Seedling Ecology and Evolution

Editors

Mary Allessio Leek Emeritus Professor of Biology, Rider University, USA

V. Thomas Parker Professor of Biology, San Francisco State University, USA

Robert L. Simpson Professor of Biology and Environmental Science, University DJ Michigan - Dearborn, USA

~CAMBRIDGE V UNIVERSITY PRESS

Contents

Contributors

Foreword by Perer J. Grubb Preface Acknowlrdgments

Part I I Introductio n

Chapter I I Why seedlingsr

Mary AUessio Leek, Roberr L Simpson. and V. Thomas Parker

1.1 Seedlings as part of a plant's life cycle 1.2 Vulnerabilities and bottlenecks 1.3 Making ie fil te rs, safe sires. and establish ment 1.4 Seedlings: a primer 1.5 What seedlings can tell us 1.6 The scope of Seedling Ecology and Evolution

Part 11 I Seedling dive rsity

Chapter 2 I Seedling natural history

Mary Ai!essio Leek and Heather A. Outred

pagt xi xiii

,~I

xix

3

3

6

7

8

10

"

" 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 The seedling stage and fate of seedlings 17 2.3 Seedling types 20 2.4 Seedling diversity - morphology 24 2.5 Seedling diversi ty - ecophysiology 31 2.6 Vivipary and seedling equ ivalents 33 2.7 Longevity 36

2.8 Dispersal 37 2.9 Environmental filters and safe siles 38 2.10 Summary 41 2.11 Acknowledgments 41

Appendixes 42

Chapter 3 I Specialized seedling strategies I: seedlings in stressful environments 56

josi M. Facdli 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Seedling establish ment ill dense shade 3.3 Effects of liner on seedling establishment 3.4 Seedling establishment in dry environments 3.5 Seedling establishment in saline envi ronments

" 60

" 6S

68

•

,; CONTENTS

3.6 Seedling establishment in cold environments 70

3.7 Physical damage to seedlings 73

3.8 Interactive effects of stress agents and biological interactions 75

3.9 Ovetview: adaptations of seedlings to stressful environments 76

3.10 Acknowledgments " Chapter 4 1 Specialized seedling st rategies 11:

orchids, bromeliads, carnivorous plants, and parasites 79

Dermis F. Whigham, Mr!lssa K. McCormick, • and John P. O'Neill

4.1 Introduction 79

4.2 Epiphytic and terrestrial orchids 80

4.3 Bromeliads 85

4.4 Carnivorous plants 88

4.5 Parasitic plants 91

4.6 Summary and future needs " 4.7 Acknowledgments 100

Part III I Seedling morphology, evolution, and physiology

Chapter 5 I Embryo morphology and seedling evolut ion 103

Karl J. Nilelas 5.1 Introduction 103

5.2 Embryophyte phylogeny 106

5.3 Embryo structure 108

5.4 Embryophyte embryogenesis 112

5.5 Phylogenetic patterns 122

5.6 Concluding remarks 128

Chapter 6 I Regeneration ecology of early angiosperm seeds and seedlings: integrating inferences from extant basal lineages and fossils 130

Taylor S. Fe/Id 6.1 Introduction 130

6.2 Previous views of ancestral angiosperm ecology and seed/seedli ng morphology 132

6.3 The phylogenetic revolution :.inferences on early angiosperm regeneration ecology from extant basal angiosperms 13'

6.4 FUnctional biology of basal angiosperm seeds 136

6.5 Functional biology of basal angiosperm seedlings 1<2

6.6 Outlook and recommendations for future research 146

6.7 Acknowledgments 149

Chapter 7 I Physiological and morphological changes during early seedling growth: roles of phytohormones

Elizabeth J. Farnsworth 7.1 Introduction: phytohormones, molecular biology,

150

and the ~real world M of early seedling ecology 150 7.2 Seedling responses to light 156 7.3 Seedling responses to temperature 159 7.4 Seedling responses to water 161 7.5 Seedling responses to nutrients 163 7.6 Insights and common themes 166 7.7 Summary 170 7.B Acknowledgments 171

Chapter 8 I Seedling ecophysiology: strategies toward achievement of positive net carbon balance 172

Kaom Kitajima and Jonathan A. Myers

8.1 Introduction 172

8.2 Seed reserve utilization 173 8.3 Ontogenetic trajectories of seedling carbon balance 175 8.4 Species differences in inherent relative growth rate

(RGR) 177 8.5 Opportunistic versus conservative strategies 178 B.6 Carbohydrate reserves 182 8.7 Phenotypic plasticity 185 8.8 Concluding remarks 187 B.9 Acknowledgments 188

Chapter 9 I The role of symbioses in seedling establishment and survival

Thomas R. Horton and Marcr1 G. A. \lan der Heijden

189

9.1 Introduction 189 9.2 Ectomycorrhizal fungi and seedling establishment 199 9.3 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and seedling

establishment 207 9.4 Other plant symbionts and seedling establishment 209 9.5 Conclusions 212 9.6 Acknowledgments 213

Part IV I Life history implications

Chapter 10 I The seedling as part of a plant's life history strategy

Ange!a T. Mo!es and Michel!e R. ieishman 10.1 Introduction

217

CONTENTS vii

viii CONTENTS

•

10.2 The trade-off be£Ween offspring production and seedling survival 218

10.3 Understanding seed and seedling ecology as parts of a plant's life history stra tegy 227

lOA Correlations between seed and seedling strategy and other aspects of plant ecology 229

10.5 Seed and seedling strategIes within species 232

10.6 Implications of a holistic understanding of plant life history strategies 235

10.7 Conclusions 237

Chapte r 1 I I Seedling recruitment and population ecology

Ove Etiksson and Johan fhrlen 11.1 Introduction 11.2 TIu~ causes of seedling mortality 11.3 Recruitment limitation 11.4 Seedling recruitment and population dynamics 11.5 Genetic structure and selection in seedling

populations 11.6 Concluding remarks 11.7 Acknowledgments

Chapte r 12 I Seedling communities

Jon F.. Keeler and PhillipJ. van Mantgt'lTl

12.\ Introduction 12.2 Internal drivers 12.3 External drivers affecting seedling communities 12.4 Seedling communil}' assembly rules 12.5 Conclusions

Chapte r 13 I Spatial variation in seedling emergence and establishment - functional groups among and within habitats~

Johannes Kollmann 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Description of the seedling stage 13.3 Definition of spatial scales 1304 Microhabitat effects on seedling dynamics 13.5 Habitat effects on seedling dynamics 13.6 Landscape effects on seedling dynamics 13.7 Region effects on seedling dynamics 13.8 Biome effects on seedling dynamics: seed site and

seedling survival 13.9 Synthesis 13.10 Acknowledgments

239

239

241

2<5

248

251

254

254

255

255

255

265

269

27J

m 276 279

280

'" 285

286

28' 289

292

Part V I Applications

Chapter 14 I Does seedling ecology matter for biological invasions!

Laura A. Hyatt

14.1 Introduction 14.2 Invasive seedlings 14.3 Invasive effccts on native seedlings 14.4 Conclusions 14.5 Acknowledgments

Chapter IS I The role of seedlings in the dynamics of dryland ecosystems - their response to and involvement in dryland heterogeneity,

295 296

303

305

306

degradation, and restoration 307

Bertrand Boeken

15.1 Introduction 307 15.2 Importance of the seedling stage 308 15.3 Seedlings and spatial heterogeneity of drylands 312 15.4 Seedlings and dryland system degradation 322 15.5 Conclusions 330

Chapter 16 I Anthropogenic disturbance in tropical forests: toward a functional understandi ng of seedling responses 332

james W Da!!ing and David F. R. r. Rurslem 16.1 Introduction 332 16.2 Significance of the seedling stage for forest

management 16.3 Effe<:ts of human disturbances on seedling

regeneration 16.4 Application of seedling functional ecology to

tropical forest management and restoration 16.5 Future directions 16.6 Acknowledgments

Chapter 17 I Seedling establishment in restored ecosystems

Susan Galatmvitsch 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Sele<:ting initial community composition for

335

341

3<,

351

352

352

restoration 353 17.3 Creating safe sites to promote seedling establishment 359 17.4 Managing biotic interactions that affct:t seedling

survival and growth 364

CONTENTS ill:

)( CONTENTS

17.5 Mimicking the effects of disturbances in restoration 368 17.6 Conclusions 369

Pa,.t VI I Synthesis

Chapter 18 I The seedling in an ecological and evolutionary context

V Thomas ParkIT, Robert L. Simpson, and Mary Al!essio Leck

373

18.1 Introduction 373 18.2 Dispersal. seed bank dynamics, and seedling banks 374 18.3 Dynamics of individual seedlings 376 18.4 Set'dlings in heterogeneous environments 378 18.5 Alternative strategies 381 18.6 Conclusions 385

References Index

391

501

Index

ARA. see abscisic acid

Abies. 36,119,265 A aloo. ]52

A amabUis. 202

A conrol'or, 257-9, 268

A. lusiocarpu. 383 Abrotme!la hnfllrlS V3f. apfrulata. 53

abscisic acid (ARA), 35. 153, 155. 156.

159, 160-4. 167. 168. 169

AOutilan thtophranil, 7 Ac(lOIl, 46. 187,212

It trumgium, 298

It omria. 26 A. papynXaTJkl. as p:l1l'h formers,

67.319

A tortiUis. 328 A. wrlidllllla. 36

AcanlhaH·:u~. 318 ACllula5poru. and racilitating

restoration. 366

acdimation. 1116 ,\elT. 7. 39, 198,201.204,206

A platanoidts. 297

11. pseudoplutunus. 42 A. runrum. 201. 257. 305

It sdCmarlnum. 257

A 5<Ucharum. 151. 256, 257. 258.

