THERMAL COMFORT ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS IN

STONE TOWN AND NG’AMBO, ZANZIBAR

MANDA KAKAIRE

B02/35950/2010

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING SCIENCE

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DEDICATION

To Late Dad, Mom & Kenny

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DECLARATION

This thesis is my original work and to the best of my knowledge has not been presented for the award of a degree in the

University of Nairobi or any other institution. The thesis is submitted in part fulfilment of the examination requirements for

the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree, Department of Architecture & Building Science, University of Nairobi.

Chairman, Department of Architecture & Building Science,

University Of Nairobi.

Arch. Musau Kimeu

Signature.......................................Date...............................................

Author: Manda Kelvin Kakaire

Signature............................Date.............................

Tutor: Arch. Musau Kimeu

Signature...........................................Date..............................................

Year Master: Prof. T.J.C. Anyamba

Signature...........................................Date..............................................

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Most of all, I would like to thank the Almighty God, the Supreme architect of life for his sufficient grace and for giving me the strength, ability and passion to un-

dertake this study.

To my late dad, Arch. H. G Manda, for your support, advice, belief and for being such an inspiration. It is only my wish you would be here to witness this mile-

stone. To my mum, many are the times you have been up late with me in this architectural journey. Most of all I thank you for your sacrifices and the love and for

simply being the best mum. To my brother Ken, thank you for your support and for looking up to me.

To my aunties; Aunt Kate, Aunt Lillian, Aunt Mary thank you for the prayers and the support and for being simply the best aunties.

To my cousins; Patricia, Roselyn, Lucy, Winnie, Ngari, my appreciation for your continuous support and of course for being the best cousins.

To my tutor, Arch. Musau Kimeu and Chairman of Architecture Department and Building Science, thank you for your insights, guidance and being an inspiration.

To all lecturers, Department of Architecture and Building Sciences: Professor T. C. Anyamba, Professor Robert Rukwaro, Professor J.Magutu, Arch. Erastus

Abonyo, Arch. Yusuf Ebrahim, Arch. Adnan Mwakulomba, Arch. Eliud Liku, Arch. Allan Otieno. Arch. Kigara, Arch. Norbert Musyoki, Arch. Mahinda, Des.

Kahare Miano, Dr. Shihebetsa, Arch. Kamenju and all whom I did not mention, thank you for the assistance and for seeing me to the final lap.

For my study, I appreciate the Stone Town Conservation and Development Authority office (STCDA) for its help in accessing the various case studies in Zanzibar.

In particular, I thank the Director, Issa Makarani, for taking his time to help me grasp the history of Zanzibar and access drawings for selected buildings of study.

To Muumin, thank you so very much for taking your time to assist in carrying out the fieldwork for this study and of course the bike rides were refreshing. To Bi.

Madina, Bi. Asha, Bi. Sabiha, Bi. Mafunda, Rashid and Saidi I say thank you for all the assistance accorded.

To acquaintances in the academic circles, George, Charles, Ojijo, Kerubo, Karigu, Gloria, Belinda, Magdalene and Mandela and all my classmates, its has been a

wonderful six years and it has been a pleasure knowing you all. I have immensely benefited from the discourses we have had over the years and in a way or the oth-

er shaped my thoughts in architecture. Thank you.

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Table of Contents

Declaration………………………………………………………………………………………….iii

Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………...iv

Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………………………….v

List of figures……………………………………………………………………………………….vii

List of tables ……………………………………………………………………………………….xi

List of graphs ……………………………………………………………………………………...xi

List of Terminologies…………………………………………………………………………..xii

1.1 Background Study……………………………………………………………………..3

1.2 Problem statement…………………………………………………………………….5

1.3 Aims and Objectives……………………………………………………………………6

1.4 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………7

1.5 Scope and Limitations…………………………………………………………………7

1.6 Justification of Study………………………………………………………………….7

1.7 Significance of Study…………………………………………………………………..8

1.8 Research Methodology………………………………………………………………..8

1.9 Structure of the Research Paper………………………………………………12

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: THE SWAHILI COAST CHAPTER TWO: THE SWAHILI COAST

CHAPTER THREE: WARM HUMID CLIMATE DESIGN

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...15

2.1 The Swahili Coast (Brief Historical Overview)…………………………………..15

2.1.1 Swahili Coastal Major Towns………………………………………………………..19

i. Mogadishu………………………………………………………………………………….19 ii. Lamu…………………………………………………………………………………………..19 iii. Mombasa …………………………………………………………………………………..20 iv. Kilwa…………………………………………………………………………………………..21 v. Zanzibar……………………………………………………………………………………..21

2.2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….22 2.2.2 Eras of Zanzibar Development…………………………………………………………………….25

2.2 Zanzibar…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22

i. Portuguese Period (16th-17th Century)……………………………………………………..25 ii. Omani Period (18th-19th Century)……………………………………………………………..26 iii. British Period (1870-1963)……………………………………………………………………...27 iv. Post Revolution of 1964…………………………………………………………………………...28

