

The study covers from traditional buildings constructed of brick in mud to modern buildings

constructed of reinforced concrete frames. It covers altogether six buildings of blood bank in

1 - Wire mesh with width 400 mm≥

1





19

Kathmandu, Biratnagar, Pokhara, Nepalgunj, Dhangadi and Birgunj. Out of these, the one in

Dhangadi is traditional brick in mud building, three buildings in Kathmandu, Nepalgunj and

Birgunj are masonry with cement sand mortar, two buildings in Pokhara and Biratnagar are

ordinary reinforced concrete frame with masonry infill. These buildings were constructed

between 2035 BS and 2045 BS. Few alterations such as extension and addition of storey have

been conducted within the past 2-3 years in some of the buildings.

Architectural as well as structural drawings of the buildings are not available. Hence the study

team is forced to make many assumptions regarding material properties and structural details.

6.2 Conclusions

• Based on the qualitative assessment done above on the basis of the available information

of the building and the structural information obtained from field visit, it is concluded that

all the assessed buildings do not meet the earthquake resistant building criteria. This is a

non-compliance situation with respect to the requirement of critical facilities like blood

banks which should remain functional even after large earthquakes

• Buildings in Kathmandu and Dhangadi face very high seismic risk due to its typical

deficiencies as compared to other buildings and may require high level of intervention.The retrofitting of these buildings would be challenging and may not be cost effective.

• The buildings in Nepalgunj and Birgunj also pose high seismic risk. The risk can be

significantly reduced by seismic strengthening of these buildings.

• The buildings in Biratnagar and Pokhara are found relatively better than other buildings

because of material strength and structural system. But their performance may not be

good because of lack of ductile detailing, inappropriate load path and irregular

distribution of infill walls in particular direction. These buildings also need strengthening

to improve their response in large earthquakes.

• A lot of non-structural risk was observed in all the six buildings originated from untied

partition walls, freezes, cupboards, wall hangings, computers and other equipments. Evenduring small shaking these could topple and cause severe injury and throw the system out

of function.

6.3 Recommendations

To reduce the disastrous effect of earthquakes on buildings, following recommendations are made

based on the study:

● Present study is Tier # 1 based on procedure outlined by FEMA 310. The buildings are

found deficient and do not meet the codal requirements, hence, concluded “deficient”.

However, before carrying any retrofitting measure, a further study of Tier # 2 (More

rigorous evaluation) is recommended for detail study of materials, structural analysis, and

retrofitting design of the building.

● A time-bound program should be implemented to retrofit these buildings with

incorporation of seismic resistant measures.

● Partition walls are recommended to be braced with reinforced concrete mess or any other

means to prevent non-structural damage during large intensity earthquakes

● Non-structural window pans are recommended to be laminated with plastic sheets. This

prevents shattering of broken glasses during an earthquake.

● Non-structural elements (partitions, furniture, equipment and other building contents and

furnishing) should be fixed properly to eliminate the possibility of overturning, sliding

and impacting during an earthquake. Simple straps/tie strings can be used to restrict

movement of books and files. Cabinet drawers shall have latches to keep them closed





20

during earthquake. Breakable containers shall be restraint from falling by shelf lips,

latched doors, wires or other methods.

● Fluid, gas piping shall have flexible couplings.





21

Annex I: European Macro seismic Scale (EMS 98)

Classifications used in the European Macro seismic Scale (EMS)

Differentiation of structures (buildings) into vulnerability classes

(Vulnerability Table)

The masonry types of structures are to be read as, e.g., simple stone masonry, whereas the

reinforced concrete (RC) structure types are to be read as, e.g., RC frame or RC wall.





22

Classification of damage

Note: the way in which a building deforms under earthquake loading depends on the building

type. As a broad categorization one can group together types of masonry buildings as well as

buildings of reinforced concrete.

Classification of damage to masonry buildings

Grade 1: Negligible to slight damage

(no structural damage,

slight non-structural damage)Hair-line cracks in very few walls.

Fall of small pieces of plaster only.

Fall of loose stones from upper parts of buildings in

very few cases.

Grade 2: Moderate damage

(slight structural damage, moderate

non-structural damage)

Cracks in many walls.

Fall of fairly large pieces of plaster.

Partial collapse of chimneys.

Grade 3: Substantial to heavy damage (moderate structural damage,

heavy non-structural damage) Large and extensive cracks in most walls.

Roof tiles detach. Chimneys fracture at the roof line;

failure of individual non-structural elements (partitions,

gable walls).

Grade 4: Very heavy damage

(heavy structural damage,

very heavy non-structural damage) Serious failure of walls; partial structural failure of

roofs and floors.

Grade 5: Destruction

(very heavy structural damage) Total or near total collapse.





23

Classification of damage to buildings of reinforced concrete

Grade 1: Negligible to slight damage

(no structural damage,

slight non-structural damage) Fine cracks in plaster over frame members or in walls at

the base.

Fine cracks in partitions and infills.

Grade 2: Moderate damage

(slight structural damage,

moderate non-structural damage) Cracks in columns and beams of frames and in structural

walls.

Cracks in partition and infill walls; fall of brittle cladding

and plaster. Falling mortar from the joints of wall panels.

Grade 3: Substantial to heavy damage (moderate structural damage,

heavy non-structural damage)

Cracks in columns and beam column joints of frames at

the base and at joints of coupled walls. Spalling of conrete

cover, buckling of reinforced rods.

Large cracks in partition and infill walls, failure of

individual infill panels.

Grade 4: Very heavy damage

(heavy structural damage,

very heavy non-structural damage) Large cracks in structural elements with compression

failure of concrete and fracture of rebars; bond failure of beam reinforced bars; tilting of columns. Collapse of a

few columns or of a single upper floor.

Grade 5: Destruction

(very heavy structural damage) Collapse of ground floor or parts (e. g. wings) of

buildings.

Definitions of quantity





24

Definitions of intensity degrees

Arrangement of the scale:

a) Effects on humans

b) Effects on objects and on nature(effects on ground and ground failure are dealt with especially in Section 7)

c) Damage to buildings

Introductory remark:

The single intensity degrees can include the effects of shaking of the respective lower intensity

degree(s) also, when these effects are not mentioned explicitly.

I. Not felt

a) Not felt, even under the most favorable circumstances.b) No effect.

c) No damage.

II. Scarcely felt

a) The tremor is felt only at isolated instances (<1%) of individuals at rest and in

a specially receptive position indoors.

b) No effect.

c) No damage.

III. Weak

a) The earthquake is felt indoors by a few. People at rest feel a swaying or light trembling.

b) Hanging objects swing slightly.

c) No damage.

IV. Largely observed

a) The earthquake is felt indoors by many and felt outdoors only by very few. A few people are

awakened. The level of vibration is not frightening. The vibration is moderate. Observers feel a

slight trembling or swaying of the building, room or bed, chair etc.

b) China, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Hanging objects swing. Light furniture shakes visibly

in a few cases. Woodwork creaks in a few cases.c) No damage.

V. Strong

a) The earthquake is felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. A few people are frightened and run

outdoors. Many sleeping people awake. Observers feel a strong shaking or rocking of the whole

building, room or furniture.

b) Hanging objects swing considerably. China and glasses clatter together. Small, top-heavy

and/or precariously supported objects may be shifted or fall down. Doors and windows swing

open or shut. In few cases window panes break. Liquids oscillate and may spill from well-filled

containers. Animals indoors may become uneasy.c) Damage of grade 1 to a few buildings of vulnerability class A and B.





25

VI. Slightly damaging

a) Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. A few persons lose their balance. Many people are

frightened and run outdoors.

b) Small objects of ordinary stability may fall and furniture may be shifted. In few instances

dishes and glassware may break. Farm animals (even outdoors) may be frightened.c) Damage of grade 1 is sustained by many buildings of vulnerability class A and B; a few of

class A and B suffer damage of grade 2; a few of class C suffer damage of grade 1.