263. 305. 383 fu:tF-Il'C;II.'. 7. 39, 42. 151. 198. 257,

297, 305, 383

AmoOOctrr.211

achlorophyl1ous plallls. 82. 84. 100. 192. 193. 196. 198

Aroraceae.21 Acarus. 20. 21, 137. 144 Ammcmillm, 211

Actaea spicula. 246

Actiaidla Iklfciosa, 151

Actinidiaceae. 151 Artillosrarnys. 108

Artinosrrobus pyrumidaliJ. 42

adaptalions. patlems of adaptations

in dl-serls. 309

Adtrwnlhml.46

AdroosIQm4 faJ('frulalum. 200. 262. 271

adult size. and sCfi1 production. 228

advanced regeneration. 256

t\t-giaUtis. SI

A annulara. 152

Mgicmu. SI

A. ((lmiClllalum. 69. 151

MgUops Inuruialis. 304

A"S!~ murllldv~. 26 aerenchyma. 37. 162

Msculus hJppomstanum, 151

Mlanlhus. 92, 94 Agulhis daml7Ulm. 49

Agavac~al'. 19.316.320

AgaI't.316

J\sIaodorUm griJJilhii. SS

A,l{rimonia

A eupaWria, 277

A procm.z. 277

Agropyron A criSfatum. 302

A desertorum. and rcstoration. 356.

366 A smilhil. 366

Ailanl/lld ollissimOl. 297, 304

Aizoa(:~;ll'. 301. 309. 310. 318

Ailoon hispanfcum, 318

Albizia.46

A [ophanlha, 49

Albuco fllsllglOlra. 11

Alrnornca lutifolia. 3SO

Aldrol'tmdu. 88

A. I'I'siculosa. SO. 89

Alwrites moIuccanOl. 45

AlismOl plOlnrago-aqualim, 20. 46

Alismalaceae. 18,20.36,38.46,47.

48. 127

al1eiOl'athy. 19. 64. 209. 297, 302. 304

AlIIam pt'Uo!aIOl. 209. 299. 305

Allium

A ascolnnium. 35

A. cepa. 151

A. porrum, 151

alloca t ion patterns. 24. 233. 297

trade-olTs. 179. 180. 217

to roots. 66 Alnus. 44. 45. 196

AIot. 31. SO

A. OlrborrsctlU. 151

alpint' zone and fad litating restoration. 365

and f('SlOration. 360

Alstls blacklana. 185

Alstonia. 49

A anguSfUoba. SO

Alstromeriaceae. 11. 127

AM. set' arbuscular myrorrhizae Amaranthaceae. 44. 384

AmOlmnthus A (Ilnnnbinus. 383. 31:14

A h)'p(KllOndnacus. 44

Amaryl1idaceae. 53

Ambtm'!la. 135. 141. 143. 146

A. rrirllopoda. 142. 143

Ambroria mflda. 5. 7. 383. 384

Ammophila A. al'(llOlna. 73

A. ImviIiKUlalll. 77

AmorphophaJlus albus. 151

amphibious plants. 37

AmphiooUs alltarctica. 38. 43. SS

Amphicarpum purshii, 29

amphicarpy. 29

Amsind'iOl inrtmlt'diOl. 42

Amymw Jm'isii. 54

Anacardiact'ac. 6. 32. 49. SI. 151.

271

Allarnaris nccidnlrtl!is. 48

Anasrarica hinndluntic(I. 66, 318

anchorage. 85

Andropogon virxinicus. 152

AndrosaCi' rotundifolia . 45

angiosperm. 37. 49. 62. 8 1. 91. 103-5.

111.120.121.125.126.129.

130-49. 192. 193. 196. 204. 385.

386 angiosperm phylogeny. 135

AngTUtnlm mandatum. 44

Annonact'ilc. 49. 132

anoxia, 144. 146. 162

Anthericaceae. 28

Anrhocems, 108. 112. 123

A. mctus. 110. 112

An(h(x:erotaceae. 110

anthropogenic disturbances nilralt' dt'position. 345

types of disturbance in forests. 333

Anrirritinum majllS. 152

and phytohormon('S. 169

Anrhunum sctlndms, 21

Apiaceae. 32. 42. 47,151 .• 284.286

apical hook. 157

ApOl:yn'l(t'ae. 49. SO. 151

AI'OIlDg('IOn dislamyon. 47 Aponogelollact';1.e.47 Aquifoliaceae. 244. 301

INDEX

Arnbldopsis. 10. 124, 153. 155. 157,

'" A !haIUlna, 46. SO, 151. 304

and phytohormonl's. 168

mutants and phytohormone function, 168

Arubis hirsu/a, 208 AI<lll:<ll:. 11. 20. 21 , It!, 32, 47, ~l. ~5.

88, 127, 384

Al'lIdlis hypog!l~. 25. 151

AraJiaceal', 29, 53. 347

Aruucaria. 32 A. Ol'llucono, 47

Anucari"ceae. 32. 42. 47. 49 arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) (S<"(

mycorrhb:al' ). 193. 195

Arbutoideae, 193

Arrluu-fru.rtvJ. 136 archegonium, 103

Arr/lonlOphomix runninghamUllUI, 44

arctic 7.onc, and restoration. 360

Arrtosrnphylos. 204

t\. glanduIO$(!. 200 Ardisio

A CTnlldalo, 48

A. dliplico. 299 A. (scaUonioides. 151

A poIyuphola, 49

Arecaceal' (Stt Palmae). 151 arid lone, and restoration, 360

A"", A. fascialus. 242

A lusitanicuJ. 286

Alisanna, 20

A triphyllum. 32, 47

ArtrnzisUl

A annua. 151

A. cali/omi(I. 271 A. halodmdron, 319, 32:8

A. monospm!UI, 319

A. Iridmtol4. 269, 357. 366

Arlocorpus, 49

A altiUs. 52

Ai~.52

Ascarina. 146

A. lucida. 141. 145

Asc1l'piadaceal'. 27. 42. 43,

233

,',sdtpios A. incomalO, 233

A IUbm:lsa. 27 Ascomycota, 193,211

ASp<1rngus madogascal1.'n$/S, 47 AsphodelaCl'ae, 9. 151

Asphode1us

A. luSilonicus. 9

A. rtnuifolius, 9

assembly rules. 255. 269 Asteraceae. and genetic structure,

2S3 Asteraceae, 4. 5, 6. 7, 19, 28. 29, 30.

31. 36, 39, 43. 45. 47, 48. 49. 50.

52. 53.66.77. 151,250.269. 271.

272.284,286.302.317.318.319,

328. 357. 366, 384 Asleriscus pygmaeus, 66

Asuucaf)'llm standlryonum, 339

Alkinsonia.92

Amplcx.69 A. haHmu5, 69

A horttnSls. 36. 43 A. nlllllmularia, 70

A. patllia. 70 Atropa belladonlUl, \52

AtlructyJls ~tulOidt"S. 319, 322. 327

Auge4 caprnsis. 318

AuslrolJaill')'tl. 141, 146

A scandtfU. 136. 140 Austrobaileyaceae, 135

autotrophic mistll'lOl"S. 95

auxin IAA, 153, 156. 157. 158. 159.

160. 161. 163. 164. 167

and myrorrhine. 165 and nodulation. 165

Avena $(!nl'<], 151

Avicmnia, 34, 35, 48. 49, 51

A. rrwrina. 68, 69

A. maritimo. 70

Avicennial'eae. 34, 35. 48. 49. 51, 68 Azoorrus, 211

RaldelUII ronunol!Oides. 38

Balsaminaceal', 6. 30, 44. 49. 303.

38< ikmkJ/a, 363, 368

B. oustroUs. 48

B. spinulosa. 233

Rarda)'P Iongi!oIia, 146 Raningtonio, 42

B. I'lICtTIIOS<1, 51

Ba.sidiomycota, 193

Senneltitales. 141

Berberidal"eae.47 Bcrlhollttia t:utl$(!, 42

Bet(l vulg/nis. 151

bet-hedging, 309

ilt'tIIla, 205. 297. 362

B. allfglumitfUlS. 201. 202

R. trmani!. 203. 204. 207

B. lento. 201. 202

B. tlUU'imQWirzialUl. 72

B. papyrifml. 383

B. Pf'ndula. 151. 198

B. pubtsctfU. 362

Sewlacl'ae, 44. 72, 151. 193. 196. 198. 202, 204, 297, 362, 383

8idms

B. dioka, 28 B. lams, 7, 29, 383, 384

n. pilosus. 28

Rignoniaceae, 30. 174 biological crusts, 313. 317, 324. 360

and s('(-dJing recruitment, 326

biome, 279. 287

Bltpharis,318

Bomaria Mulls. 11

Rombacaceae. 23. 45 Boraginaceae, 32, 42, 151,318

and genetic s(ructure, 253

Batrychium, 108.115. 124

B. disseclum. 115

B. virgin/anum. 111. 115,116

Bmltt"!oua grocilis, 366 Bowiea rolubUis, 42. 47

BrnSt'tlUl. 146 Bruuica

B. ooJrorka. 36, 44

H. campt'Stris. 151

B. napus. 151

B. nigm. 42 R. okrnua, 151

B. rnpa, 151. 302

Brasskaceac. 10,26.27.29.36, 43,44,46,49. SO, 66. 120,

121. 151. 153. 190,204,208. 209. 284. 299. 302, 304, 317,

318

brassinoSteroids. 155. 156,157. 167.

377 BromeliaC(';lc, 11.48,79

broml'liads, 79. 85

Bromus

B. inl'Tlt1is. 151 B. lecwrum, 364

Bruguiml. 4, 51, 151 bi-yophytt'S, 10~, 108, 109, 110, 112,

113,123-6

Buplrurumfalcatum.151

burial, 73

RUI""Sl'raceae, 32. 49 Rutom;lceae. 55

Bynneria acul~fa, 26

Cabombacl:ae, 135 Campwlhl'(a <uuminala. 151

Carucl'ae. 39. 42. 43. 48, 67. 151. 316

Caesalpinaceae. 23. 200

Ca/adtnia arrnicolD. 84

Ca/w. 21 r..,UidI/amys /ati/olia. 174

Call1gonum, 328

Call1sultlOTl rigidus. 48 Callilrichaceae.49

Ca/lllrkht. 49

C. stagnalis. 49

CaIOCtdrus dromt"fls, 257. 268

CalolropU giganua. 43 Calycanthaceae, 29. 42, 43

CaJysugUi I7UICTOSUgia. 271

Camp!lnula rorundifolill. 151

Campanuiaceal·. 32. 43. 151

Camptotheca. 151

Cananga odomta. 49

Canamlia trUiformls. \51 Canlstrum lindmii. 85. 89

Cannabaceae. 30. 47

Cannabis ~atil'll. 30 Caprifoiia{'('<lc. 278, 298

Cap~IJa Inma·pasrorls. 120. 121 Capsicum unnuum. 152. 155. 315

Caroguna micmphylla. 328

Caroj'IQ guiunrnsts. 52

carbohydrate r('serves. 182. 184.