2.3 Architecture of Stone Town………………………………………………………………………...30 2.3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….30 2.3.1 Town Structure and Planning………………………………………………………...31 2.3.2 Street Character…………………………………………………………………………….33 2.3.3 Stone Town Houses………………………………………………………………………..35

i. Omani House……………………………………………………………………………………………..35 ii. India Shopfront building…………………………………………………………………………...37 iii. Swahili House…………………………………………………………………………………………...39

iv. Musafarkhanas (Caravan Serai)………………………………………………………..40 2.4 Architecture of Ng'ambo …………………………………………………………………………….41 2.4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….41 2.4.1 Town Structure and Planning………………………………………………………...42 2.4.2 Street Character…………………………………………………………………………….43 2.4.3 Ng'ambo Houses……………………………………………………………………………..44

i. Vibanda house……………………………………………………………………………………………44 ii. Mtomo house……………………………………………………………………………………………..44 iii. Swahili House…………………………………………………………………………………………….45

iv. Plattenbauten…………………………………………………………………………………………….46 2.5 Summary of Architecture of Stone Town and Ng'ambo …………………………..47

3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….49 3.2 Physiological Thermal Requirements………………………………………………………….50 3.3 Thermal Comfort Analysis…………………………………………………………………………...51 2.3.0 Bioclimatic & Psychometric Chart Analysis………………………………...52 2.3.1 Mahoney Table Recommendations ……………………………………………….53 3.4 Scholarly Review………………………………………………………………………………………….54 3.4.1 Otto Koenigsberger………………………………………………………………………..54 3.4.2 Steven Szokolay …………………………………………………………………………….55 3.4.3 Charles Hooper……………………………………………………………………………...55

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Table of Contents

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 3.5 Common Building Materials in Zanzibar……………………………………………………….57

4.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….63 4.1 Research Design…………………………………………………………………………………………..63 4.2 Research Strategy………………………………………………………………………………………..65 4.3 Sampling Design……………………………………………………………………………………………65 4.4 Overall Demographics of the Study…………………………………………………………….67 4.5 Field Study Area…………………………………………………………………………………………...67 4.6 Data Sources………………………………………………………………………………………………..70 4.7 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………………………...71 4.8 Data Presentation ………………………………………………………………………………………..71

CHAPTER FIVE: CASE STUDIES

5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….73 5.2 The Case of Zanzibar Stone Town……………………………………………………………….74 5.2.1 Urban Planning………………………………………………………………………………..75 5.2.2 Street Character………………………………………………………………………….…76 5.3.3 Unit Design……………………………………………………………………………………...79

i. STCDA Office…………………………………………………………………………………...79 ii. Malindi Caravan Serai…………………………………………………………………….83 iii. Bi. Nassor Residence………………………………………………………………………87 iv. Bw. Saleh Residence ………………………………………………………………..90

5.3 The Case of Ng'ambo, Zanzibar …………………………………………………………………..92 5.3.1 Urban Planning………………………………………………………………………………..93 5.3.2 Street Character…………………………………………………………………………….94 5.3.3 Unit Design……………………………………………………………………………………...97

i. Michenzani Apartment Block 1………………………………………………………..97 5.4 Comparative Analysis of Stone Town & Ng'ambo ……………………………………...102 5.4.1 Comparison of Urban Planning……………………………………………………...102 5.4.2 Comparison of Street Character ………………………………………………….103 5.4.3 Comparison of Case Studies………………………………………….……………….105

6.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………...107 6.1 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………….107 6.1.1 Chapters Summary………………………………………………………………………………..107 6.1.2 Response to Aims & Objectives……………………………………………………………..110 6.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………….112 6.2.1 Urban Planning & Street Design…………………………………………………………...112 6.2.2 Unit Design…………………………………………………………………………………………….113 6.2.3 Adaptive Living………………………………………………………………………………………..115 6.2.4 Natural Dehumidification……………………………………………………………………….115 6.3 Further Research

7.0 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………….xii

8.0 APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………………………………………...xiii

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List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Map showing the towns along East Afr ican Coast………………………3 Fig. 1.2 Gereza, Kilwa For t, 2011 …………………………………………………3 Fig. 1.3 Image showing map Zanzibar island on the map………………………..4 Fig. 1.4 Image showing location of Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo……….4 Fig. 1.5 Picture showing image of Sultan Sayyid Said of Zanzibar ………………………..5 Fig. 1.6 Histor ic picture of the Creek that separated Stone Town from Ng'ambo……... ..5 Fig. 1.7 Image showing the aer ial view of Stone Town……………………………………...6. Fig. 1.8 Image showing a panoramic view of the seafront of Zanzibar Stone Town……...6

Fig. 1.9 Image showing aer ial view of Michenzani apar tments………………….7 Fig. 1.10 Men at a baraza along Karume Road in Ng'ambo………………………..7 Fig. 1.11 Image showing the restored Old Dispensary building in Zanzibar …...8 Fig. 1.12 Image showing the Sultans palace in Zanzibar in 1893……………….8 Fig. 1.13 Image showing trade winds in the Indian Ocean……………………....9 Fig. 1.14 and 1.15 Images showing Dhows in the Indian Ocean…………………...10 Fig. 1.16 Image showing carved centre post for a Zanzibar door ……………….11 Fig. 1.17 Map showing extent of Swahili coast……………………………………12 Fig. 1.18 Image showing the seafront of Moroni, Comoros Islands……………..12 Fig. 1.19 Image of a house on stilts for warm humid climate……………………13 Fig. 1.20 Image showing a digital data logger to be used fieldwork……………..13

CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER TWO

Fig. 2.1 Image showing the map of East Afr ican coastal city-states…………..15 Fig. 2.2 Image showing slaves with ivory in Zanzibar ………………………….16 Fig. 2.3 Image showing a merchant dhow on the Indian Ocean……………….16 Fig. 2.4 Image showing the map of the Indian Ocean tr ade……………………16 Fig. 2.5 Image of the Great Mosque of Kilwa Kisiwani ………………………………….17

Fig. 2.6 Image showing For t Jesus in Old Town, Mombasa…………………..17 Fig. 2.7 Image showing Tippu Tip, a colonial officer & some Arabs ………...18 Fig. 2.8 image showing the construction of the Kenya-Uganda Railway………18 Fig. 2.9 Image showing the carved detail of Arab door ………………………...19 Fig. 2.10 image showing the construction of the Kenya-Uganda Railway……..19 Fig. 2.11 Map of Lamu Archipelago ……………………………………………20 Fig. 2.12 Map of Lamu Archipelago …………………………………………...20 Fig. 2.13 Image showing the map of Old Town of Lamu. ……………………..20 Fig. 2.14 A dhow sails off the shore of Mombasa circa early 1920’s……………21 Fig. 2.15 Image showing the For t of Kilwa in Tanzania ……………………….21 Fig. 2.16 Image showing slave trade memorial site in Stone Town Zanzibar …22 Fig. 2.17 Image showing an ear ly painting of Zanzibar harbour ……………...22 Fig. 2.18 Map showing trade routes between the Swahili coast,

Arabia and India…………………………………………………………... 23

Fig. 2.19 The Kizimkazi Mosque on southern tip of the island of Zanzibar….24

Fig. 2.20 Image of the Br itish Consulate at Zanzibar from an 1872 pr int…….24 Fig. 2.21 Image showing the route followed in Vasco da Gama's fir st voyage (1497–1499) ……………………………………………………………….25 Fig. 2.22 Image showing 1838 painting depicting Vasco da Gama…………….25

Fig. 2.23 Antique photo with three ar med men in Zanzibar wear ing robes and Saidi Khanjars typically worn by the Omani officials……………………………….26

Fig. 2.24 Sultan Of Zanzibar and British Consul, 1960. ………………………………………...27 Fig. 2.25 Image showing the Seyyidieh Market in Stone Town Zanzibar ……………………27 Fig. 2.26 Image showing an ear ly photo of John Okello and other freedom fighters……….28 Fig. 2.27 Image showing floral carving on Zanzibar Door …………………………………...29 Fig. 2.28 Image showing intr icately carved Punjabi Door …………………………………...29 Fig. 2.29 Image showing statue commemorating slave trade in Zanzibar …………………...29 Fig. 2.30 Image showing the Beit el Amani building in southern Stone Town, before and after renovation and restoration in 2012……………………………………...30 Fig. 2.31 A sketch plan of Zanzibar based on Captain Char les Guillain’s map of 1846…….31 Fig. 2.32Map of Stone Town showing the mitaa ………………………………………………32 Fig. 2.33 Image showing the street network of Malindi ward of Stone Town ………………32 Fig. 2.34 Image showing the buildings of Vuga highlighted r ather than the streets………...32 Fig. 2.35 Image showing Stone Town map with major circulation highlighted……………..33 Fig. 2.36 Image showing Punjabi door in Zanzibar . …………………………………………34 Fig. 2.37 Image showing Omani door in Zanzibar . …………………………………………..34 Fig. 2.38 Image of a typical window in Zanzibar ……………………………………………..34 Fig. 2.39 Image showing detail of Zanzibar balcony …………………………………………34 Fig. 2.40 Image showing the central cour tyard of STCDA offices an example of the Omani house in Stone Town……………………………………………..35 Fig. 2.41 Image showing the façade of the Omani house with the tall shutter windows……35 Fig. 2.42 A drawing of the entry reception of an Arab house ……………………………….36 Fig. 2.43 Image showing the floor plan of a n Arab house in Kajificheni, Stone Town…….36 Fig. 2.44 Image showing the elevation of the STCDA offices that is an example of the Arab house………………………………………………………………………..36 Fig. 2.45 Image showing the ground floor plan of three Indian Shopfront buildings in Stone Town…………………………………………………………………………….37 Fig. 2.46 Image showing an elevation of three Indian Shopfront . …………………………...37 Fig. 2.47 Decorative balcony on an Indian influenced building in Old Town Mombasa…..38 Fig. 2.48 Intr icately carved balcony at an Indian influenced house in Stone Town ………...38 Fig. 2.50 Image showing a wood decorative carvings der ived from Indian shopfront models. ………………………………………………………………...38 Fig. 2.49 Image showing a pen and ink sketch by John Da Silva of an enclosed balcony of an Indian Shopfront building………………………………………………...38