VII. Damaging

a) Most people are frightened and try to run outdoors. Many find it difficult to stand, especially on

upper floors.

b) Furniture is shifted and top-heavy furniture may be overturned. Objects fall from shelves in

large numbers. Water splashes from containers, tanks and pools.

c) Many buildings of vulnerability class A suffer damage of grade 3; a few of grade 4.

Many buildings of vulnerability class B suffer damage of grade 2; a few of grade 3.

A few buildings of vulnerability class C sustain damage of grade 2.A few buildings of vulnerability class D sustain damage of grade 1.

VIII. Heavily damaging

a) Many people find it difficult to stand, even outdoors.

b) Furniture may be overturned. Objects like TV sets, typewriters etc. fall to the ground.

Tombstones may occasionally be displaced, twisted or overturned. Waves may be seen on very

soft ground.

c) Many buildings of vulnerability class A suffer damage of grade 4; a few of grade 5.


Many buildings of vulnerability class C suffer damage of grade 2; a few of grade 3.

A few buildings of vulnerability class D sustain damage of grade 2.

IX. Destructive

a) General panic. People may be forcibly thrown to the ground.

b) Many monuments and columns fall or are twisted. Waves are seen on soft ground.

c) Many buildings of vulnerability class A sustain damage of grade 5.



Many buildings of vulnerability class D suffer damage of grade 2; a few of grade 3.

A few buildings of vulnerability class E sustain damage of grade 2.

X. Very destructive

a) Most buildings of vulnerability class A sustain damage of grade 5.

Many buildings of vulnerability class B sustain damage of grade 5.



Many buildings of vulnerability class E suffer damage of grade 2; a few of grade 3.

A few buildings of vulnerability class F sustain damage of grade 2.

XI. Devastating

a) Most buildings of vulnerability class B sustain damage of grade 5.

Most buildings of vulnerability class C suffer damage of grade 4; many of grade 5.





26


Many buildings of vulnerability class E suffer damage of grade 3; a few of grade 4.

Many buildings of vulnerability class F suffer damage of grade 2; a few of grade 3.

XII. Completely devastating

a) All buildings of vulnerability class A, B and practically all of vulnerability class C are

destroyed. Most buildings of vulnerability class D, E and F are destroyed. The earthquake effects

have reached the maximum conceivable effects.





27

Annex 2: MODIFIED MERCALLY INTENSITY SCALE (MMI Scale)

Intensity Description of Effect

IVery Weak Intensity

• Can only be noticed or felt by people who are in the right situation and

circumstance

• Furniture's or things which are not correctly positioned may move or be slightly

displaced

• Slight shaking or vibrations will form on water or liquid surfaces in containers

IISlightly Weak Intensity

• Can be noticed or felt by people who are resting inside homes

• Things that are hanged on walls would slightly sway, shake or vibrate

• The shaking or vibrations on water or liquid surfaces in containers would be

highly noticeable

III Weak Intensity• Can be noticed and felt by more people inside homes or buildings especially

those situated at high levels. Some may even feel dizzy. The quake at this stage

can be described as though a small truck had passed nearby.

• Things that are hanged on walls would sway, shake or vibrate a little more

strongly.


more vigorous and stronger

IVSlightly Strong Intensity

• Can be noticed and felt by most people inside homes and even those outside.

Those who are lightly asleep may be awakened. The quake at this stage can be

described as though a heavy truck had passed nearby.

• Things that are hanged on walls would sway, shake or vibrate strongly. Plates

and glasses would also vibrate and shake, as well as doors and windows. Floorsand walls of wooden houses or structures would slightly squeak. Stationary

vehicles would slightly shake.


very strong. It is possible to hear a slight reverberating sound from the

environment

VStrong Intensity

• Can be felt and noticed by almost all people whether they are inside or outside

structures. Many will be awakened from sleep and be surprised. Some may

even rush out of their homes or buildings in fear. The vibrations and shaking

that can be felt inside or outside structures will be very strong.

• Things that are hanged on walls would sway, shake or vibrate much more

strongly and intensely. Plates and glasses would also vibrate and shake much

strongly and some may even break. Small or lightly weighted objects and

furniture would rock and fall off. Stationary vehicles would shake more

vigorously.


very strong which will cause the liquid to spill over. Plant or tree stem,

branches and leaves would shake or vibrate slightly.

VIVery Strong Intensity

• Many will be afraid of the very strong shaking and vibrations that they will

feel, causing them to lose their sense of balance, and most people to run out of

homes or building structures. Those who are in moving vehicles will feel asthough they are having a flat tire.

• Heavy objects or furniture would be displaced from original positions. Small

hanging bells would shake and ring. Outer surfaces of concrete walls maycrack. Old or fragile houses, buildings or structures would be slightly damaged.

• Weak to strong landslides may occur. The shaking and vibrations of plant or





28

tree stem, branches and leaves would be strong and highly noticeable.

VIIDamaging Intensity

• Almost all people will be afraid of the very strong shaking and vibrations that

they will feel. Those who are situated at high levels of buildings will find it

very hard to keep standing.

• Heavy objects or furniture would fall and topple over. Large hanging bells will

sound vigorously. Old or fragile houses, buildings or structures would mostdefinitely be destroyed, while strong or new structures would be damaged.

Dikes, dams, fishponds, concrete roads and walls may crack and be damaged.

• Liquefaction (formation of quicksand), lateral spreading (spreading of soil

surface creating deep cracks on land) and landslides will occur. Trees and

plants will vigorously shake and vibrate.

VIIIHighly Damaging Intensity

• Will cause confusion and chaos among the people. It makes standing upright

difficult even outside homes / structures.

• Many big buildings will be extremely damaged. Landslides or lateral spreading

will cause many bridges to fall and dikes to be highly damaged. It will also

cause train rail tracks to bend or be displaced. Tombs will be damaged or be

out of place. Posts, towers and monuments may bend or completely be

destroyed. Water and canal/drainage pipes may be damaged, bend, or break.

• Liquefaction and lateral spreading causes structures to sink, bend or be

completely destroyed, especially those situated on hills and mountains. For

places near or situated at the earthquake epicenter, large stone boulders may be

thrown out of position. Cracking, splitting, fault rupture of land may be seen.

Tsunami-like waves will be formed from water surfaces whether from rivers,

ponds or dams/dikes. Trees and plant life will very vigorously move and sway

in all directions.

IXDestructive Intensity

• People would be forcibly thrown/fall down. Chaos, fear and confusion will be

extreme.

• Most building structures would be destroyed and intensely damaged. Bridges

and high structures would fall and be destroyed. Posts, towers and monumentsmay bend or completely be destroyed. Water and canal/drainage pipes may be

damaged, bend, or break.

• Landslides, liquefaction, lateral spreading with sand boil (rise of underground

mixture of sand and mud) will occur in many places, causing the land

deformity. Plant and trees would be damaged or uprooted due to the vigorous

shaking and swaying. Large stone boulders may be thrown out of position and

be forcibly darted to all directions. Very-very strong tsunami-like waves will

be formed from water surfaces whether from rivers, ponds or dams/dikes.

XExtremely Destructive Intensity

• Overall extreme destruction and damage of all man-made structures

• Widespread landslides, liquefaction, intense lateral spreading and breaking of

land surfaces will occur. Very strong and intense tsunami-like waves formed

will be destructive. There will be tremendous change in the flow of water onrivers, springs, and other water-forms. All plant life will be destroyed and

uprooted.

XIDevastative Intensity

• Severe damage even to well built buildings, bridges, water dams and railway

lines; highways become useless; underground pipes destroyed.

XIIExtremely Destructive Intensity (Landscape changes)

• Practically all structures above and below ground are greatly damaged or

destroyed.