185 carbon balance, 188

Carbonirerous. 106. 114. 120. 126

CanlamilU'

C. bulbifml. 36

C. clttn!lpOdifolla. 29

Cam. 18. 365. 383. 384

C. curvula. 72

C.fl=, 209 C. lucustris, 358. 359

C. stricta, 39. 358. 359

Carica papaya. 51. 151

Caricaceae. 51. 151 Carntgita giganlt'a, 67

carnivorous planu. 79, 88

carotcnoids. 160

Carp/nus, 45

Carpobrolus rdulis. 301

Canidllml annuu. 66. 317. 318 Carya Wmrntosa. 7, 39

Caryophyllaceae, 52, 151. 244, 284.

286.317 and g('netic structure, 253

CasslpouTl'a tlliptka. 151

Cassyr:ha, 97

CastalU'a, 204

C. dt-ntata. 202, 204

Catasrtum. 80

Calliaronthus rostUS. 151

Caykmia. 141 Cmupia, 343

C. insign/s, 343

C. WlTl'biana. 347

Cecropiaceae.343

Celast:T.u:eae.53

Ceitidaceae.342

Ct'ntaurea C. c!ementel, 45

C. C)'Ilnus, 286

C. diffusa, 302, 304

C. marulosa. 304

Ctpliae!is ipt'C!lcuanha. 151

Cephaiotaceae, 46. 88 Cephalotaxaceae, 42

Ctphlllolus foIlindaris. 46, 88. 89

Cmltobasidium. 193

Cnutonia sililJua. SO

Cnutozamia. 1 HI

CtmIs tI1loryl. 48 Ctriops, 51. 151

Chatrophyllum prorumb<"ns, 32

OlamatcTista faSCiculata. 233 CIlamaerypdris

C. lawsonillna. 26

C. thyoides. 39

OuzTlli1fi)'!'isus proIlfrrus. 151

chaperone proteins, 153. 155.

167

charophycean algae, 123. 124

chasmogamy. 29

Chenopodiaceae. 4. 36, 43. 49, SS. 67. 69, 151, 208. 317. 328, 366

Chrnopodium

C. album. 208

C. amUro$iOldts. 49

C. rubrum. 4

CIlimonanlhus fmgmns. 43 CllIomea memDmnacmt', 27

Chloranthaceae, 135, 137, 142, 143.

I<S Chlomnthu5. 138, 141. 146

C. m"rtUJ. 143

C. japontnu, 144 Qdorophylum. 54

C. aruru/lnactum, 151

ChrysophyUum. 37

Cl," Ilri~rinum. 151

circadian rhythm. in seedlings. 155

INDEX 503

Circium C. aCQule, 39

C. vul~rt, 250

Citrus

C. auronli/oIw. 23. 30. 152 C. auronlium. 42. 49

C. reticu/!!ta, 152

C. sinrnsi$, 152

Oadiumjllmail:m:it'.358

Oavicipltaceae.210

Ollytonia vltginica. 120

clei~togamy, 29 Qidemia hirhl, 299

climate change. 377

and dryland S)'5tems. 329

and forest iianas. 336

and plant distribution. 265 clonal offspring. 239, 252

cloud fon'sts. and facilitating

restoration, 365

Ciusiaceae, 88. 347

coastal scrub. and invasives

inhibiting restoration, 362 Cobaea Kllndens, 47

Cocos nudffm. 53 wffra arable!!, 42

Colchicum autumnalt. 27

cold tolerance, 70

CoIrocI!lltlt. 124

coleoptiie.20. 122 coleorhiza. 20, 122

Caln.i.s. 46

collar. 20

Combretaceae. 42. 49. SI

community dynamics, 12. 131,310

competition. 244. 298. 310. 311. 342,

346. 358. 364 and seed size, 236

among seedlings, 237

and structuring communities, 259

competition/colonization modeis. 236, 237, 247, 298

Connaraceae. SI

ConnaTllS grandls, SI

Conmllariu majalls, 246

Convallariaceae. 20. 246

Convolvulaceae, 4. 42. 43, 45. 46. 47,

53.92,97. 151.271. 384 Conl'Olvulus sepium, 43, 47

Coprosma robusl/l., 52 CoraUorfliza, 80. 82, S4

C. odontomizll, 81. 83

wnlia a/Tic!!n!!, and genl'tic structure,

253

IND EX

Cvrdyline austmJis. 19

Coriandrum saliwm. 151 Cornaceae. 52. 151. 27H. 298

Comus. 298

C. sanguinea. 278

Corokia macrocarpa. 52

Curtadma jubutu. 300 t·olylcdon. 18, 20

cotylcdonary axis

adjacent. 20

remote, 20

cotyledons. 8. 24-5. 126

buriaL 25

food storing. 25

function. 127 functional morphologies. 173

haustorial. 25

photoperiod sensitive. 4

photo~)'nthetic 25

storagt\ 132 thkknt·ss, 231

types, 10. 24 . 25

Cnmula '1uadrifida. 43. 44. 49

Crassulaceae. 43. 44. 49. 317

Cretaceous, 130. 131. 136. 138. 139.

146

Crinum C. (aperne syn bulbispennum, 53

C iongi{alium. 54

Croton. 52

cryptochromes, 158

Cryptocorync. 55 nyptCKotylar. 23, 94, 96

Cryptomma. 26

C. japonica. 42

cryptovivipary, see also vivipary. 25.

34. 169

t·ryptocotyl. 94. 96

Cueumis C. huttl(}.fnutus. and directed

dispersal by aardvarks. 315

C. mela. IS!

C. satiws, 151

Cururbita.36

C. JIt'VO. 151 C. !exana, 151

Cucurbitaceae, 28. 36. 43. 44, 45. 53.

151.315

Cupressaceae. 26. 33. 39. 42. 46, 72. Ul, 198.257,269,319.328,341,

363

Cusrula, 92, 97, 151

C. europaea. 45

C. gronovii, 92. 383, 3114

Cydamen, 42

C. penirum. 47. 50

Cymodocea dliata. 55

Cymodoceat'e;le. 43. 55 Cyperaceae, 10, 18,44.48.72, 209.

358,3H4

CWfUS. 18 Cypripedium regin<ll'. S4

Cyrophonectria parasitira. 204

Cylisu5 scoparius. 212. 299

cytokinins, 153, 157. 158. 161. 164 and nodulation, 165

Dartylis D, giomemta, 28

D, polygamu, 28

Dartylorhila lupponiw. 83 Dalecltampiu wpensis. 48

d a mp, dark and disturbed hypothesis

(3-0),134.144.145

Dariingtoniu. 50. 88

Dasypogonaceae. 27

DasyprocfU punefUta. 339

Daurus wrota. 151,286

defenses.6 DEIl.A. 153, 162

Udphinium D. datum, 42

D, stuphysaglill, 42

lXndrobium mosdwtum. 151

Deroct>ms Tl'tiruiatum, 2116

desert patch formation, and a model

of dynamics. 320 deserts, and f;lcilitating restoration,

365

development, niche shins during.

358

Devonian. 106.107, 114, 120. 126

Dianthus caryvphyllus. 151 Diapensi;Keae,43

Dicltopogon stnetus. 28 dicot (See dicolykdon). 8-11. 23. 26,

30,42-4,111.120-2,127, 128.

129. 135, 137. 138. 139, 145, 149,

157. 283, 379. 384-6

dicotyledon (See dicot), 23. 283

Dicmriu stylosu, 47

Dicmnopferis D. Jinams. and seedling inhibition,

3<7

D. pt'ctinata, and seedling

inhibition, 347

DicJfenbuchia loogispatha, 52

Digifalis purpuTt'a. 72

Dimemndm ettl(}rginata, 84

Dinochola. 53

diOt't),.30

Dionaea.88

D. rnusdpula. 46, 49. 50, 88, 89, 90.

" DioscoTl'a batatas, 47

Dioscoreaceae,47

Viospyros embryopteri.5. 45

diplobiontie life t)'c1e. 103. 106

Dipterlx parlurnensis. 348 Dipterocarpaceae, 37,46.51. 151,

193,341

dispersal. 8, 11. 36, 37, 86. 90, 94. 97.

140, 256. 285. 352, 363

and forest fragmenta tion, 341:1 and perches in restoration, 347

and seed size, 229

by birds, 281

directed,315 fleshy-fruits, 285

low-<:ost in deserts, 309

passive tr.msport. 318 rare long"'llislann\ 90

secondary, 315

and spatia! patterns, 374

topochory.318

variation within communities. 236 dispersal limitation, 245, 247. 374

Distiehlis spicula, and s(·x-biast·d

sutvival, 252

disturbance. 332. 368 effects on soils, 337

effects on soils and growth rates,

345

regillles.378

disturbance-adaptation. 132, 147

disturbed xeric shrub hypothesis. 133, 134

DMHQ, 96

dodder, 97

Dolich05 lublub, 151

dormancy, 5, 8. 141. 155, 160. 162,

168. 170. 256. 310, 332. 357,

375

and biomes. 287

and persistence in seed banks. 230

and restoration. 368 in st~'<1lings, 31, 381

lllorphologicaL 141 seedling, 85

Downingia pu1che!ia. 32, 43

Dmcaena. 20, 52

Dracaenaceae. 20, 127

-

~. 88.89. 90.91 D. angllea. 89 D. blllllfa. 44. 46. 49 D. capensis. 49

D. eapillaris, 90 D. intmnnlia. 89. 90 D pygmnM. ,I>

D. romndifo/ia. 36. 89. 91 DMeraceae. 36. 44. 46. 49, SO. 88 r>rosopllyUum lusitanicum, 49

drought. 65. 156. 162. 243. 252. 263 Dr)\lOOlanops. 46

D. eamp/u)ru. 51 Dulidrlum arundinauum. 383. 384 Durlo zibftlllnus. 23. 45 dust seeds. 81 Dyckla floribunda. 48 Dy5oxylum, 37

Ebenaceae. 45 EchlnoractuJ vlridescms. 48 EdIilllX)'StU labota. 45 ecosystem ('ngineers. 311. 314. 321 ro»ystem fum;:[ions. 307 ectomycorrhizae (EM). also see

mycorrhizae. 165. 192. 193, 363 si1:e of geneUj. 194

Eldlllornla mwipes. 28, 48 elasticity, 249. 250, 299. 300. 308 Eialinacea(', 48 F.ialint.48 Elklmia poIymorpha. 120 Elymus sm/fhll. 366

flyna m)USuroldes. 20 Embtlta

E. ribet, 48 E vfridijloru, 31

l:mbofhrium toaiMUm. 33 embryo d~lopment. 112. 120, 122 endoscopic. 108. 111. 114. liS. 123.