Fig. 2.51 The ground floor of a traditional Lamu stone house………………………….39 Fig. 2.52 Elevation of contemporary Swahili house in Stone Town. …………………..39 Fig. 2.53 The ground floor of contemporary Swahili house in Stone Town. …………..39 Fig. 2.54 Image showing the inter ior cour tyard of the Malindi Caravan Serai. …………...40 Fig. 2.55 Image showing the entry of the Malindi Caravan Serai……………………………40 Fig. 2.56 Image showing the ground floor of the Kiponda Caravan Serai ………………….40 Fig. 2.57 Image showing the ground floor plan of Malindi caravan serai. …………………40 Fig. 2.58 An aer ial picture of both Ng'ambo and Stone Town. ………………………………41 Fig. 2.59 An aer ial picture of Ng'ambo taken in 1977 ………………………………………..42 Fig. 2.60 Image showing a winding street in Ng'ambo ………………………………………43

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Fig. 2.61 Image showing a Karume road in Ng'ambo……………………………...43 Fig. 2.62 Image showing men installing makuti roof……………………………….44 Fig. 2.63 Image showing a Mtomo house in r emote Zanzibar ……………………..44 Fig. 2.64 image showing a Swahili House in Ng'ambo…………………………….45 Fig. 2.65 Image showing the elevation of a Swahili House…………………………45 Fig. 2.66 Image showing the floor plan of a Swahili house,………………………..45 Fig. 2.67 image showing Aer ial photo of plattenbatten/Michenzani apar tments...46

Fig. 3.30 Image showing a Mtomo house in Zanzibar with mud walling ……………………60 Fig. 3.31 Image showing the Michenzani apar tment done in precast concrete …………….60 Fig. 3.32 Image showing extensive use of corrugated iron sheets on Ng'ambo buildings …..60 Fig. 3.23 Image showing use of metals for balustrades and window burglar -proofing …….61

CHAPTER THREE

Fig. 3.1. Illustration of the effect of wind speed on evapotranspiration in hot-dry and humid-warm weather conditions ……………………………...49 Fig. 3.2. Typical section of a Malay house in the warm humid climate ………….49 Fig. 3.3. Image showing world climatic zones………………………………………49 Fig. 3.4 The four modes of heat exchange between man and the environment….50 Fig. 3.5 Radiant heat transfer with surrounding surfaces………………………...50 Fig. 3.6 Heat exchange of the human body…………………………………………51

Fig. 3.8 Heat exchange of the human body…………………………………………51 Fig. 3.9 Image showing or ientation of buildings with the long axis on East - West direction. …………………………………………………………52 Fig. 3.10 Image showing spread out building layout………………………………52 Fig. 3.11 Image showing single banked rooms for ease of air movement………..52 Fig. 3.12 Image showing the ground floor plan of the former r esidence of Sultans family, now STDCA offices………………………………………….53 Fig. 3.13 Image showing a section of the former residence of Sultans family, now STDCA offices. …………………………………………………………53 Fig. 3.14 Image showing a thatch roof on a Mtomo house in Zanzibar ………….53 Fig. 3.16 Image showing mabati roofing on buildings in Ng'ambo ……………..53 Fig. 3.17 Image showing concrete flat roof plattenbatten/ Michenzani apartments ……………………………………………………….53 Fig. 3.18 Image showing cross ventilation on a traditional Malay house. ……….54 Fig. 3.19 Image showing the traditional Malay house on stilts. …………………..54 Fig. 3.20 Image showing a typical house for the warm humid climate as illustrated by Steven Szokolay……………………………………………..55 Fig. 3.21 Image showing a hybr id house as proposed by Steven Szokolay. ……...55 Fig. 3.22 A house on stilts in Papua New Guinea exper iences

warm and humid climate ……………………………………………………...56

Fig. 3.23 Image showing how lime plaster allows moisture to evaporate ……….57

Fig. 3.24 Image showing the porous nature of lime used in plaster ……………...57

Fig. 3.25 Image showing the effects of using cement plaster as opposed

to lime plaster………………………………………………………………….58

Fig. 3.26 Image showing the lime cycle from extraction to utility………………....58

Fig. 3.27 Image showing a coral rag wall in a building in Stone Town Zanzibar ..59

Fig. 3.28 Image showing use of boriti poles to suppor t floor slabs in .