29

Annex III-1(Blood Bank-Kathmandu): Checking Different Vulnerability

Factors of the Building

(Note: C = Compliance to the statement; NC = Not Compliance to the statement; N/A = NotApplicable and/or Not Available) NK = Not Known

The evaluation of different statements is made and is noted by Underlined Bold letter.

Building System

C NC N/A NK LOAD PATH: The structure shall contain one complete load path for Life Safety

and Immediate Occupancy for seismic force effects from any horizontal direction

that serves to transfer the inertial forces from the mass to the foundation.

Outer bearing walls in first floor supported in cantilever beams

C NC N/A NK PROPORTION IN PLAN: The breadth to length ratio of the building shall be

within 1:3. The breadth to length ratio of any room or area enclosed by loadbearing walls inside the building shall be also within 1:3. The building height

shall be not more than three times the width of the building.

C NC N/A NK WEAK STORY: The strength of the lateral-force-resisting system in any story

shall not be less than 80% of the strength in an adjacent story above.

C NC N/A NK SOFT STORY: The stiffness of the lateral-force-resisting system in any story

shall not be less than 70% of the stiffness in an adjacent story above or below or

less than 80% of the average stiffness of the three stories above or below.

C NC N/A NK GEOMETRY: There shall be no changes in horizontal dimension of the lateral-

force-resisting system of more than 30% in a story relative to adjacent stories.

Setback in first storey is more than 30% of the plan in ground floor on all sides

C NC N/A NK VERTICAL DISCONTINUITIES: All vertical elements in the lateral-force-

resisting system shall be continuous to the foundation.

Outer bearing walls in first floor supported in cantilever beams

C NC N/A NK MASS: There shall be no change in effective mass more than 50% from one story

to the next.

Refer Annex IV-1 A.1

C NC N/A NK TORSION: The distance between the story center of mass and the story center of

rigidity shall be less than 20% of the building width in either plan dimension.

Refer Annex IV-1 B

C NC N/A NK DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE: There shall be no visible deterioration of

concrete or reinforcing steel in any of the vertical-or lateral-force-resisting

elements.

Deterioration of concrete is clearly visible at number of places

C NC N/A NK DETERIORATION OF WOOD: There shall be no signs of decay, shrinkage,

splitting, fire damage, or sagging in any of the wood members and none of the

metal accessories shall be deteriorated, broken, or loose.

C NC N/A NK MASONRY UNITS: There shall be no visible deterioration of masonry units.

C NC N/A NK MASONRY JOINTS: The mortar shall not be easily scraped away from the jointsby hand with a metal tool, and there shall be no areas of eroded mortar.





30

C NC N/A NK UNREINFORCED MASONRY WALL CRACKS: There shall be no existing

diagonal cracks in wall elements greater than 1/16" or out-of-plane offsets in the

bed joint greater than 1/16".

Some cracks are observed

C NC N/A NK UNSUPPORTED WALL LENGTH: The maximum length of unsupported wall

shall not be more than 12 times its thickness. If the length of unsupported wall is

more than 12 times its thickness, buttressing shall be provided.

Does not meet the criteria at all places

C NC N/A NK PROPORTIONS: The height-to-thickness ratio of the shear walls at each story

shall be less than the following for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy:

Top story of multi-story building: 9

First story of multi-story building: 15

All other conditions: 13

Does not satisfy for all wall thicknesses

C NC N/A NK MASONRY LAY-UP: Filled collar joints of multiwythe masonry walls shall

have negligible voids.

C NC N/A NK VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT: There shall be vertical reinforcement at all

corners and T-junctions of masonry walls and it shall be started from foundation

and continuous to roof.

No vertical reinforcement is detected

C NC N/A NK HORIZONTAL BANDS: There shall be steel or wooden bands located at the

plinth, sill and lintel levels of the building in each floor.

A piece lintel is available but does not continue throughout the length of wall and

no band is available at sill and plinth level

C NC N/A NK CORNER STITCH: There shall be reinforced concrete or wooden elements

connecting two orthogonal walls at a vertical distance of at least 0.5m to 0.7m.

Not available

C NC N/A NK GABLE BAND: If the roof is slopped roof, gable band shall be provided to the

building.

Gable band is not provided

Lateral Force Resisting System

C NC N/A NK REDUNDANCY: The number of lines of shear walls in each principal direction

shall be greater than or equal to 2.

C NC N/A NK SHEAR STRESS CHECK: The shear stress in the unreinforced masonry shear

walls shall be less than 15 psi for clay units and 30 psi for concrete units.


Diaphragms

C NC N/A NK OPENINGS AT SHEAR WALLS: Diaphragm openings immediately adjacent to

the shear walls shall be less than 15% of the wall length.

C NC N/A NK OPENINGS AT EXTERIOR MASONRY SHEAR WALLS: Diaphragm

openings immediately adjacent to exterior masonry shear walls shall not be

greater than 4 ft. long.





31

C NC N/A NK PLAN IRREGULARITIES: There shall be tensile capacity to develop the

strength of the diaphragm at re-entrant corners or other locations of plan

irregularities

Such details are not observed

C NC N/A NK DIAPHRAGM REINFORCEMENT AT OPENINGS: There shall be reinforcing

around all diaphragms openings larger than 50% of the building width in either

major plan dimension.

Slab detail is not available

C NC N/A NK DIAGONAL BRACING: If there is flexible diaphragms such as joists and rafters

shall be diagonally braced and each crossing of a joist/rafter and a brace shall be

properly fixed.

Floor diaphragm is rigid

C NC N/A NK LATERAL RESTRAINERS: For flexible roof and floor, each joists and rafters

shall be restrained by timber keys in both sides of wall.

Floor is of reinforced concrete slab rigid diaphragm

Connections

C NC N/A NK TRANSFER TO SHEAR WALLS: Diaphragms shall be reinforced and

connected for transfer of loads to the shear walls and the connections shall be

able to develop the shear strength of the walls.

No floor beam is provided to transfer the loads.





32

Annex III-2 (Blood Bank- Biratnagar ): Checking Different Vulnerability


(Note: C = Compliance to the statement; NC = Not Compliance to the statement; N/A = Not

Applicable and/or Not Available) NK = Not Known


Building System C NC N/A NK LOAD PATH: The structure shall contain one complete load path for seismic

force effects from any horizontal direction that serves to transfer the inertial

forces from the mass to the foundation.

Though it is a complete frame structure, in first floor at the rear side of the

building, there is no beam at the exterior walls which tie the columns along each

direction in the old ground floor structure. Hence the distribution of load from

slab to column through beam criteria does not meet.C NC N/A NK MEZZANINES: Interior mezzanine levels shall be braced independently from the

main structure, or shall be anchored to the lateral –force-resisting elements of the

main structure.


shall not be less than 80% of the strength in an adjacent story above or below.




Ground storey is open with the use of shutter for business point of view at front

elevation and also at some locations along the building line as compared to first storey which may cause soft storey effect but detail analysis of the building has to

be carried to further substantiate this point.






to the next.


concrete or reinforcing steel in any of the vertical- or lateral-force-resistingelements.

Not visible


C NC N/A NK MASONRY JOINTS: The mortar shall not be easily scraped away from the joints

by hand with a metal tool, and there shall be no areas of eroded mortar.

C NC N/A NK CRACKS IN INFILL WALLS: There shall be no existing diagonal cracks in

infill walls that extend throughout a panel, are greater than 1/16”, or have out-of-

plane offsets in the bed joint greater than 1/16”.

Crack are observed at some places of the walls





33

C NC N/A NK CRACKS IN BOUNDARY COLUMNS: There shall be no existing diagonal

cracks wider than 1/16” in concrete columns that encase masonry infills.

Not visible

6.4 Lateral Force Resisting System



C NC N/A NK WALL CONNECTIONS: All infill walls shall have a positive connection to the

frame to resist out-of-plane forces and the connection shall be able to develop the

out-of-plane strength of the wall.