124 exosropic, 108. 111. 115. 123 foot. 108, 109. 124 haustoria. 109. lll. 118. 125 polarity. 104, 123

Suspensors. 103. 125 transfer cells. 124

embryo;s('('<I ratio iE:S). 141 emergence. definition. 276 Ernn: spfnosa. 19 fnai/a ealifomica, 271 fndrylama lomrnlosa. 67 f1l()'CI/a fampensis. 83

Endmia sptrtabilis. 46

Endogont. ] 93 endophytic fungi and bacteria. 209 Enhalus aearo/deJ. 55 envimnnlental stress. 38, 57. 59. 86

and phytohormones, 156 Eplzedru, lI5. 118

f. rn/llT('a. 117, 119 £pichlot.211

epicoryl. dormancy. 32 epicoryl. 9. 85. 122. 143 epigeal germination. 8. 18. 23, 143 Epwndrum. 80 EpijaguI vfrginlana, 97 epiphytl'$, 79. 87 Equist'lum. 108. 115

E. an.'!'nst. Ill. 115. 116

Eremo]epidaceae, 92. 93 Ericaceile. 88. 98. 193,204.240. 291

and m}'i."Orrhizae. 192 Eriocaulaceae. 10 Eriogonum jiunrulatum. 271 Eriopltyllum ronfrrtlflorum. 272 ErodiophyUum ddm. 66

Erodiurn, 318. 319 Erythronlum amcrironum. 198

Esdiwrlll'Tl1 Unu/foIia, 33 l"Stablishment. definition. 276 establishment growth. 22 ethylene, 153. 154, 157. 162. 163. 164

and nodulation , 165 3nd triple respoll5e, 157

etiolation. 10. 155, 157. 158

Eucalyptus, 205, 226 E. albtns, 301

E. globulus. 49. 151.253 £. rnarginala, 359 E obllqua. 64. 253

E. JlauclJloro. 72 E. sallgna. 151 E. tt'l'l'tirornlI. 49

Eupatoriulll perjVHlllum. 28 Euphorbia

E. nula. 45 £. splrnlkns. 49

EuphorniaC('ae. 45, 48. 49, 52. 128. 151. 297. 350

fllphrasia dlspenna. 53 I'uphyllophytes. 106 Elll)'Ops multifidus. 318 Emidnuxylon zwagri, 26

Ewlution of increased competitiV{' ability EICA. 302

IN D EX 505

Fabacl'ae, srt' Leguminosae facilitation. 67, 2-44, 280. 298. 310

;md mycorrhizae. ]99 and restoration. 365. 366

facultative seWing, and tire. 270 Fagaceae. 25. 43. 45. 46, 52. 72. 15l.

187. 193. 204, 233. 243. 244. 257. 281, 298. 357. 367. 383

Fagopyrum escu/entulll. 53

Fagus

F. gT<lndijolia. 43. 201. 202. 383 F. ryivatira, 43. 151

ferns, 115

Frnuca ovIna, 208 flrus. 226 ft/ago. 317 finos. 268, 338, 368 flooding tolerance. and restoration.

162. 167. 358 flowering. pTffOCious, 4 Forniru/um vulga11!', <42

forests. and restoration. 357. 363. 364 Forsythia IUsprnsa, 36, 43. 44

fragmentalion. 340. 352 in forests. 335

Frankeni3Cl·a<,.49 Fraxinus umerfcana, 305

'iIT)dneria banksl/, 19 frost heaving. 74 frost resistance. 33. 161 frugivmy. and anthropogenic

disturbance. 340 fruit. dimorphic, 29 l'ucus. 124 I'umariaceae. 44 Ftmaria. 112. 123

F. hygmlllf'trica, 110, 111 functional tr.lilS, 131. 178-80 functional typeS. 20. 23. 24. 274

ilnd lW.' forms, 290 fllngal spedficity, 99

GaiaMndron. 92. 94 Gaillardia puldrtlla. 301 G.:zkaris, 80

G.:zlium G. Il.nguslijollum. 271

G. aparine. 303

C. nuttallii. 272

C. SQCrharofum. 44 Galphimia glauca. 151 game-theory of coexistence. 236 gametophyte. 103. 109. III gamocotyl. 94

506 INDEX

gaps. 61. 180. 184. 186. 245. 256. 257. 260. 269. 281. 282

dependency, 276 dl"tection. 8 and seed limitation. 247 and seed size, 248

Ganinia,42 Gaum ro«inln, 46

Gaulla. soil disturbance and facilitation. 319

g('nl"tic structure diffl"rentiarion among

communities, 281 in seedling populations, 251

genetically modified organisms CM,

302 Gtnliana lulea, 39 GenrianaCl"ae, 39. 98, 233 Geraniaceae. 29, 39. 151, 277, 318 Gtmnium

G. roiumbfnum, 277

G. disS«fllm. 277 G. macuialum, 39

C. 5tSsifolium. 29 gennination, 3, 230

cryptocotylar, 231 definition, 276

epigeal. 127, 128.252.290 and fungi, 81 hypogeal. 127. 128, 231. 252, 290 timing. 56, 317

Gnnnu macrantha. 47 Gesneriacl"ae. 30, 42, 47

gibberelHru CA. 153, 157. 158 Ginkgo. Ill, 118

G. biloba. 27. 31. SO. 103, 115. 117,

'" Ginkgo.aceae, 27, SO. 117 gland, mistletoe haustoria, 93

Gleicheniaceae.347 Glirtddla seplum. 347 Glomeromycota. 190. 192. 193 Glomus

changes during restoration, 366 G. intramdlcts, 196

Glycine ma~. 151

Gnetales, 117, 118 Gl\e'lum, 118 GonalOpUS,21

Goodyml,80

G. puoouns. 81. 83, 84 Gossypfum hfTlUtum. 151 grassland!. and restoration, 356, 360,

'64

grazing. and landscape degradation. 323-5

grazing optimization hypothesis, 323 Grevllkc:I. 152 Gmuulariaceae, 271 growth curves, 173. 174. 176 Guam IIlUIIU'xicana, seedling

perfunnance and differences in seed source. 357

Gunnnu,211 Gunneraceae. 211 Gust.avia 5U~, 29 Gymnarrllro.a mim:rnrlw, 29 Gymnogmmmr. 108, 116 gymnospenn. 8. 9, 11. 24, 26. 36, 62,

105, 111. 115, lt7, 120, 125--7. 129. 131, 132, 136. 139-41, 147, 149, 193. 196. 204. 385

Gymnospomngium junipm-vlrginlanae, 33

habita\, 279, 282 specialization, 342

Halophila stipulacea. 39 Haloragidaceae, 5 Haloxylon

H. aphylla, 319

H. pmfCum, 319, 328 Harpaguphytum

H. procumbtns, 151 H. ztyMi, 151

haustoria, 10. 11, 21.92.93.96,97, 99, 164, 165

HaUlmln SlJUarrosa. 271

heat shock proteins, 161 Htdroma pulegWidts, 49 Htdnn helix, 29, 53 HM)USmum. 146

H. ruafrrlacanum. 139

H. goudofianum. 142. 143, 145 H. maximum. 142, 143 H. peruvianum, 139 H. tmnslucictum, 142, 143

Htdysarum mew, 319, 328 Htlfanthu5 annuus. SO, 127, 151 Jlrlmin!hortarnys. 111. 116 hemiparasitism. 92. 95. 97. 291 Htparica nobil/s, 240 herbivory, 3. 6, 8, 19, 26. 33, 37, 59.

60. 65, 74-6. 138. 154, 161, 162. 167, 169. 172. 180-2. 184. 188. 205.211.237.241 - 5. 252. 253. 262. 267. 268, 276, 280. 282, 286-8.291.301.309.311.329,

340, 345, 348. 365, 367. 368. 373, 376. 379, 387. 3119

and chemical defense. 242, 291 and restor-Hion. 367

H~tTO$ptrma p1nnatum. 30 heterosporous, 104 heterotrophic. 81, 95 Illbiscw

11. diwrsijolius. 53 H. nwsdzeutos.12 H. lrionum. 12

HippocaSlilnaceae. 151 Hodgsonla mllCl'OCarpa. 43. 44 HoIcus lanatus. 301 holoparasitic. 92, 95, 97 Honckenya pq1loidts. 244

Hop" H. nmosa. 341 H. odON!a. 151

Hordeum H. spontaneum, and genetic

~tructure. 253 H, vulguTt'. 151

hornworts. lOG host specitlcity. 97. 98 host suitability. 94

Hottonla pahlJtTis, 38 Humulus japoniClIJ. 47 hunting, 339. 340 Hyacinthaceae. 11. 42. 47 Hyac1nthus orimfalis. ISl

HydattllD jilamenfOSll. 136 Hydatellaceae. 135, 136, 141. 143,

144, 146

hydalhode. 25. 143 Hydrocharitaceae.1. 39, 44. 46. 48.

55. 121. 151 hydrophilic polymers. and

restoration. 362 Hydrophyllaceae, 32. 48, 233 Hydrophyl!um. 32, 233 IIymenocaJUs occidental/s. 54

Hymenoscyphus emae. 193

Hyperoum pl"OOlmbens. 36. 44

hyperphyll.20 hypha! networks. 189, 191. 197,207

and carbon dynamics. 198 and seedling eSlablishment, 199

hypocotyl. 9. 18,20.43-5.47.85.92. 122, 112, 157. 158. 160

hypogeal germination. 9. 121. 122, 127. 128. 141

and light. 186 Hypoxidaceae, 11

Hypoxis Itygromelriea, 11

HynTix indUll, soil disturbance and

facilitation. 319

IAA. see auxin

lbtx, soil disturbance and facilitation. 319

tdlosp<ntlum lIuSIIllI~. 29, .. 2

1.fIogII. 317

1. srlcllta. 317

ntX CUjutfolium. 244. 301

lIIiciac!'ae. 135 nIldum. 137, 142

l,jIoridanum, 144. 145, H6 1. ~riffitlti, 148

J. porviflorum. 142 I, l'tnIm. 148

Impatims /, eapensis, 6. 7. 30. 44. 383. 384

1. fru tirow. 49

1. po/Jida, 303

I. parvifloru. 44

imprinting soils, and restoration.