STCDA Office building ………………………………………………………59

Fig. 3.29 Image showing of a cantilevered balcony in Zanzibar Stone Town

constructed using timber ……………………………………………………...59

CHAPTER FOUR

Fig. 4.5 Image showing the Karume Road . ……………………………………………………63 Fig. 4.2 Image showing the Caravan Serai studied in Stone Town …………………………..63 Fig. 4.3 Image showing research assistants in the Caravan Serai …………………………….63 Fig. 4.4 Image showing Michenzani Apar tment Block 1 studied by the author in Ng'ambo.. 65 Fig. 4.5 Image showing the Karume Road …………………………………………………….65 Fig. 4.6 Image showing the HOBO data logger mounted on a wall in Bi. Nassor residence... 66 Fig. 4.7 Sketches of Sections through the Caravan Serai building in Malindi, Stone Town..66 Fig. 4.8 Image showing Sokomuhogo str eet dur ing the morning hours. ……………………..67 Fig. 4.9 Sokomuhogo str eet character sketches done dur ing fieldwork. ……………………..67 Fig. 4.10 Image showing the author car rying out studies at Bi. Nassor residence …………..68 Fig. 4.11 Sketch of STCDA floor plan done dur ing fieldwork ………………………………..68 Fig. 4.12 (a) The studied buildings and street in Stone Town………………………………….69 Fig. 4.13 ( a) The studied building and street in Ng'ambo ……………………………………69 Fig. 4.14 Image showing a digital camera used for fieldwork ………………………………...70 Fig. 4.15 Image showing the tape measure used for fieldwork ………………………………..70 Fig. 4.16 Image showing HOBO data logger used for r ecording temperature and Relative Humidity readings …………………………………………………………70 Fig. 4.17 Image showing the HOBO data logger mounted on a wall in STCDA office building …………………………………………………………………...71 Fig. 4.18 Image showing graphs obtained from the HOBO data loggers for temperature and relative humidity readings …………………………………………..71

CHAPTER FIVE

Fig. 5.1 Image showing the author studying Bi. Nassor residence in Stone Town……………73 Fig. 5.2 Image showing Karume road in Ng'ambo. The str eet was identified for study……..73 Fig. 5.3 Image showing the seafront Stone Town, Zanzibar …………………………………..73 Fig. 5.4 Image showing the studied street and buildings in Stone Town, Zanzibar ………….74 Fig5.5 Image showing the studied str eet and building in Ng'ambo, Zanzibar . ……………..75 Fig. 5.6 1982 Map Showing Stone Town wards or mitaa. . ………………………………………75 Fig. 5.7 Map showing the house densities in Stone Town ……………………………………75 5.8 Map showing the circulation in Stone Town ………………………………………………..75 Fig. 5.9 Map showing the house densities of Vuga area in Stone Town . ……………………75 Fig. 5.10 Map showing the house densities of Vuga area in Stone Town ……………………75 Fig5.11 The public space behind the Old for t to the south. …………………………………..75 Fig. 5.12 Public space of Forodhani at the seafront ………………………………………….75 Fig. 5.13 aer ial view of Shangani area in Stone Town………………………………………...75 Fig. 5.14 Map showing the street network of Malindi area in Stone Town …………………75 Fig. 5.16 Aerial view of Malindi area in Stone Town. ………………………………………...76 Fig. 5.17 Shops on Sokomuhogo street ………………………………………………………….76 Fig. 5.18 Men playing bao on stone bench ……………………………………………………...76 Fig. 5.19 Narrow street width …………………………………………………………………...76 Fig. 5.20 Narrow street width …………………………………………………………………...76

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Fig. 5.21 Image showing street height……………………………………………….76 Fig. 5.22 Section of street showing street height ………………………………….76 Fig. 5.23 Men dressed in Kofia and kanzu ……………………………………………...76 Fig. 5.2.4 A lady dresses in buibui ………………………………………………………...76 Fig. 5.25 East elevation of Sokomuhogo Street……………………………………..77

Fig. 5.26 Sketch of the East elevation of Sokomuhogo Street …………………….77

Fig. 5.28 Plastered stone benches and white lime plaster on wall ………………..77

Fig. 5.29 concrete paving blocks on street ………………………………………..77

Fig. 5.30 M abati sun shading devices ………………………………………………77

Fig. 5.31 Stone bench and coral rag wall …………………………………………..77

Fig. 5.32 Corrugated iron sheet shading device …………………………………...78

Fig. 5.33 Overhanging balcony on a residential building on Sokomuhogo Street.. 78

Fig. 5.34 Activities around Jaws corner on Sokomuhogo street ………………….78

Fig. 5.35 Elevation of balcony with fretwork and r ail in cast iron ……………….78

Fig. 5.36 Wooden louvered window ………………………………………………..78

Fig. 5.37 Four leaf Guajarati door with gr illed fanlight for ventilation…………..78