Infills walls are not tied to the frame elements

C NC N/A NK DEFLECTION COMPATIBILITY: Secondary components shall have the shear

capacity to develop the flexural strength of the elements and shall have ductile

detailing.

C NC N/A NK REINFORCING AT OPENINGS: All wall openings that interrupt rebar shall

have trim reinforcing on all sides.

C NC N/A NK PROPORTIONS: The height-to-thickness ratio of the infill walls at each story

shall be less than 9 for life safety in regions of high seismicity, 13 for Immediate

Occupancy in regions of moderate seismicity, and 8 for Immediate Occupancy in

regions of high seismicity.

Height to thickness ratio is more than 8 in many walls and the building

requirement is for immediate occupancy

C NC N/A NK SOLID WALLS: The infill walls shall not be of cavity construction.

C NC N/A NK INFILL WALLS: The infill walls shall be continuous to the soffits of the frame

beams. Beam is cast with some gap between beam soffit and infill wall

6.5 Diaphragms

C NC N/A NK DIAPHRAGM CONTINUITY: The diaphragms shall not be composed of split-

level floors.

Floor slab is not at the same level throughout the building



irregularities.

No such details observed




6.6 Connections




No floor beam provided along the periphery of rear side of building (old part) in

ground floor





34

C NC N/A NK CONCRETE COLUMNS: All concrete columns shall be doweled into the

foundation and the dowels shall be able to develop the tensile capacity of the

column.

As the building is not constructed in one go and many columns are attached to

the existing columns and foundation details are not known





35

Annex III-3 (Blood Bank- Pokhara ): Checking Different Vulnerability Factors

of the Building




Building System




C NC N/A NK MEZZANINES: Interior mezzanine levels shall be braced independently from the

main structure, or shall be anchored to the lateral-force-resisting elements of the

main structure.

Mezzanine floor is not available C NC N/A NK ADJACENT BUILDINGS: An adjacent building shall not be located next to the

structure being evaluated closer than 4% of the height for Life Safety and

Immediate Occupancy.

Building is attached to another one storey building without seismic gap


shall not be less than 80% of the strength in an adjacent story above or below for

Life-Safety and Immediate Occupancy.

C NC N/ANK SOFT STORY: The stiffness of the lateral-force-resisting system in any story


less than 80% of the average stiffness of the three stories above or below for Life-Safety and Immediate Occupancy.


force-resisting system of more than 30% in a story relative to adjacent stories for

Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy, excluding one-story penthouses.



C NC N/ANK MASS: There shall be no change in effective mass more than 50% from one story

to the next for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy.



rigidity shall be less than 20% of the building width in either plan dimension for

Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy.

Refer Annex IV-3 B


concrete or reinforcing steel in any of the vertical- or lateral-force-resisting

elements.

No deterioration of material found


No deterioration noted





36



Mortar cannot be easily scraped away from the joints

C NC N/A NK CRACKS IN INFILL WALLS: There shall be no existing diagonal cracks in

infill walls that extend throughout a panel, are greater than 1/8’’ for Life Safety

and 1/16’’ for Immediate Occupancy.

Diagonal cracks have found propagated from door/window openings

C NC N/A NK CRACKS IN BOUNDARY COLUMNS: There shall be no existing diagonal

cracks wider than 1/8’’ for Life Safety and 1/16’’ for Immediate Occupancy in

concrete columns that encase masonry infills.



shall be greater than or equal to 2 for Life-Safety and Immediate Occupancy. The

number of bays of moment frames in each line shall be greater than or equal to 2

for Life Safety and 3 for Immediate Occupancy.C NC N/A NK INTERFERING WALLS: All infill walls placed in moment frames shall be

isolated from structural elements.

There exists no gap between structural elements and infill brick masonry panels.

C NC N/A NK SHEAR STRESS CHECK: The shear stress in the concrete columns, calculated

using the Quick Check procedure of Section 3.5.3.2, shall be less than 100 psi

for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy.

Refer Annex IV-3.A.4:

C NC N/A NK AXIAL STRESS CHECK: The axial stress due to gravity loads in columns

subjected to overturning forces shall be less than 0.10f' c for Life Safety and

Immediate Occupancy. Alternatively, the axial stresses due to overturning forcesalone, calculated using the Quick Check Procedure of Section 3.5.3.6, shall be

less than 0.30f' c for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy.

Refer Annex IV-3.C

C NC N/A NK FLAT SLAB FRAMES: The lateral-force-resisting system shall not be a frame

consisting of columns and a flat slab/plate without beams.

All rigid slabs are supported on beams

C NC N/A NK SHORT CAPTIVE COLUMNS: There shall be no columns at a level with

height/depth ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio of the typical

columns at that level for Life Safety and 75% for Immediate Occupancy.

0.5*nominal height/depth ratios = 0.5*8.84'/1' = 4.42

Height/depth ratios of column at the side of window of 5ft height

= (8.84'-5')/1' =3.84 < 4.42

C NC N/A NK NO SHEAR FAILURE: The shear capacity of frame members shall be able to

develop the moment capacity at the top and bottom of the columns

C NC N/A NK STRONG COLUMN / WEAK BEAM: The sum of the moment capacity of the

columns shall be 20% greater than that of the beams at frame joints.

Structural drawing of the building is not available

C NC N/A NK BEAM BARS: At least two longitudinal top and two longitudinal bottom bars

shall extend continuously throughout the length of each frame beam. At least25% of the longitudinal bars provided at the joints for either positive or negative





37

moment shall be continuous throughout the length of the members for Life Safety

and Immediate Occupancy.

C NC N/A NK COLUMN-BAR SPLICES: All columns bar lap splice lengths shall be greater

than 35 d b for Life Safety and 50 d b for Immediate Occupancy and shall be

enclosed by ties spaced at or less than 8 d b for Life Safety and Immediate

Occupancy.

C NC N/A NK BEAM-BAR SPLICES: The lap splices for longitudinal beam reinforcing shall

not be located within l b /4 of the joints and shall not be located within the

vicinity of potential plastic hinge locations.

C NC N/A NK COLUMN-TIE SPACING: Frame columns shall have ties spaced at or less than

d/4 for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy throughout their length and at or

less than 8 d b for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy at all potential plastic

hinge locations but not less than 75mm.

Column ties are provided @200 to 250mm c/c

C NC N/A NK STIRRUP SPACING: All beams shall have stirrups spaced at or less than d/2 for

Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy throughout their length. At potentialplastic hinge locations stirrups shall be spaced at or less than the minimum of 8 d

b or d/4 for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy.

C NC N/A NK JOINT REINFORCING: Beam-column joints shall have ties spaced at or less

than 8d b for Life Safety and Immediate Occupancy.

Stirrups not provided at joint

C NC N/A NK JOINT ECCENTRICITY: There shall be no eccentricities larger than 20% of the

smallest column plan dimension between girder and column centerlines. This

statement shall apply to the Immediate Occupancy Performance Level only.

Maximum joint eccentricity is 15%

C NC N/A NK STIRRUP AND TIE HOOKS: The beam stirrups and column ties shall be

anchored into the member cores with hooks of 135° or more. This statement shall

apply to the Immediate Occupancy Performance Level only.

C NC N/A NK WALL CONNECTIONS: All infill walls shall have a positive connection to the

frame to resist out-of-plane forces for Life Safety and the connection shall be able

to develop the out-of-plane strength of the wall for Immediate Occupancy.

Infill block walls are not tied with the frame

Diaphragms

C NC N/A NK DIAPHRAGM CONTINUITY: The diaphragms shall not be composed of split-

level floors. In wood buildings, the diaphragms shall not have expansion joints.



irregularities. This statement shall apply to the Immediate Occupancy

Performance Level only.



major plan dimension. This statement shall apply to the Immediate Occupancy

Performance Level only.





38

Connections

C NC N/A NK CONCRETE COLUMNS: All concrete columns shall be doweled into the

foundation for Life Safety and the dowels shall be able to develop the tensile

capacity of the column for Immediate Occupancy.