360.361 Inga, 34, 51

1. fagifolw, 350

intermediate disturbance hypothesis.

323

invasion. 244 invasive sp.:.'Cies. 212, 244. 277. 278.

280,281.295,296-306.362.369.

370 Ipomoea . 7

/, bcltatus. 151

I. disstCta, 47

I. glabtnima. 53 /. ltpwpliyllu. 45

I. pt'ltata, 53 I, Quamoclil. 42

Irlanro.43 lridaceae. 54, 151

,'" I. rnsata, 151

I.linagona. 151. 162

lsoetales. 106, 113

lsottn. Ill. 114

J. lilliopliiJa. Ill. 113 iteroparous. 249

II'Il Iml7ricala. 77

JABOWA, 256 jarquinw T1Iscifolla. 31

Janzen<:Onnell hypothesis. 204, 2H,

264.267.280

jasmonic acid jA. 154. 162, 169

juglandaceae. 7. 39. 120

Juglans nigra. 120 junca<;eae. 38, 384

junrus. 38

JUI\CU5 effums. 383. 384

JunlptnlS. 26. 33. 46, 269 J. )lIbina. 72

J. virginlana. 126 juvenile, definition, 218

Kadsum

1C. comma. 140. 144

K. scandms. 140

Kandella candel. 51 Kt!llltdw T1Ibicunda. 46

Kha)u.348

KIMgU! austTUHs. 27

KNOX homeobox gt'nes. 158, 167

KaSfelelzkyu virginlca. 70 Krameria, 97

Krumrrlactd('.97

Labiatae. 46. 49

Ulbumum YIIlgart. 42 Loaaria. 206

Ulctuca saliva. 151. 253

l.agunrularia, 49

L mcemosa, 51

Lamiaceae. 151, 271. 272. 284.

365

landscape. 279. 285 landscape patches. 307, 311. 312

transformation. 323

Laportta aznadtn$l$, SO LAR, ste leaf area ratio

Larix, 297

L katmpferi. 203. 204. 207 L x nlroItpIs. 152

Ullhmta rla~Iln.a. 92

Ulthyms. 23

L arficulatus. 47

L nissolia. 47

L ""'"ItS. 241. 249, 250 Lauraceae. 26, 39, 97. 151

Ulvundula slotdlas. 151

leaf·area ratio (tAR), 63, 177, 178. 181,

291

leaf nitrogen mass ratio (LNMR). 275

Lecythidaceae. 29. 42. SI

!.tcythis w/mcajo, 42

Leguminosal'. 23, 25. 26. 27. 32. 33. 34.35,36,42.43,44,46.47.49,

SO. 52, 67, 69. 74. 151, 187. 212.

INDEX 507

233. 241. 249. 271. 284. 291. 298,

299.301.319.328.348,350 i.tmna, 20, 21, SS

L minor, 30. "'I, 151 Lemnaceae, 20. 21.30,44, SS. 151

Lermoo. 97

Lennoaceae, 97 LetlJ cuJlnaris. 151

Lentibulariaceae. 42, SO. 54. 88 Lepldium, 27. 318

Lepldorarpon, 114

LtpIdoaro.s. 92

Ltsslngia fliagiMifoIla. 272

Leucanllttmum vulgafl'. 286 !.turospmrlum glabrum, 152

Ltymus mol/is. 244 life cyt:le , 5, 11

life form. and light environments.

285

life history traits. correlations

among. 178. 227. 228 life span, 239

life table response experiment LTRE, 249. 250

light responsiveness. 159. 186

lignotubcrs. 27, 31 Liliaceae. 27, 31, 32. 35, 47, SO. 52,

54.152. 198

l1!1um sUPf'rbum, 32

Limnanthaceae. 44

Umnanthts douglasii. 44

Llmnodlaris. 55 Llmonia acidisslma, 42

Llmonlum pm-grlnum, 151

1.11'I'\.OStl!a austroUs. 5 Linaceae. 151

Unaria.45

L cymbalaria. 43 Undtmia dubia • ..

Llnum ltSitafusimum. 151

Llparis

L li!1tfolia. 84

L Iotstlii. 84

Litliospmnum eryrhrorhiwn. 151

litter. 64. 282. 365 and seedling mortality, 243

l.odoirea maUliviea, 22. 42, 240

togging. 334, 337

LoIium aT1lntUnactum. 211

Lonas inodora. 43 Lonlum, 303

L japonica. 303 L maad:ii. 303

L morrowil, 303

508 IN D EX

Loniccro (cont.)

L tartarica. 298, 303 L x b<>JJa. 303

L.or.mthaceae. 54. 92. 94. 95 /..OluS

L rornirulalus. 212 '- japonicus. 151 '- scoparius. 271

Lucumu. 25, 43 Lupinus

L albus. 151 L stliphum15, 42

Luzuriagal"t'ae. 20 Lyrtznis jIoKuculi, and genetic

structure. 253 lyrium afrum. 43 'ywptrSfr011 tsrulrntum. 28 Iycophytes. 113 Lyl"Opodiaks. 106. 113 Lycopodium, Ill. 114

L (t'n\uum, 125 L clal'lltum. 113. 114

Lythraceae. 38. 298 Lylhrum sal/caria. 38. 298

Macfad)'trtll unguiHati. 30 Marrolobium acaciifollum. 33 Ma.mlUlmia Ml'lI. 44 MagnoUa. 132 Magno)iaCt'ae, 132 MaiarothamnuJ fasdculatu5. 271 Mai()$ma wurina. 271

Malphigiaceal.'. 48. 151 Malus ~ domtSUca. 151 Ma!vaceal'. 7, 31. 43, 51. 53, 70. 151.

271.342 MammlUaria .«lumm. 39 Manglfl'l1l iMira. 31. 51. 151 mangT(M'5. 4. 19.25.33.34.68. 169 Manlhot. 128

M. NCUII'71Ja, 128. 151 Manilkam kauki. 49 Maruh,28 Marmuntla, 112

M. domingmsis. 112 M. poIymorpha. 110

Marchantiaceat'.ll0 m'bting. 258, 263. 266 lllatemal investment, 11. 56 Matricaria gJobiferu. 36, 43 matrix moods. 299 Mfdicago. 34. 74

M. lupulina. 52. 212 M. saUm. 151 M. truncatula. 151

ml'gasporangium, 103 Melanoma Nccurianum. 2911 Ml'laswrnalac('ae. 298. 299. 343.

3<, Meliaceae. 37. 49. 52. 348 MtHrla txcdsa . 348 MeWO/us officinaliJ, 44 Melinis, and Sl"i.-dling inhibi tion, 347 Mejocalamu5 rompacti.flonu, 53 Mtlomnna

M. bacrlft"Ta. 53 M. oomlmsofdts, 53

Menispcrmareae, 42 Mmisptrlllum canaderuf. 42 Ml'nyanthaceac.37 meristems. loss. 31 Mertmsfa Virgin/ana. 32 Mtsembryanthtmum nodiflorum, 318 Mcsozoic, 113. 131. 147

boundary with Ccnozoic, 1311 MCS50r, and seed predation. 318 Mtl~idtTos poIymorpha. 300 M/conla. 343

M. argtn~. 343 rnicrobiJI communities, and

disturbance. 341 minohabita t, 279

and se<'dling dynamiCll. 280 Microloma. 42 microsites (5« ufl- sites). 245. 247.

248.278,280,334,341. 344. 347, 352,361 .36~369.370. 3711

limitation, 245 Mimosa

M. pigm. 301 M pudiw. SO, 151

Mimos~lceae. 319 • Illd gt'netic strucnrre. 253

Mimulus M. aumntiat'US. 271 M. lutta. 28

Mimusops oo/"ta, 45 Mirobilis

M. ca/rfornica, 271 M. dlrnowma. 44. 47 M. linturis. 47

Misodendracea('. 92 mistlt'tocs.92 Mltdla bn'Wl"Tl. 47 Mumonlica dlarnntla. 151 nlOnilophytes, 107. 114 monocOI\Soot monocutyledon). 8-11.

19,20-4. 26.42.49,80.84, 107. 111. 120-2. 127- 9. 135. 137. 138. 142. 144. 149.379. 38:Hi

monocotyl('<\on ($« monocut). 20. 22. 23.80. Ill. 120

functional aspects of serolings. 20. 22,80. 112. 120

woody. 22 monOpodial growth habit. 132. 143 M01101ropa, and mycorrhizae. 192

M. uniflom. 98 Monotropoideae. 46. 92. 98. 192. 193 M011!ezuma spmosissima. 51 M=

M. mrgislopenna. 27, 32. 33, 36 M. oIeifml. 51

Moract'ae. 44. 49, 52. 348 mortality. causes. 19. 241. 280. 282.

283. 288. 289 of invasive se...-dlings by natives.

300 MOn.l$ latijOJia. 52 Mosmuriu rosro. 48 MU5I1 acumlnalu. 151 Musaceal.'. 151 m}'(.'O'helt'rtltrophic pl~mts, 84. 92.

98, 100. 193, 198, 240 mycorrhizat' (Sa arbuscular

mycorrhizae. l'Ctomyrorrhizae), 39.80.84.87.91.98.99. 164. 165. 170, 188, 191-3, 194, 244. 264,305,316.333,336,341.355, 363, 366, 367

arbuscular AM, 19]. 193. 194. 366

arbulOid. 192. 193 and carnivorous plants, 91 rhlorophyllous orchid. 193 dependl'ncy, 291 and diSlurbanre. 341 ectomycorrhiu(' (EM). 191. 192 .

\95

and t'piphytes. 87 t'ricoid. 192. 193 and factlitation, 264 limgal specifidty, 83 interactions with prolOconns. 83 monotropoid. 192. 193 of adllorophyl1ous orchid. 193 and recruilment. 244 types. 191. 193

myrorrhizal fungal communities. 197,366

of AM fungi. 208 dilTerencl.'S between s(oedlings and

adults. 197 mycorrh..izal fungi. 19.81 . 83.98.