Fig. 5.38 Plaster finish coupled with lime wash finish …………………………..78

Fig. 5.39 Concrete Paving slabs for the street path finish ………………………...78

Fig. 5.40 Lime wash finish on exter ior wall ………………………………………..78

Fig. 5.41 Sketch of the West elevation of Sokomuhogo Street …………………...78

Fig. 5.42 External view of STCDA Offices………………………………………….79

Fig. 5.43 Outdoor garden for STCDA office building ……………………………79

Fig. 5.44 STCDA office building central cour tyard ……………………………….79

Fig. 5.45 STCDA office building section ……………………………………………79

Fig. 5.46 Image showing heat movement through STCDA wall ………………….79

Fig. 5.47 Image showing the front elevation of STCDA Office building ………...80

Fig. 5.48 Image showing the section of STCDA building floor slab ………………80

Fig. 5.49 Image showing par t section of STCDA building wall …………………...80

Fig. 5.50 Boriti poles to suppor t overhead floor slab ……………………………...80

Fig. 5.51 Timber use on balusters, column and doors …………………………….80

Fig. 5.52 Cream lime finish on walls and vanished balusters and

wood columns as well as ceiling ……………………………………………...80

Fig. 5.53 White lime finish on internal walls ……………………………………….80

Fig. 5.54 White lime plaster finish on the external walls …………………………..80

Fig. 5.55 Sketch showing heat reflection from exter ior wall surface……………...80

Fig. 5.56 Sketch of a section showing shading by the corr idor

around the courtyard …………………………………………………………80

Fig. 5.57 Inter ior STCDA window section …………………………………………81

Fig. 5.58 STCDA window inter ior elevation and plan …………………………….81

Fig. 5.59 illustration of sun shading by window louver s ………………………….81

Fig. 5.60 Inter ior STCDA window section ………………………………………….81

Fig. 5.61 Exter ior view of STCDA window ………………………………………...81

Fig. 5.62 Image showing bugler -proofing on window done with iron rods ………..81

Fig. 5.63 Inter ior windows with arched niche above…………………………………………... 81 Fig. 5.64 Illustration of long windows allowing for catchment of both high and low flowing wind for physiological cooling ……………………………………………...81 Fig. 5.65 Illustration of heat transfer through the mabati (corrugated iron sheet) roof …...81 Fig. 5.66 The HOBO digital data logger mounted on the wall in the STCDA internal wall ..82 Fig. 5.67 Image showing the entry to the Malindi Caravan Serai …………………………...83 Fig. 5.68 Image showing the central cour tyard of the Caravan Serai ……………………….83 Fig. 5.69 Image showing the central cour tyard of the Caravan Serai ……………………….83 Fig. 5.70 Sketch section showing wind movement through the building……………………..83 Fig. 5.71 Image showing the size of the walls for the building………………………………...83 Fig. 5.72 Image showing the mater ials used for wall construction. ………………………….83 Fig. 5.73 Boriti poles used to suppor t coral rag floor slab …………………………………….84 Fig. 5.74 Section of the floor slab ……………………………………………………………...84 Fig. 5.75 Corrugated iron sheet roofing with carved wooden fascia board. ………………...84 Fig. 5.76 Wooden str ips used for ceiling. ………………………………………………………84 Fig. 5.77 the ceiling acts as a heat buffer of the heat tr ansmitted through the mabati………84 Fig. 5.78 White lime plaster finish on the internal walls ……………………………………..84 Fig. 5.79 Cream lime finish on the exter ior walls …………………………………………….84 Fig. 5.80 Image showing the light coloured finishes reflecting away heat …………………..84 Fig. 5.81 Image showing the screed finish on the floor of the building ……………………...84 Fig. 5.82 Inter ior STCDA window section …………………………………………………….84 Fig. 5.83 Image showing a window with height to width ratio of 2:1 …………………………85 Fig. 5.84 Image showing a window with height to width ratio of 2:1 ………………………...85 Fig. 5.85 Image showing the windows on the nor thern facade ………………………………..85 Fig. 5.86 Image showing the nor thern façade from the open ground. ……………………….85 Fig. 5.87 Image showing the covered cor r idor in the building ………………………………..85 Fig. 5.88 Image showing a minimally decorated room entry door …………………………...85 Fig. 5.89 Image showing the main entry door to the building………………………………….85 Fig. 5.90 Image showing the ser ies of pointed arch openings the internal cour tyard……….. 85 Fig. 5.91 Image showing cooking along the corr idors ………………………………………..86 Fig. 5.92 Image showing the communal cooking place has been closed down………………..86 Fig. 5.93 External view of Bi. Nassor residence ………………………………………………...87 Fig. 5.94. Author the Tea house above the roof ter race ……………………………………….87 Fig. 5.95 The covered roof ter race ……………………………………………………………...87 Fig. 5.96 Image showing the elevation of Bi. Nassor r esidence……………………………….. 88 Fig. 5.97 Image showing white lime finish on the building’s interior wall …………………….88 Fig. 5.98 Image showing timber and steel used in balustr ades ……………………………….88 Fig. 5.99 Timber balustr ades and columns on Tea house …………………………………….88 Fig. 5.100 Extensive use of timber on ter r ace …………………………………………………..88 Fig. 5.101 Coral rock wall with white lime plaster ……………………………………………..88 Fig. 5.102 Ceramic floor tiles on the balcony floor …………………………………………….88 Fig. 5.103 External walls finished in white lime plaster ………………………………………88 Fig. 5.104 Ceramic wall tiles on the kitchen walls …………………………………………….88 Fig. 5.105 External walls finished in white lime plaster ……………………………………….88 Fig. 5.106 Timber boards for ter race floor finish ……………………………………………..88 Fig. 5.107 white lime plaster finish on the internal walls………………………………………88 Fig. 5.108 Arched window with steel burglar proofing ………………………………………..89 Fig. 5.109 Internal view of the arched window with a mesh detail …………………………... 89 Fig. 5.110 Inter ior opening to the kitchen ……………………………………………………...89