Foundation detail is not known





39

Annex III-4 (Blood Bank- Nepalgunj ): Checking Different Vulnerability





Building System




Staircase and shop extension is a frame structure where beam is provided only

along east-west direction in ground floor and staircase landing slab is supported

on 4 1/2 inch thick brick masonry wall

9 inch wall for partition of cold room in first floor is resting on floor slab.










9 inch wall for partition of cold room in first floor is resting on floor slab without any beam or wall below.

Staircase and shop extension is a frame structure where beam is provided only

along east-west direction in ground floor and staircase landing slab is supported

on 4 1/2 inch thick brick masonry wall


to the next.




Refer Annex IV-4 B



elements.

No visible deterioration of concrete





No deterioration noted





40



Mortar cannot be easily scraped away from the joints


diagonal cracks in wall elements greater than 1/16" or out-of-plane offsets in the

bed joint greater than 1/16".

Cracks are observed at number of places




Does not meet the criteria at all places






The height to thickness ratio of shear walls at each storey is 10’/0.75’ = 13.33









No horizontal band at sill and floor level



Not available


building.




The number of shear wall in east west direction is 4

The number of shear wall in north south direction is 3




Diaphragms







41






irregularities





There is no large diaphragm opening



properly fixed.

Floor diaphragm is rigid C NC N/A NK LATERAL RESTRAINERS: For flexible roof and floor, each joists and rafters



Connections









42

Annex III-5 (Blood Bank- Dhangadi ): Checking Different Vulnerability


(Note: C = Compliance to the statement: NC = Not Compliance to the statement: N/A = Not

Applicable and/ or Not Available) NK = Not KnownThe evaluation of different statements is made and is noted by Underline Bold Letter.

Building System

C NC N/A NK SHAPE: The building shall be symmetrical in plan and regular in elevation.

Building is U shaped in plan with longer wing in east side and comparatively

shorter wing in west side


within 1:3. The breadth to length ratio of any room or area enclosed by load

bearing walls inside the building shall be also within 1:3. The building height


C NC N/A NK STOREY HEIGHT: The floor to floor height of the building shall be in between

2-3 m.

The Ground floor height of the building is 3.35m (11ft)

C NC N/A NK NUMBER OF STOREYS: The building shall be up to two storeys only.

C NC N/A NK FOUNDATION: The foundation width and depth shall be at least 75cm. Masonry

unit shall be of flat-bedded stones or regular-sized well-burnt bricks. Mortar

joints shall not be exceeding 20mm in any case. There shall be no mud-packing

in the core of the foundation.

Foundation details are not available

C NC N/A NK SLOPING GROUND: The slope of the ground where the building lies shall not

be more than 20o

(1:3, vertical: horizontal)

The building is situated in levelled ground

C NC N/A NK PLUMBLINE: Walls of the foundation and superstructure shall be true to plumb

line and the width of the wall shall be uniform.

C NC N/A NK WALL CORE: There shall be no mortar packing in the core of the wall.

C NC N/A NK WALL THICKNESS: The minimum wall thickness for different storey heights

shall not be less than

No of Storey

Masonry Type One TwoBrick 230 350

Load bearing walls are 14 inch thick




The maximum length of unsupported wall is 18’. This is at the west side of

building.

C NC N/A NK HEIGHT OF WALLS: The thickness to height ratio of a wall shall not be more

than 1:12 for brick building.

The thickness to height ratio of a wall is 1:9.43 (14”:11*12”)





43

C NC N/A NK OPENINGS IN WALL: The maximum combined width of the openings on a wall

between two consecutive cross-walls shall not be more than 35% of the total wall

length for one-storey building and not more than 25% of the total wall length in

two-storey building.

Most of the outer wall of room has the combined width of the openings on a wall

between two consecutive cross-walls is more than 35% of the total wall length

C NC N/A NK POSITION OF OPENINGS: Openings shall not be located at corners or junctions

of a wall. Openings shall not be placed closer to an internal corner of a wall than

half the opening height or 1.5 times the wall thickness, whichever is greater. The

width of pier between two openings shall not be less than half of the opening

height or 1.5 times the wall thickness, whichever is greater. The vertical distance

between two openings shall not be less than 0.6m or half the width of the smaller

opening, whichever is greater.

Two windows and all doors are located at corners or junctions of a wall.


and Immediate Occupancy for seismic force effects from any horizontal directionthat serves to transfer the inertial forces from the mass to the foundation.




to the next.

The building is one story



Refer Annex IV-5 B


C NC N/A NK WALL CRACKS: There shall be no existing diagonal cracks in wall elements

greater than 1/16" or out-of-plane offsets in the bed joint greater than 1/16".

Wall cracks are visible at number of places in wall






No vertical reinforcement observed



Does not meet the criteria at number of places



Does not exist


building.

Gable band is not provided at staircase cover





44


C NC N/A NK REDUNDANCY: The number of lines of walls in each principal direction shall

be greater than or equal to 2.

Diaphragms

C NC N/A NK DIAGONAL BRACING: All flexible structural elements of diaphragms such as joists and rafters shall be diagonally braced and each crossing of a joist/rafter and

a brace shall be properly fixed.

Floor is rigid with RCC slab

C NC N/A NK LATERAL RESTRAINERS: Each joists and rafters shall be restrained by timber

keys in both sides of wall.

Floor is rigid with RCC slab





45

Annex III-6(Blood Bank- Birgunj): Checking Different Vulnerability Factors

of the Building




Building System





within 1:3. The breadth to length ratio of any room or area enclosed by load

bearing walls inside the building shall be also within 1:3. The building height


Breadth to length ratio of area enclosed by load bearing walls is more than 1:3











to the next.




Refer Annex IV-6 B



elements.

Deterioration of concrete is observed at few areas.





Deterioration of masonry units not observed




diagonal cracks in wall elements greater than 1/16" or out-of-plane offsets in thebed joint greater than 1/16".





46

Some cracks are observed




Does not meet the criteria






Height to thickness ratio of wall is 9.6’/0.75’ = 12.8



C NC N/A NK VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT: There shall be vertical reinforcement at allcorners and T-junctions of masonry walls and it shall be started from foundation





A piece lintel is available but does not continue throughout the length of wall and

no band is available at sill , plinth and floor level



Not available


building.

Gable band is not provided at slope roof in top storey of the building next to

staircase cover







Diaphragms







strength of the diaphragm at re-entrant corners or other locations of planirregularities





47





Slab reinforcement details are not known



properly fixed.

Floor diaphragm is rigid

C NC N/A NK LATERAL RESTRAINERS: For flexible roof and floor, each joists and rafters



Connections









48

Annex IV-1 (Blood Bank Building-Kathmandu): Sample Calculations

The following is a sample of quick check calculations based on FEMA 310 for the seismic

evaluation of building under consideration.

Assumptions:

Unit weight of RCC = 25kN/m3; Unit weight of brick = 19 kN/m

3

Live load = 2.5 kN/m2; Wt.of plaster and floor finish = 1.0 KN / m

2

A Calculation for Shear Stress check

A.1. Load calculation

Dead Load Live Load 25% Live Load Seismic weightLevel

(KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)

2 1326.5 302.8 75.7 1402.2

1 3898.2 1065.4 266.3 4164.6

5566.8

A.2 Calculation of base shear (Using NBC105: 1994)

The total design lateral force or design seismic base shear is given by

Vb = Cd W

Where,

Cd = the design horizontal seismic force coefficient = C Z I K

C = basic seismic coefficient for the fundamental translations period in the direction

under consideration = 0.08

Z = Seismic zoning factor = 1.0

I = Importance factor = 1.5

K = Structural performance factor = 4.0 for unreinforced masonry structureHence

Vb = 2672 KN

A.3 Calculation of Average Shear Stress as per FEMA 310 The average shear stress in shear walls, Vavg, shall be calculated in accordance with equation

Vavg = 1/m (Vj / Aw)

Where,

m = component modification factor = 1 for immediate occupancy level

V j = Story shear at level j

Aw = Summation of the horizontal cross sectional area of all shear walls in the direction

of loading. Openings shall be taken into consideration when computing Aw.