189. 190.367

and carbon cosu eo hoses. 195 and colonization of land. 190 and continuum of

mut\LaliSmjparasitism. 190, 110

and drought. 189 and host specifidty. 189. 196 and mineral uptake. 189. 190

;md nurse logs. 363 ;md patchy distribution. 378 and pathog\'ns. 189 and restoration. 363, 366

and seedhng growth, 197. 208 shifu in composition, 83

myrorrhizal mutanu. and phytohormones. 165

Myopo'J(,';lc.67 Myoporum p!alicarpum, 67

Myrlca. 112

M. califol'lllca. 44 Myrican'ae. 44 Myrlophyllum l'(.lriifolium. 5

Myrlsticu hoUrunKii. 52 MyriSticac!'a!'. 52. 132 Mynntro/dia, 53

Myrsinaceae. 23. 31. 48. 49. 51. 69, 151. 299

Myrt:ll·l':LC. 18. 49. 64. 151. 193. 205.

300. 301. 359 and genetic SIrUl'tur(·. 253 and trol'ical pastures, 347

NAC genes. 159 Najadaceae, 18 Nujas marinu. 48 NAR. 176. 178 N<'O!ltua $l'rlCnl. 39 Nwmarica gmnlis. 54 Nwphytum. 211

Nl'pcnthaceae. 46, 49, 88 Ncpenlhes, 19. 88, 90

N. khusiunu, 46. 49 N,'linf,54 net assimilation rat(' NAR. 176,

291

net primary production. and mycorrhizae, 195

ncutr.11 theory. 386 nich('-C()nstnLction, 263 Nirotiurw

N. uttmuatu. 152 N. IIlbacum. 152

Nirrembergia CamJr.-a. 152

nitr~te. interaction with hormones,

163 nitr.l[e rcdu(laSl'. induction. 86

nitrogen cont('n(, and growth rate,

215 nitrogen·fixing bact('ria. 209. 211 ~ mUCT!llllna, 322. 323. 327 nodulalion. and phytohormones. 164 nonmycorrhizal species. and

disruption of mycorrhizal infe.:tioll. 209

No!ho/agus. 143 Nuphur, \41.146 nurs,' plants. 39. 244, 280, 315. 319.

322. 362. 378 nutrient acquisition. 90. 99

Nuytsia. 92 Nyctaginaceae, 44. 47. 52. 271 t.ymphata. 141, 146

N. lotus, 47 Nymphal';l(eae. 46. 47. 135 Nymphal'all's. 135. 141. 144. 146.

149

Nymphloldts, 37 Nypu jruti(alt.!. 25, 53, 151

oblLpu.' Sft'ding. and fire. 270 Ochroma pymmldalt. 342 Odocoileus virginulI1us. 6

Otnolllml, 305 Oidiodtndron, 193 Old(.'T1lundia aJJinis. 151 O!~a I'UrQl'aea. 151 01eaecae. 36. 43. 44. 151.305 Onagraceae, 46. 305. 357 Ondulm ziberhicus. 268 Ononis rtptfIs. 212 Ophloglossum. liS

O. I'Ulgutum. 116 optimahty theory. 153 Opuntia labourrliallll. 43 Orchidilceae, 27. 42. 44. 79. 80, 98.

151. 210 and mycorrhizae. 193 and s~'cd size. 240

Orchis Sfmlu. 84 Orobanchac('al" 27. 46. 92. 95. 151 OroOOnclze

O. (lImana, 151 O. mmosa, 27, 151

Drolltium aqlULtic"um, 11 ~ut a/cr. and seed dispersal.

315 Otyza saliva. 151. 21t

and genelic stru(\uf(" 253 and phytnhormon('s, 168

I»lryu virginiana. 202 Onelill IIlismoidl'S. 121

Ox.alidaceae, 50 O~aIiJ hina. 50 OxybaphUI owuus. 47

INDEX 509

Pamysr.."gill ilt.!i.~is var. minor. 52 Pawnia. 120 Palllquium amboillCll5t, 19

1'"lt!lI<.t:Ilt:.139

1'all'Ozoic. 104. 107. 130. 131

P;llmal' (&e Arecaceae). 22. 37, 39. 42. 43. 14. 53. 75. 240

l'andanaC('iI('. 19 l'apaveraceOle. 36 Papilionilceae, 23. 48 parasitic fungi. 190 pa,dsilic plants. 27. 79. 91. 383

and phytohormolles. 165 l'assijlora macnxurpa. 47 l'assifloraceae.47 pathogenic microJxos. 209 pathogens. 65. 75. 142 P«1()("urytl rerur\,ufa. 3 18

Plodali:!c!'a!'. 45. 151 Ptdicularis furbishiat. 250 Ptla'l:onium pellalum. 151 M/in. 109

1'. ryiphylla. 110-11 Pt'llldml.34

1'. rlllzophorac. 51 Pelliciera(ea('. 34. 51 pelowns. 83, 193 }'elfandm virginica, 21, 28. 384 Penlliwlum. and seedling inhibition.

347

r. glaucum. 151 f'torIfacieehm nuuroIoba. 33 Ptntllxy!on, 141 f'tpmImia.25

pcrfonnance trade-offs. 342 p!.'ri~pcnn. 141. 149 I\>rmian. 106 rel'5ttl amt'liculla. 151 Pt'eullia hyltrida. 152 Ptucedallum salivom. 42 Phau!ia talWC1'ti/olia. 48 PlLalarU anmdirwcea, 28. 365.

36' and genetic structure. 253

Phan(,TOzoic. 104

/'harltlfis Ilil. 4. 151 /'haw us. 127

P. lunatus, 33. 151 P. vulgaris, 35, 46. 151

phcnotypic plasticity, 185 Phill·siaceae. 20

5 10 INDE X

n./Iodrndn:m. 21

Ph'" P pan/culata. 151

P. sttaua. 151

P'H.I(nix P. doc'ylifrro. 44 P. m:Unata. 151

PhollSll!a, 97

T'horodtndron densum, 92

photoinhibition, 67, 71. 344

phototrophic. 157. 158

phototropins. 158 PhrugmiltS ausrruli5. 151

Phyllotacrw strnoprtalus. 48

phyllomorph. 30

phylogeny. 7

of embryophytes. 106 and light environments. 285

physical damage. 73. 75. 179

Physopl(~us romoUl. 151

phytochrome. 156-8

five forms. 157 phytohormoncs. 150. 153. 156. 161.

164.376 dasS<'S. 153

and herbivory. 167

and mycorrhiZ3e. 165 and niche partitioning. 167

and phenotypic range. 166

and phYTochrome. 156

Tec<'ptors. 153

and restoration. 363

and root growth. 163 second mesSl·ngers. 153

and sign:ll transduction. 154

and symbi!)Se!;. 164

syn<,rg)' and antagonism. 166

photosynthesis. 26.34.60.127.144.

145. 158. 160-2. 173. 184. 186. 240. 290. 344, 377

PlWI, 119

P. obiN. 39 P. rngrlmannH. 383 P glaucQ, 259

P omorika. and genetic struClUT<'.

2S3 p. sitdltnsis. 26. 2()2

Pllta pumila. 27, 303, 383. 384

Pinact"lc. 26, 28. 36. 39. 42. 49.

SO. 117, lSI. 192. 193. 196.

197. 199.202.204.207.252.

256.257.292,297.341.350. 357,383

and genetic ~tru(ture. 253

Pingult1.lw, 88, 91

P alp/M. 91

P. vlUosa. 91

P. vulgariS. 91 Pinus. 111. 115. 117, 119. 120, 195,

205. 265, 269. 30S. 365 p, banksiana. 383

and genetic st ructlln'. 252. 253 P. cariba(o. and fOfest restoration.

350

P. ronlOl'la. 126.202. 206. 357 P. dcuijJora. 197

P. miMIt:I, 28

P_hal~s,49

P. komlmsi5. 126

P. lambrrttana. 268

P. mffi:usif. 49 P. muricllfa, 205

P. paluslm-, 269

P. pinost<"l". and gene tic structure.

253

P. pinta. 42. 151

P. pondmJSa. 257. 2&8

P. mtilala. 151 P rigido, 3. 27, 28

P Mrotirw, SO

p strobus. 42. 201. 202. 256

P. laeda. SO. 151. 169 Piper. 149,343

Piperac<.>ae. 25. 88. 343

Pip<.>rales. no /'Isonia

P. Immoniana. 52

P. 1000gfroslris. 52

Pislia. 20 Pisum, 23. 127

P. $IItivum. 43, 127. lSI

and phytohonnones. 168 PiICalrnla, 87

P. rorallina. 11

P. /Iammfa, 85. 89

l'ilhru!lobium P. pediullare, and genetic stnLcUlre.

253

P r1U'mW5"um. 51

Pithtoclrnium muigt'TUm. 174

l'ittospor.u:eae. 42. 49

Piltospotllm p. (fIIssijiXium. 42

p. molorrw, 42

P. ft'fTUgilltUm, 49

planerocoty!ar.23

Plantaginaceae. 43, 194.280.317.318

Plantago. 280

1': caUOSIi. 43

p.~. 31~ 318 P. Jarta'Ol£Lra, 194

I' patagOllica. 318

plaS[icity. 28. 153. 158

Aatysau dTTU.5<1. 47

Pltrtilo~um. 120 Pleurophyllum hoo~m, 19

Plumbaginaceae. 49. 51, IS1

f'lummo olba. 49

fua bulooUl. 319. 320

Poaceae. 20. 26. 28. 29, 44. 45, SO. 53.

55.73.122.151.2(18,211.244,

252.254.300.301.302.304.317,

318.319.347,356.364.365.366.

369

and genet ic s[rucrure. 253

Podocarpaceae. 42. III

Podophyllum rnwdl. 47

rodostemaceae. 30. 44. 47. 48 PbdoSlrnlum subularus, 48

Polemoniaceae,47

pollination, and seed size. 233

pollutants. and restor-lIion. 362

polyamines. as phytohormones, 156

pol)'t'mbryony. 30. 118. 119, 120

Polygonacea<-. 5, 29, 30. 43, 47, 53.