Fig. 5.111 Moderately carved internal door ……………………………………………………………………………..89

x

Fig. 5.112 Carved shop entry door ………………………………………………….89

Fig. 5.113 Carved Gujarati entry door ……………………………………………89

Fig. 5.114 Shading Illustration at street level ……………………………………..89

Fig. 5.115 Cantilevered balconies …………………………………………………..89

Fig. 5.116 Wood carved balcony …………………………………………………...89

Fig. 5.117 Iron sheet roofing on por tion of the ter r ace …………………………...89

Fig. 5.118 Inter ior view of the tea house above the ter race ……………………...89

Fig. 5.119Corrugated iron sheets cover ing the balcony …………………………...89

Fig. 5.120 External view of Bi. Nassor residence …………………………………..90

Fig. 5.121 Exter ior view of Bwana Saleh’s building ……………………………….90

Fig. 5.122 Sketch of a section though Bwana Saleh’s building ……………………90

Fig. 5.123 South Elevation of Bw. Saleh’s House. …………………………………91

Fig. 5.124 East Elevation of Bw. Saleh’s House. …………………………………..91

Fig. 5.124 Image showing white lime finish on the building’s exterior wall……….91

Fig. 5.125 Cream oil based paint on inter ior walls ………………………………...91

Fig. 5.127 Bw. Saleh’s house windows and doors …………………………………...91

Fig. 5.128 The rectangular high placed windows for hot air outlet ………………91

Fig. 5.129 Narrow alley between Bw. Salehs’s house & the neighbour…………...91

Fig. 5.130 Overhanging roof eave on the building………………………………….91

Fig. 5.131 1982 aer ial photo of Ngambo. …………………………………………...91

Fig. 5.132Aerial view of Malindi area in Stone …………………………………….92

Fig. 5.133 Map showing the house densities in Stone Town ……………………..93

Fig. 5.134 Aerial view of Ng’ambo southern area in Stone Town…………………...93

Fig. 5.135 An alley in Ng'ambo ……………………………………………………..93

Fig. 5.136 Winding street in Ng’ambo ………………………………………………93

Fig. 5.137 Arial view of Ng'ambo with open spaces highlighted ………………….93

Fig. 5.138 Early map of Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo area ………………94

Fig. 5.139 Google image of Ng'ambo ……………………………………………….94

Fig. 5.140 Map of Kisiwandui, Ng'ambo …………………………………………..94

Fig. 5.141 Arial photo of Ng'ambo …………………………………………………94

Fig. 5.142 Aerial photo of Michenzani apar tments ………………………………94

Fig. 5.143 Internal street in Ng'ambo ……………………………………………...94

Fig. 5.144 Ng'ambo men at a stone bench ……………………………………………..94

Fig. 5.145 An empty street in Ng'ambo ………………………………………………….94

Fig. 5.146 Street with vehicles parked at the sdes …………………………………….94

Fig. 5.147 A lady in full buibui ……………………………………………………...94

Fig. 5.148 School going gir ls dressing ………………………………………………94

Fig. 5.149 Man in Kofia …………………………………………………………………….94

Fig. 5.150 Narrow street Ng'ambo ………………………………………………...95

Fig. 5.151 Image showing the width of Karume road ……………………………95

Fig. 5.152 Karume Road str eet section …………………………………………...95

Fig. 5.153 Shading along Karume road from the afternoon sun ………………….95

Fig. 5.154 Single level buildings along Ng'ambo Streets ……………………………………...95 Fig. 5.155. Aerial photo of single level Ng'ambo buildings…………………………………...95 Fig. 5.156 West elevation of Karume Road in Ng'ambo …………………………………….95 Fig. 5.157 Image showing covered external corr idor . …………………………………………96 Fig. 5.158 Image showing trees along the street for shading …………………………………96 Fig. 5.159 Image showing added shading devices on openings………………………………...96 Fig. 5.160 Image showing covered baraza along Karume road ………………………………96 Fig. 5.161 Image showing the almost empty Karume road with parking on the sides………96 Fig. 5.162 Image showing soft landscaping on the island on Karume road………………….96 Fig. 5.163 Image showing hedges along the str eet …………………………………………….96 Fig. 5.164 Image showing par t of street façade……………………………………………….96 Fig. 5.165 Image showing var iation of window openings on building ………………………96 Fig. 5.166 Image showing openings for the stair well ………………………………………..96 Fig. 5.167 Image showing Veranda openings. ………………………………………………...96 Fig. 5.168 External view of Michenzani Apar tment …………………………………………..97 Fig. 5.169 Image showing cross ventilation through the building …………………………...97 Fig. 5.170 Heat movement through the narrow walls ………………………………………...97 Fig. 5.171 Michenzani Apar tments typical floor plan ………………………………………...97 Fig 5.172 Michenzani Apar tment Block 1 East Elevation …………………………………...98 Fig 5.173 Michenzani Apar tment Block 1 West Elevation …………………………………..98 Fig. 5.174 Michenzani site dur ing construction in the late 1960s ……………………………98 Fig. 5.175 Concrete walls on Michenzani Apar tments ………………………………………98 Fig. 5.176 East elevation Michenzani Apar tment Block 1 …………………………………...98 Fig. 5.177 Image showing cream oil based paint on inter ior walls. …………………………..99 Fig. 5.178 Image showing rough cast finish on the building’s exterior wall ………………….99 Fig. 5.179 Image showing a close up of Michenzani apar tment walls ………………………..99 Fig. 5.180 Image showing blue paint on Veranda walls ………………………………………99 Fig. 5.181 Image showing aluminium window and aluminium door to the Veranda………..99 Fig. 5.182Image showing aluminium sliding window and wooden entry door at . Michenzani Apartment ……………………………………………………………………99 Fig. 5.183 Image showing nature of windows on Eastern Facade of the building …………99 Fig. 5.184 Image showing solar radiation on a glass window ………………………………...99 Fig. 5.185 Image showing Michenzani apar tment roof section ………………………………99 Fig. 5.186 Image showing white lime finish on the building’s exterior wall ………………….99 Fig. 5.187 Michenzani Apar tment corr idor ……………………………………………………..99 Fig. 5.188 Makeshift sun shading devices on East Façade …………………………………….99 Fig. 5.189 Image showing installed air conditioning systems ………………………………...100 Fig. 5.190 Image showing installed fan for mechanical ventilation ………………………….100