Average shear stress in ground floor

Shear force (V j) Area of wall(Aw) Shear stresses (Vavg)Direction of

earthquake force KN m2

N/mm2

East -West 2672 26.42 0.101

North - South 2672 21.00 0.127

Permissible value of shear stress = 15 psi (0.104 N /mm2)

Hence not safe when loaded along North-South direction





49

B Check for torsion

Checking eccentricity between centre of mass and centre of stiffness at ground floor

Location of centre of stiffness at ground floor CS (Kx, Ky) = (12.75 m, 7.01m)

Location of effective mass center at ground floor (Wx, Wy) = (11.38 m, 6.29 m)

Calculated eccentricity along X direction ex = │12.75 – 11.38│ = 1.37 m

Calculated eccentricity along Y direction, ey = │7.01 -6.29│ = 0.72 m

Permissible eccentricity along X direction ex (20% of 24.35 m length along X-dir) = 4.87 m

Permissible eccentricity along Y direction, ey (20% of 19.8 m length along X-dir) = 3.96 m

Hence safe





50

Annex IV-3 (Blood Bank Building-Pokhara): Sample Calculations



Assumptions:Unit weight of RCC = 25kN/m

3; Unit weight block concrete = 21 kN/m

3

Live load = 2.5 kN/m2; Wt.of plaster and floor finish = 1 KN / m

2

A. Calculation for Shear Stress check

A.1 Load calculation at ground floor level


(KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)

2 901.5 338.3 84.6 986.1

1 1002.5 259.2 64.8 1067.3

2053.4



Vb = Cd W

Where,

Cd = The design horizontal seismic force coefficient = C Z I K



Z = Seismic zoning factor = 1


K = Structural performance factor = 2.0 for ordinary moment resisting frame

Hence

Vb = 492.8 KN

A.3 Distribution of base shear and calculation of storey shear

The design base shear (Vb) is distributed along the height of the building as per the following

expression (NBC 105-1994):

Qi = Vb (Wi hi / ∑ Wi hi)

Where

Fi = Design lateral force at floor i

Wi = Seismic weight of floor ihi = Height of seismic mass floor i measured from base

Level (Wi) (kN) hi (m) wi*hi Fi (kN) Storey shear, Vj (kN)

2 956.1 6 5916.70 319.77 319.77

1 1067.3 3 3201.84 173.04 492.82

9118.54





51

A.4 Calculation of Average Shear Stresses in the concrete columns.

Storey shears Ac Shear Stress Shear StressLevel

Vi (KN) Vi(lb) (in2)

nc nf1 nf1 nc-nf1 nc-nf2V1avg (psi) V2avg (psi)

2 319.77 70349.52 1620 15 2 4 13 11 35.54 45.55

1 492.82 108419.3 1620 15 2 4 13 11 59.40 70.20where,

Ac= Summation of the cross sectional area of all columns in the storey under

consideration

nc = Total no. of columns

nf = Total no. of frames in the direction of loading

nf1 = Total no. of frames in transverse direction

nf1 = Total no. of frames in longitudinal direction

Vavg = Average shear stress (psi) in the columns of concrete frames

= (1/m) (nc / nc-nf ) (VJ / Ac)

m = component modification factor = 1.3 for buildings being evaluated to the immediateoccupancy performance level

fc’= specified compressive strength of concrete = 15 N/mm2

The average induced shear stresses are less than the permissible value of 100psi or 2√fc’

(93.17psi)

Hence safe

B. Check for torsion

: Considering the stiffness of the concrete columns only.


Location of centre of stiffness at ground floor CS (Kx, KY) = (5.25m, 4.29m)Location of effective mass center at ground floor (Wx, Wy) = (5.71m, 4.50m)

Calculated eccentricity along X direction ex = │5.25 –5.71│ = 0.46 m

Calculated eccentricity along Y direction, ey =│4.29 -4.50│ = 0.21 m


Permissible eccentricity along Y direction, ey (20% of 9.07 m length along X-dir) = 1.81m

Hence safe

: Considering stiffnesses of both concrete block masonry walls and concrete

columns.Checking eccentricity between centre of mass and centre of stiffness at ground floor

Location of centre of stiffness at ground floor CS (Kx, KY) = (5.45m, 7.90m)

Location of effective mass center at ground floor (Wx, Wy) = (5.71m, 4.50m)


Calculated eccentricity along Y direction, ey =│7.90 -4.50│ =3.4 m



Hence not safe when loaded along East – West direction





52

C. Axial Stress check

C.1 The Axial stress due to gravity loads as per FEMA 310

Permissible axial stress = 0.1 f c’ = 1.5 N/mm2

The axial stress due to gravity loads in column subjected to overturning forces

= 3.55 N/mm2 > 1.5 N/mm2

Hence not safe

C.2 Axial stresses due to overturning forces as per FEMA 310

Permissible shear = 868 psi (0.3 f c’)

The axial stress of columns subjected to overturning forces pot is given by

Pot = (1/m) (2/3) (V hn / L nf )( 1/ Ac )

Where,

nf = Total no. of frames in the longitudinal direction of loading = 2

V= Base shear =492.82 KN = 108419.34 lb

hn = height ( in feet ) above the base to the roof level = 20 ft

L = Total length of the frame (in feet) = 29.75 ft.

m = component modification factor = 1.3 for immediate occupany

Ac = Summation of the cross sectional area of all columns in the storey under

consideration = 1620 in2

Pot = 11.54 psi << 868 psi

Hence Safe

D. Check for out-of-plane stability of concrete block masonry walls

Wall TypeWall

Thickness

Recommended Height/

Thickness ratio

Actual Height/

Thickness ratio in

Building

Comments

230 mm 18 2700/230=11.74 PassWall in first storey,

115 mm 18 2700/115 = 23.48 Fail

230 mm 16 2700/230=11.74 PassAll other walls

115mm 16 2700/115 = 23.48 Fail





53

Annex IV-4 (Blood Bank Building-Nepalgunj): Sample Calculations



Assumptions:

Unit weight of RCC = 25kN/m3; Unit weight of brick = 19 kN/m3


2




(KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)

2 1020.9 314.5 78.6 1099.5

1 1282.1 316.1 79.0 1361.2

2460.7



Vb = Cd W

Where,






K = Structural performance factor = 4.0 for unreinforced masonry structure

Hence

Vb = 1075 KN

A.3 Calculation of Average Shear Stress as per FEMA 310

The average shear stress in shear walls, Vavg, shall be calculated in accordance with equation

Vavg = 1/m (Vj / Aw)

Where,



Aw = Summation of the horizontal cross sectional area of all shear walls in the direction of

loading. Openings shall be taken into consideration when computing Aw. Formasonry walls, the net area shall be used rather than the area.


Shear force(V j) Area of wall(Aw) Shear stresses(Vavg)Direction of

earthquake forceKN Sq.m N/mm

2

East -West 1075 6.0 0.18

North - South 1075 4.4 0.24

Permissible value of shear stress = 15 psi (0.104 N /mm2)

Hence not safe





54



Location of centre of stiffness at ground floor CS (Kx, KY) = (6.01 m, 5.69m)



Calculated eccentricity along Y direction, ey = │5.01 -5.69│ = 0.68 m


Permissible eccentricity along Y direction, ey (20% of 11.07 m length along X-dir) = 2.21 m

Hence safe





55

Annex IV-5 (Blood Bank Building-Dhangadi): Sample Calculations



Assumptions:Unit weight of RCC = 25kN/m

3; Unit weight of brick = 19 kN/m

3


2




(KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)

2 339.0 90.9 22.7 361.8

1 2115.8 536.9 134.2 2250.1

2611.8



Vb = Cd W

Where,






K = Structural performance factor = 4.0 for unreinforced masonry structure

Hence

Vb = 1128 KN



Vavg = 1/m ( V j / Aw)

Where,



Aw = Summation of the horizontal cross sectional area of all shear walls in the direction of loading. Openings shall be taken into consideration when computing Aw. For

masonry walls, the net area shall be used rather than the area.