151. 271, 300. 328. 384 Polygonum. 7

P. arifolium. 7. 383. 384

P. bistorta. 25. 43. 47

P. bWortoidcs. 25. 43

P. hydropfper. 30 P. pnfoliarum, 300

P. punctarum. 5. 383, 384

I' splwuostamyum. 43

P. vlvIparum. 35

polymorphism. 29

polypeptide hormones. 154. 155

Polypleurum slylosum. 48 Polyrudidon, 80

Pontederiaceae. 28. 48

Populus, 18. 285

and phytohormones. 168

p. dfoltoidn. 152. 298

P. nigra. 152

P. simonff. 328

P: Irrmuloidts, 254. 383

Purrlla. 109 p, boUindtri. 110. 112

Portulacaceae. 112. 120

I\Jsfdonia austmHs. 18

Posidoniaceae. 18

Polrntllia reptclns. 47

}I:Ilhos, 20

/"rimula p dt'nliol!afo. 42

p. gIo.UctSCtrls. 151

P. sinensis. 48

P. vnis. 250 Primulaceae. 38. 42. 45. 47. 48. SO.

151. 250

I'robosddra ioulslanica. 45

Proechimys remlsplnosus. and seed

predation. 340

i'rosopis. 320 P. alpo:lflKl). 70

P ar:grnlina. 70

r. Jkxuosa. 69 r. glandulosa. 319

p. julifloru. 328 Proteaceae. 33. 48. 151. 190. 233. 363

and herbivory. 242

proteoid rootS. 163. 170

Protium Ja\'lllllcum. 49

protororm. SO. 81. 83. 85. 100. 1t4 f/l"1l1!us.23

P. otru'"l""ieano. 9. 23

P. iaurocm1$U$. 301

P. ptTlico. 151

I'. 5tTOfina. 243. 281 r. virgin/ono. 9, 23

pseudorhilomatous growth. 142, 145

Psntdotsugu. 198. 205

P. mrozlni!. 39. 151. 195. 196.

198--202. 204. 205

pseudovivipary, see also vivipary. 33.

" ~jlolllm. 107, 108

P.$itta{allthU$, 92. 94

Pldt:a trifollata. 36. 43

pteridophytes. 111

Prt:rOSporn. and mycorrhizae. 192

Pyroc:amha angustifolia. 244 l'ynIs rommullis. 151

I'yxldallfhn"u barbulata. 43

QlKrru.s. 25. 41. 45. 46. 187. 205. 206. , .. Q alba. 6. 202. 261. 298 Q berberidifolia. and transient seed

banks. 262

Q rllipsoitk$. 201

Q ilrx. 25. 33. 233

Q kdluggll, 257

Q lobata. 357 Q macrocarpa. 201

Q molltana. 201

Q oleoidfS. 27

Q P<'trata. 281 Q J7riIlLrS. and restor-IIion. 261. 367

Q mbur. 151

Q I1Ibm. 72. 201, 202. 204. 260,

261.367

Q suller. 51 Q IlIrbinata. 46

radicle. 5. 1:\, 18. 32. 85, 92, 1t8

Ranunrulaceae. 36. 42--4. 112. 240.

246. 280 I{aIlUIIOI!U$. 280

R. arwtlsis, 44

R..fiscatia, 36

R. hrd,'7llUU$. 43

Rap/lanW" wtiVU$. 151

Rapistrum rugosum. 302 Kauvo[/la St:Tpentinu. 151

Kavtllto musleaJis. 25, 53

~~innent, 239. 273. 342

among annuals. 240

and landscalX' patchiness. 312 and population dynamics, 248

among par.lsitic plants. 95

failure. 349. 374

nJexistenn.' among multiple

strategies. 236

strategies. 255 recruitml'nt limitation, 241, 245.

251.260.264,334.373

r<'generation. from detach('(1

mtyledons. 29

regeneration dynamics. 25~

regeneration nich<,. 131. 237, 255.

260. 274, 379 region scale. 279

rdative gTOWlh rate (RGR). 18. 63, 86.

128. 174. 176, 177, 220. 275, 283.

284. 291,30S decline, 176

and herbivolY. 242 and Sl'('(/ size. 177-8. 231

and seedling defens<,. 179. 181

and tissue density, 231

reproductive ml'span, definition. 218

resource allocation theory. 62

resource use. limitations related to si'l{',6

resprouting. 231. 270 Tl'Storation. 10. 326. 352

RGR, s~ relative growth r~te

Rhamnaceae. 272. 281

Rhalllnus

.It {ilfoort/ro. 281

R. fTOC~a. 262, 272

RIu'llm oJJitiMlt. 43. 47

Rhlpsalidopsls. 151 Rhilobia('eae, 211

Rhllobilllll. 244

INDEX 511

rhizoids, 18,81 Rhllophora. 34, SI. 69, 151

R. mangl~. 35. 162

Rhizophoraceae. 4. 34, 45. 51. 69, 151 RhllOJlOgOn. 195, 197,202,205. 206

rhilosphete. 27, 199

Rh()domyrtllS Ulll1tTlwsa. 48

Rhopalmtylis silpidil, 37

Rhus integnfolia. 271

Rhyncholatis llUICJ1)CarpG, 44

Rlbn.271

Rima. 108 RI(inU$ wllllllllnis. 49, 151

RipogrmuIII Kalldrns. 19. 53

risk reduction. 309

r-K spt'(:1:rum. 235, 309 RQhinia psurdoororia, 151

roots types,26

contractiil-.27

dropper roots. 28 exudates, 26

proleoid (cluster). 163. 170

""'" Rosa calliM. 278

R. rugOSiI, 280-2

Rosaceae. 9, 23. 47, 151,243.244,277,

278. 280-2, 284. 299. 301, 330

Rmfrurta.317 Rubia rordifolia, 44

I!.ubiaceae, 42. 44. 48, 52, 1SI. 185.

271. 272.303.347

Rubus. 299 R. frutirosU$, 151

ruder~l paleoherb hypothesis. 133.

134

Rull!tx R. autosa, ISI

R. palllstTiS, 151

RII$("hia spinasiI. 309

RU1'.lceae, 23. 26, 30. 36, 42, 43. 49.

152

Sabina VIllgaTis, 319. 328'

Sauharum, ~nd ~eedling inhibition.

347

5. a.ffidnarum. 211

5. spontalltuIII. 347

512 IND EX

safe sites, see also microsites, 6, 7,

38, 40, 245, 255, 280, 360,

379 filters. 7. 8

and n''Storation, 359

SagitWrUI

S. lali[olla. 36. 47 S sagitti!ollQ, 47

Sa/ariopsis ingi/trU. 53 SalicaC('ae.4. IS. 152. 193, 195.204.

lO5. 25-4. 263. 285. 298. 319,

32S.383 SalirornlQ

S. doIichosfQchya. SS

S. rumptltQ. 55

salicylk acid SA. 154. 169

salinity. 68

Sali~. 4. 195. 2S5

S. nigra. 263

S. psaml1lllph1!a, 319, 328

S. Il.'inil, 201. 203, 204, 207

SalsolQ.317

S. hili. 366

S. pald.zlclana. 328

salt deserts. 68 salt marshes, 68

Sa/vi<:!

S. apilllUl. 272

S. lawmdulifolill. and fadUtating

T('storation.365

S. kucophyllQ. 272

S. IfU"Di/t'f"Il. 271 S. milt/armful, 151

Samanta 5Qmall. 50

Samlnlrus lIigro. 278

Sullsll.'Wlia. 20

Sallfalac('a('.92

Sapium ~l1ifel"Um, 297, 302

Sapotaceae. 25, 37. 42, 43, 45. 49

Sarmndm. 141

S. Klabro. 143

Sarroot'S. and my(orrhizill·. 192

SurropotlTlum spillOJum. 330

SarTllullia. 88. 90

S. alutQ, 90

S. pUrpilll.'Q, 88. 90

Sarraceniaceae. 49, 88

Saxifiugll umua. 35

Saximg'l(:"ea('. 35. 47

SdJrjJ1nu morolOlonl. 347

Schtidtll diJJusa. 52 Schisandl11. 144

S. eftinmsis, 143, 144

S. glQbra. 144

Schis.andraC('ae. 135, 142

Sdzismus.317

S. barbarus. 318

Schlumbnyru. 151

Sdunts caro/inmili. 6

Srrophularta aqualica. 38

Scrophulariac('a('. 4. 5. 27, 2S, 38. 4],

45,53,72,92, 152, 250, 271,

2S2. 284

SruttUasporo. and facilitating

I"Clitoration. 366

seagr.lsses, 4. 35. 39

Sf/lacina. 193 Sebacinacea('.84

Stcalt r<"ll.'<llt. 151

Stchium tdult, 53

sedges. 10. 36

seed

dimorphic 29 heteromorphism, 30

maternal reselVeS, 18, 24, 175,

332

reserve utilization. 173

Sl'1.>d b.lnks. 3. 142. 360. 364

in dl'Serts. 315 dormant, 270

dynamics, 5

and forest lianas. 336

persistent,S. 230. 256

and restoration. 359. 369 and k'1.>d sil(" 5. 229

and seedling banks, 382

and soil di5turbance, 337

lr.Insient. 5. 262, 375

seed donnan<y. 66, 118. 123. 125 ml'(.·hanislIl.'l. 125

morpbologkal. 118 morphophysiological, 118

physiological, 119

seed babit. selective adv.mtages, 126

seed limitation. see also recruitment

limitation and dispersal

limitation, 246. 247. 349. 352.

381

and disturoan("(', 334

as a part of recruitment

limitation, 245

on large scales, 247

seed mass. see seed size

Sl'<.'d numberfseedling survival

t .... .Idwff. see also seed size/seed

number trade-off. 219. 233 seed predation. and restoration see

also heroiyory, 367

seed production. lifetime

reproduction and Sl-ro number.

223

s~'('(] n..'S<'rn..'S . ('nergy and nitrogen, 173,176

seed size, 8. 20. 61. 65. 72. 76. 99.

132, 135. 136. 139. 145. 146.217. 21S. 275, 283. 288, 371

<lcr05S all species, 217

and allocation patterns, 172, 177,

179. 181

in basal angiospemu. 136

and biomes, 287

and cotyledon photosynthesis. 230

evolution. 138-41 and gap pioneers, 343

and growth r;lIes, 177.231

heritability,233

and initial seedling size. 234

and life history traits, 227 and lifetime reprod\\l·tion. 223

and nitrogen addition, 63

and plant size, 223

rt'lationship to seedling mass, 176

and RGR. 174. 176-8. 180

and reselVe dependency. 173-5. 179-82, 184, 187, 188

and survival. including lat(,f stage.

220. 221. 222,225,234,28J

varia tion within species, 233. Z34

seed size/number trade-off. 220. 224,

247.248

within species, 234

seedling conservatiW,7. 178, 179

d('finition. 6. 17-18, 142, 218, 276

and desert patch formation, 320

development. 18

dispersal by water. 37

end of stage, 18

epilleaJ. 8, 9. 18, 19. 23 first lcavl'S. 26

fugitivc.7

runnional ty!>"S, 9, 20. 13, 201

general lSls.7

growth patterns. 31

h;erbivore defense. 26

bypogeal, 9, 18. 19. 23 internlpted growth, 31

morphology. 23, 24 .

opportunist ic 7, 178-81. 184,

186-8

palatibility,33 roots, 26-7

specialists. 7

storage. 20. 21. 27. 28. 36. 39. 40

strt-·ss tokrator. 7

surfacl' features, 25

vulnerabilities, 12

dependence on mineral elemenls.

173

dependence on reserves. 173. 174

tradl"OfT among defensl's, 182

variation in morphology, 276

variation in size, 276

seedling banks, 36. 297. 375

types, 282. 381

seedling dormanq', 32, 160

;md dehydrin proteins, 160

and phytohorrnones, 160

seedling cquivalenL~, 33, 35, 181

seedling establishment,S

and speci<llized seed beds. 363

seedling org;ms, longevity. 36

seedling size and herbivory, 241

and light environments, 283

seedling stage, 17, 18. 38, 40

length under selection, 297

seedling survival (See mort31ity l'auSt's), 84, 86. 90, 92, 172. 178.

179, 181-5, 188, 209. 211

of orchids, 84

sources of mortality, 19

and growth ratl'S. 178

and miuohabitals. 290

and sc..-d dormancy, 230

and seed size, 226

to reproductive maturity, 225, 227

turnover, 266

seedling traits. and adult traits. 232

sl ........ l·sl .... -dling conflicts, 40

SelagineUa, 114

S. i:raussiana, 114 S. rrulrtensii. 113. 114

Selaginellales. 106. 113

semelparous, 249

Senecio

S. johnstonii. 31

S. pulcher, 45

S. vulgaris, 48

shade adaptation, small seeds as, 140

sh;lde tolerance, 185

Shcramia arvrnsis, 44 Shorea, 46

S. 1eprosula, 37

shrublands

and facilitating restoration, 364.

365

restoring Medi terranean scrub, 368

Sida carpiniIol/a, 31

Sidemxylon tomCTl/osum, 43

Silene alba, 286 Silurian, 106, 107, 114

Simaroubaceae. 297

Simmond.l'la minen5is, 152

Simmondsiaceae, 152

skototropil' movement, 158

SlA, sce also specific leaf area, 178,

181,184

Smilacaceae, 19. S3

Smith and Fretwell model. 218. 219,

233

Socratro,43

S. e~()fThiza, 75 soils, infertile, 175

Solanaceae, 28. 43, 152. 155.272.315

Solanum. 272

S. khaslunum, 152 S, lycopt'TSirum, 152, 155, 168

S. rubt'T"(lsum, 152, 155

Sorghum "Ieolor, 26. 50, 151, 253

Spurtina S, ulterniJ1ara, 254. 300

S. 1t'fSicolor, 55

spatial scale, 278

species richness. 310

specific leaf area SLA. 63, 178. 275.

285.290.291,377

and herbivory, 242

specific leaf mass, 63

specific root length, 63

spermatophytes, 107

Sphagnaceae. 110

Sphu~um, 112.362

S. subsmmdum, 110. 112

SpirodfJa. 151

spores

dispersal, 206. 341

dispersal facilitating restoration.

367

dormant fungal spore bank, 205

of mYl'orrhizal flmgi. 205

Stachys sid'oidH, 151

Ste!!aria longipes, 151

stems, modified, 27

Sterculiaceae, 26, 152

Stipa. 319

S. capensis. 318

Slip..grvstis, 319. 320

StirJingia laliIolia, 33

INDEX 5 13

strategies. see also r·K continuum, SlK('essional species

conservative, 179, 180. 187

opportunistic, 179, 180. 186

stratification, 71. 368

Stmtiote~. 46 S. aloides. 44

.')1","lus usper-, 44. -4 9

Slreptocatpus, 30, 47

S. dunnii, 42

S. rexii, 42

stresses. habitat. 6

Striga. 27. 95. 96

S. a5ialica, 96

StryphnooCTldroll microstachyum, 348

Stylidiaceae, 36, 44

Stylidium adnarum, 36, 44

Suaeda, 317

S. maritima. 69

S. mVllOica, 151

succession, and restoration, 353, 357,

3M

successional species, see also r-K

continuum, stra tegies. 61

sugars, as phytohormone signals,

164

SuiHus, 197,202. 206

sulVival, sce seedling survival

Swetia perennis, 233

Swirtrnia, 348

~)'IIlbiot:ic fungus, 81

sympodial growth habit, 135. 142

Ta"'-'''uia rosea, 174 Tamaricaceae. 49, 298

Tamarix mmosis~ima. 298

Tamxarum hamatlfonnl". 29

Tax;Keae, 9. 36. 42. 244

Taxodial"{"le. 26, 28. 42

Taxooium disrichum, 28

Taxus, 36

T. bacmta. 9. 244

temperature stress (See thermal

extremes). 308, 316. 329. 344,

36S

Tenninuliu mrgulocutp1<. 42

Tertiary. 113

Thdlassw:, 4

T. hemprichii, 55

ThaUassoorndron T. cilia turn. 55

.[ pachyrhlzurn. 55 ThcolmJma cacao, 152

11lCophrastaceae, 31

51-4 IND EX

thermal extreml"S 1St.- tempcrarure Stress). 161. 308

thigmotropism. 93. 97 Thuja

T. ooidmtaHs. 3-41. 363

1. p/fmla. 198, 199.202 Thymda~1I hinuw. 323, 327. 330 Thymf.'laeaceat'. 323 TiUandsla

r. dmnnala. 87 1. daryliriJolla. 81 1. pauoJoIiIl. 86. 87

Tillandsioideae. 85 TIpulllria. 80

1: dlsrolor. 81. 84. 89 T~jplni5. 107. \08 ToIumnla mritgala. S4

Toona slnrnsis. 49 TOTTt)'Il myristica, 9

Toxirodtndron pubnctTl5. 6 Toui'a, 96 trarheophytes. 106. 108. 109 trdde-offs. 12

between growth and survival. 178.

119. 181 Tmpa natans, 29. 42 Tr.!p;lceae. 29. 42 Tmna, 3-42

1. micmnfha. 343 Trlcholoma mamuake. 197

Trifolium rqJmS. 151,212 TriUium gnzndiflorum. 32 Trilllt'nla. 137. 142

T. moorri. 143 1. papuaM. 142. H5

Trimeniaceae. 135 Triphysaria \'m'icolor, 96. 152 T"nsterix. 94 Tristichaceae.3O Trilhurta. 143 Trlfimm. 26. 50

1. atsfivum. 122. 151,253 Triuridaceae, 98 Troll/us ledtoourl. 44 tropical forests. 172. 178. 179. 185

Tsu.~. 205

and advanced regeneration. 262 1. canadrnsis, 201. 202. 257. 341 1. htmuphylla. 199. 201. 202

Tubn'. 205 TulmMla. 193 Tulipa. 27. 47 l"ussilagl> farfam. 47

Typha.37 1: domlngtnris. 69. 70 T IlIrifnlla. 5. 152. 384

Typhacl'ae. 5. 37. 69. 152. 384

Ulmaceae. 31. 152 Ulmus

U. qjuS{!. 31 U. glabra. 152

U10cladium atrum. 304

unit il'af ratio ULR. 291 Urtica dlolca. SO

Urticaceae. 27. SO. 303. 347,

3" Utrirularla. SO, 88. 89. 90

U. gmziniScapa. 42

U. Ill"lumbijiJlia. S4 U. renijhrmis. 54 U. radiata. 92

U . .ttr1olula. 89 U. 5ul7ulaUl. 90

Valeriana gluhomifolla. 152

Vall'rianaceae. 152 Vallisnerla. 48

v: americana. 151 V<'Tbasrum. 4 V..rorna oJJirinalis. 43 Verbl'naceae. 26. 43 Veronica pert'grina. 282 V/cia. 23

V. faba. 151 Vigna radialll, 151 Viola palus/rn. 47

Violaceae.47 Viscaceae. 92. 95 viscin.94 V(smia, and tropical p;lstures.

347

Vitaceae. 152 Vllellaria panuloxa. 42 Vilex VUbtscms. 26 Vltis vinifom. 152 vivipary, see also cryptovivipary. 4.

25.33,34.68,69. 169

Vn(St'1l V. gmirulata. 87 V. hi.-roglyphlca. 86 V. S{!ngu/nolenta. 86. 87 V. sealarn. 85

Washingronia Jlhft'lll, 44

w~tcrlogging, 252

WtJ"itscl!w. 118 W mirabilis. 31. 36. 152

Welwitl;chiaceae. 31. 152 wetlands. and restoration. 358 Winteraceae. 132

Wolflill. 31 woody magnoliid hypothesis. 132,

>3. wound n-sponse. 162

Xanthlllm strumanum. 4, 6

XamhoniLota. and excluding grazers during restOration. 367

X. IlllstmJiS. 27 X. gracilis. 367 X. prriSil. 367

Xantborrhoeaceae, 27. 367

Xanlhosomll.21 X. S{!gittifollum, 151

Yucca. 316. 320

Zamill. 108.115,118 Z. pumila. 117

Zamiaceae. 44 Zannichellia(('ae. 38 Zantedtsd!w atthloplca. 151 Zantlwxylum slI'nophylJllm. 152 Zta mars. 151, 168

and phytohormones. 168 mutants and phytohormone

function. 168 ZilIa myugroldes. 42 Zlnnla tlrgans. 151 Zizania. 28 zonation. 70 7.ostt'lll. 35 Zosteraceae. 20. 35

z~m'rophylJophytes, 106 Zygomycota. 193 lygophyllaceae, 318