Shear force(V j) Area of wall(Aw) Shear stresses (Vavg)Direction of


2

East -West 1128 10.0 0.11

North - South 1128 17.5 0.06

Permissible value of shear stress = 0.025N /mm2

Hence not safe





56






Calculated eccentricity along Y direction, ey = │10.00 -8.09│ =1.91 m



Hence not safe when loaded along East – West direction





57

Annex IV-6 (Blood Bank Building-Birgunj): Sample Calculations



Assumptions:

Unit weight of RCC = 25kN/m3; Unit weight of brick = 19 kN/m

3


2




(KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)

2 1297.9 292.7 73.2 1371.1

1 1269.3 292.7 73.2 1342.4

2713.5

A.2 Calculation of base shear (Using NBC105: 1994 )


Vb = Cd W

Where,






K = Structural performance factor = 4.0 for unreinforced masonry structureHence

Vb = 1107 KN



Vavg = 1/m ( V j / Aw)

Where,



Aw = Summation of the horizontal cross sectional area of all shear walls in the direction of

loading. Openings shall be taken into consideration when computing Aw. Formasonry walls, the net area shall be used rather than the area.


Shear force (V j) Area of wall(Aw) Shear stresses (Vavg)Direction of


2

East -West 1107 5.7 0.19

North - South 1107 4.8 0.23

Permissible value of shear stress =15 psi (0.104 N /mm2)

Hence not safe





58




Location of effective mass center at ground floor (Wx, Wy) = (7.15 m, 5.31m)


Calculated eccentricity along Y direction, ey = │5.70 -5.31│ =0.39 m



Hence safe





59

Annex V-1: Building Description (Blood Bank-Kathmandu)

Front View

Blood Bank-Pradarshai Marg,

Kathmandu• Two storey house

• Constructed in 2035-2036 BS

• Outcome of Australian project

• Rigid floor of RCC structure

• Staircase cover is sloped with truss

structure and without roof and

gable band

• Building is load bearing brick

masonry structure in cement

mortar• Building is irregular in plan and in

elevation with larger area covered

in ground floor but only a central

portion is extended upto first floor

• Few cracks in wall as well as

deterioration of concrete is

observed in the building

• Most of the load bearing walls are

230mm thick while few walls at

centre which extend to first floor

are 350mm thick • Exterior walls in first floor is

supported on cantilever beam

projecting from main wall inside

• Floor beam is not provided

East Elevation





60

Annex V-2: Building Description (Blood Bank-Biratnagar)

South-West view of the building

Front view

Blood Bank-Biratnagar

• Two storey house

• Constructed under a supervision of technical volunteer Mr. Binod Ojha

• The entire building complex is

composed of four different blocks

attached together with columns

adjacent to each other( refer drawing)

i.e.

Block I: North west

Block II: North east

Block III: South east

Block IV: South west• Block III two storey building and

Block I one storey building was

constructed in BS 2044 and remaining

all parts of the building was completed

construction one year back. All the

buildings are attached as a single unit

in first floor level.


• The overall building system is

reinforced concrete frame with brick

masonry infill. All the columns are10X 10 inches size.

• Block 1 also comprised of reinforced

concrete frame but is not tied with

floor beam along the periphery of the

building

• Front face of the Blocks II, III and IV

is open in ground floor from business

point of view

• Few cracks in wall as well as

deterioration of concrete are observed

in the building. A well defined crack isvisible at the junction of Block II and

III

• Infill walls are 250mm thick while few

partition walls are 125mm thick

• Non structural elements are not given

due consideration against impending

large earthquake

• No horizontal stirrups are provided in

beam column joint and stirrup in

column is provided @ 7’’ c/c

throughout the column irrespective toposition

Central open area with sky light above





61

Annex V-3: Building Description (Blood Bank-Pokhara)

Front elevation of the building

View from building entrance (North West)

Blood Bank-Pokhara


• Constructed in BS 2045

• The building is regular with

rectangle in plan shape

• Designed and supervised by

Engineer Deepak Bhattarai, then

hospital incharge

• The overall building system is

reinforced concrete frame with

block masonry infill. All the

columns are 9X 12 inches size with

larger dimension oriented along

north south direction. Each column

is reinforced with 4 nos 12 mm dia.

bar and stirrup of 7mm dia. @ 9-10

inch c/c spacing.


• Overall slab thickness is 4 inch and

beam of size 9 X 9 inch

• Floor height of the building is 10

feet in both the floors

• Front face of the building is open in

ground floor from business point of view

• Extensive wall cracks are observed

in first floor while as very less

crack is observed in ground floor

• Infill walls are 9 inch and 4 ½ inch

thick of solid block in ground floor

and 6and 4 ½ inch thick hollow

block in first floor

• All window frames are made of

metal

• Lintel is provided just over windowand is not tied with the frame

• Infill walls are not tied with frame

elements

• The building is attached with new

construction of one storey building

without seismic gap and floor level

of the two buildings also vary to

some extend some extend.

• Non structural elements are not

restrained against lateral movement

of earthquake

Two adjoining buildings of two storey and one

storey





62

Annex V-4: Building Description (Blood Bank-Nepalgunj)

Front View

Blood Bank-Nepalgunj


• Building is load bearing brick masonry

structure in cement mortar• Ground storey constructed in 2034 BS

• First storey was constructed 3-4 years back

with supervision from municipality

engineer

• All load bearing walls are 9 inch thick

• The building is constructed as per

contemporary construction practice of

Nepalgunj without any consideration of

earthquake shaking

• Rigid floor of RCC slab• Front portion of staircase and medicine

shop is an extension of existing building

with reinforced concrete column of 9X 9

inch size

• Building is quite regular in plan and in

elevation with the same area of coverage in

ground and first floor

• Building is not totally isolated but is

attached with small portion of wing from

other building

• Cracks in wall is observed at number of places showing weak connection between

different structural elements

• Ventilator is provided just below floor slab

in first floor

• Field exploration have found that no

vertical reinforcement is provided at

junction of walls and at sides of

door/window opening

• Ring beam is provided throughout the

walls at lintel level and no ring beam is

provided at floor level in ground floor

• Only a piece lintel is provided at first floor

and no ring beam is provided at floor level

in first floor

• Column in extension portion of staircase

and medical shop is very lean with stirrup

spacing of 14-16 inches wide and 4

numbers 12 mm diameter vertical bars

• Non structural elements are not given due

consideration to restrain lateral movement

View South West

View West North





63

Annex V-5: Building Description (Blood Bank-Dhangadi)

Rear view (North West)

Blood Bank-Dhangadi

• One storey house

• The portion is extended to second storey ineast wing with 9 inch brick masonry wall

and cement mortar

• Building is load bearing brick masonry

structure in mud mortar

• Constructed in 2044 BS

• Designed and supervised by Mr. Raman

Chandra Shrestha

• The building is U-shaped with one wing in

east side and the other in west. West wing

is comparatively shorter than east wing as

shown in drawing.

• The building was constructed with

supervision by an overseer.

• All load bearing walls are 14 inch thick

• The building was constructed as per

contemporary construction practice in

Dhangadi without any consideration of

earthquake shaking

• Rigid floor of RCC slab

• Building is attached with another building

in east side.

• Cracks are observed at number of places in

wall and at junction of wall and slab

showing weak connection between

different structural elements

• Field exploration have shown that no

vertical reinforcement is provided at

junction of walls and at sides of

door/window opening

• Lintel is provided just above door/window

opening and no ring beam is provided at

floor level.

• Front face of the building is used for

commercial purpose

• Non structural elements are not given due

consideration to restrain lateral movement

• Naked electric cables very close to the

building pose high threat to life safety of

human being.

Side view of the building (West side)

View from road side





64

Annex V-6: Building Description (Blood Bank-Birgunj)

Front elevation of the building (West Elevation)

South elevation

Blood Bank-Birgunj


• Constructed in BS 2046

• The building is quite regular in plan

and elevation

• Load bearing walls are long

without lateral support and the

connectivity between different

structural walls lacks proper

integrity.

• Designed and supervised by an

overseer from sugar mill

• The building is load bearing brick in cement mortar.

• All load bearing walls are 9 inch

thick and internal partition walls

are half brick (4 ½ inch) thick


• Overall slab thickness is 4 inch and

secondar beam to support floor

slabs are of size 6 X 6 inch below

slab level.

• Staircase landing is cantilever

projecting from beam which isprovided for staircase support.

• Floor height of the building is 10

feet in both the floors

• Front face of the building is open in

ground floor for shops and is the

income generation for blood bank.

• Cracks are observed at number of

places in walls, door/window lintel

and floor slab.

• Deterioration of concrete is also

observed at some places.

• A piece lintel is provided just over

door/ window opening and is not

extended throughout the wall.

• No ring beam is provided at floor

level.

• No vertical reinforcement provided

at corners, junctions of walls and at

jambs of openings.

• No provision is made for

earthquake resistance duringconstruction of the building.

North elevation of the Building





65

• Heavy weight of reinforced

concrete overhead water tank is

provided above staircase cover

slab.

• Non structural elements are not

given due consideration forearthquake safety.





66

Annex VI-1: Photographs (Blood Bank-Kathmandu)

Photo 1: Load bearing walls in

cantilever beam in first floor

Photo 2: Lean brick column in ground floor

Photo 3: Variation of floor height in

different portion of the building





67

Photo 4: Use of Ferroscan detector for

verification of reinforcement details

Photo 5: Use of Ferroscan

detector for verification of

reinforcement details

Photo 6: Field test with drilling of

wall





68

Photo 7: Crack in wall supporting

slope roof

Photo 8: Ventilator just below floor slab

with the absence of floor beam

Photo 9: Deterioration of concrete due to ageing





69

Photo 10: Staircase cover with steel truss

without roof band

Photo 11: Unused items stored in narrow passageway

and are not restraint back

Photo12: Blood stored in racks with

potential risk of falling





70

Photo 13: Water tanks simply

supported in brick masonry walls

Photo 14: Non-Structural

items are not placed with proper

anchorage and are likely to overturn and

spill contents in large shaking

Photo 15: Materials stacked in top

floor of the building





71

Annex VI-2: Photographs (Blood Bank-Biratnagar)

Photo 1: Beam along the edge of

column

Photo 2: Steel reinforcement for further extension

Photo 3: Truss roof at top floor

without roof and gable band





72

Photo 4: Reinforced concrete slab at different level at

the entrance

Photo 5: Secondary beam supporting

on beam creating a point load

Photo 6: Column constructed in two shifts

with a clear demarcation of cold joint at the middle of

the column





73

Photo 7: Ventilator opening immediately

below the slab

Photo 8: No beam along a

direction transverse to the existing beam

Photo 9: Opening at ground floor for

commercial purpose





74

Photo 10: Spiral stairways in one part of the building

Photo 11: Crack at the junction of

two buildings

Photo 12: Open area at the central portion of the entire

building complex





75

Photo 13: Crack in wall at the front

face of the building

Photo 14: Field test using

Ferroscan detector for verification

of reinforcement bars

Photo 15: Field test with drilling of wall





76

Photo 16: Overhead water tank with no

proper bracing

Photo 17: Freeze for storage of blood simply resting

on stand with roller slide

Photo 18: Office equipment liable to

tip at large earthquake





77

Annex VI-3: Photographs (Blood Bank-Pokhara)

Photo 1: A distinct view of piece

lintel above window opening

Photo 2: A crack propagating from door

opening

Photo 3: Cantilever over main

entrance of the building





78

Photo 4: The building is attached with one

storey building without expansion joint

Photo 5: Wide crack in the wall

Photo 6: Ground floor of the building

is open for shops





79

Photo 7: Verification of reinforcement detail with

the use of Ferroscan detector

Photo 8: Detail showing lap of

vertical reinforcement at beam

column joint

Photo 9: Drilling in wall for verification of wall

details





80

Photo 10: Window attached to frame

element

Photo 11: Freeze placed very close to the

door obstructing the movement of people

Photo 12: Rigid joints of water pipes





81

Photo 13: Photo frame kept over window

lintel without any anchorage

Photo 14: Water tank simply supported over

concrete block

Photo 15: Equipments with no restraint

against lateral movement





82

Annex VI-4: Photographs (Blood Bank-Nepalgunj)

Photo 1: Beam resting on brick wall which

is further supported on beam

Photo 2: Ventilator just below the

floor slab

Photo 3: Window attached to wall

junction





83

Photo 4: Drilling in wall for verification of structural

details

Photo 5: Hole in wall due to drilling and

scrapping of plaster for observation

Photo 6: Observation of lintel using PS 200 Hilti

Ferroscan detector





84

Photo 7: Staircase cover without roof

band

Photo 8: Tall slender wall at staircase

Photo 9: Wide crack in wall at

staircase extension





85

Photo 10: Connecting wall between two buildings

Photo 11: Crack in wall slab junction in first

floor

Photo 12: Items stored in racks without lateral

support





86

Photo 13: Rigid joints in water pipes

Photo 14: Water tank simply supported on floor

without proper anchorage

Photo 15: Photo frames need proper

anchorage to the wall





87

Annex VI-5: Photographs (Blood Bank-Dhangadi)

Photo 1: Load bearing wall with large

door/window opening

Photo 2: Door attached to wall junction

Photo 3: Opening for shop at road side





88

Photo 4: Verifying existence of lintel

using Hilti PS Ferroscan detector

Photo 5: Verifying floor beam using PS 200 Hilti

Ferroscan detector

Photo 6: Drill hole for exploration

of wall material





89

Photo 7: Crack along the wall immediately

below the slab

Photo 8: Wide vertical crack in wall at staircase

portion

Photo 9: Scrapping of plaster showing mud

mortar in load bearing wall





90

Photo 10: L-shaped building with

different wing length

Photo 11: Long unsupported length of wall at

staircase

Photo 12: Photo frames without

proper anchorage which can easily

topple in small shaking





91

Photo 13: Blood storage freeze without

lateral support

Photo 14: High tension line close to building

boundary which can cause serious human

injury

Photo 15: Storage of equipments

with no proper care against

horizontal movement in earthquake





92

Annex VI-6: Photographs ( Blood Bank-Birgunj)

Photo 1: Deterioration of concrete

Photo 2: Doors attached to wall

junction

Photo 3: Secondary beam supporting

floor slab





93

Photo 4: Lean beam supporting

staircase slab

Photo 5: Slender wall of 4 ½ inch at the extreme end of thecantilever landing slab

Photo 6: Crack in lintel above window

opening





94

Photo 7: Cantilever above main

entrance

Photo 8: Verification of reinforcement using Hilti PS

200 Ferroscan detector

Photo 9: Ventilator immediately

below floor slab





95

Photo 10: Crack in wall

Photo 11: rigid pipings

Photo 12: Open ground floor being

used for shops





96

Photo 13: Freeze storing blood without

tie to floor or wall

Photo 14: Vulnerable steel rack with

no anchorage to adjacent structural

wall

Photo 15: Reinforced concrete overhead

water tank supporting on walls at

staircase cover



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seismic evaluation of blood banks in nepal

Documents