CHAPTER SIX

Fig. 6.1 Image showing the aer ial view of Ng'ambo, Zanzibar ……………………………….108 Fig. 6.2 Image showing the aer ial view of Stone Town, Zanzibar ……………………………108 Fig. 6.3 image showing map of the Swahili coast………………………………………………109 Fig. 6.4 Image a hybr id house for the warm humid climate………………………………….109 Fig. 6.5 Image showing digital data loggers installed in STCDA building…………………..110 Fig. 6.6 Image showing the Sokomuhogo street in Stone Town………………………………110 Fig. 6.7 Image showing the Karume road in Ng'ambo………………………………...……...111 Fig. 6.8 Image showing Sokomuhogo street section …………………………………………..111 Fig. 6.9 Image showing the Karume road section……………………………………………..111 Fig. 6.10 Image showing drawing of STCDA window………………………………………...111

xi

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF GRAPHS

Table 2-1 Summary of East African Trade and Visitors as compiled from Usam Ghaidan, 1975 …………………………………………………………………….19 Table 2-2 Summary of history of Zanzibar as compiled by Siravo (1997) …………………..24 Table 2-3 Summary of literature review findings for both Stone Town and Ng'ambo ……………………………………………………………...47 Table 3-1 Classification of mater ials according to indicative embodied energy…………….61 Table 4-1. Char t showing Research Structure ………………………………………………..64 Table 4-2 Parameters of study for fieldwork …………………………………………………66 Table 4-3. Table of studied buildings in both Ng'ambo and Stone Town …………………..68 Table 5-2 Table showing urban planning parameters for Stone Town …………………….75 Table 5-3 Summary of daily maximum and minimum temperature and

relative humidity levels for STCDA building…………………………………………...82

Table 5-4 Summary of daily average temperature and humidity levels for

STCDA building………………………………………………………………………...82

Table 5-5 Table showing extreme internal temperature and humidity for

STCDA building…………………………………………………………………………82

Table 5-6 Summary of daily maximum and minimum temperature and

relative humidity levels for Caravan Serai………………………………………………86

Table 5-7 Summary of daily average temperature and humidity levels for

Caravan Serai…………………………………………………………………………….86

Table 5-8 Table showing extreme internal temperature and humidity for

Caravan Serai…………………………………………………………………………….86

Table 5-9 Table of urban planning parameters for Ng'ambo ………………………………...93

Table 5-10 Summary of daily maximum and minimum temperature and

relative humidity levels for Michenzani apartment ……………………………………..100

Table 5-11 Summary of daily average temperature and humidity levels for

Michenzani apartment…………………………………………………………………...100

Table 5-12 Table showing extreme internal temperature and humidity for

Michenzani apartments…………………………………………………………………..100

Table 5-13 Comparative analysis for urban planning parameters for

Ng'ambo and Stone Town ……………………………………………………………...102

Table 5-14 Comparative analysis for street character for Ng'ambo and Stone Town………104

Table 5-15 Comparative analysis of case studies for Ng'ambo and Stone Town. …………...106

Fig. 6.11 Image showing drawing of STCDA building window……………………………….112 Fig. 6.12 Image showing the nar row street of Stone Town……………………………………113 Fig. 6.13 Image showing cross ventilation through the Malindi Caravan Serai. ……...……113 Fig. 6.14 Image showing STCDA building section with the cour tyard acting as air discharge point…………………………………………………………………….114 Fig. 6..15 Image showing single banking in STCDA building………………………………..114 Fig. 6.16 Image showing building or ientation with long axis along E-W direction………….115 Fig. 6.17 Image showing adaptive living in Jaws corner ………………………………………116 Fig. 6.18 Image showing men at one of the many open barazas in Ng'ambo………………..116

Graph 5-1 Graph showing the internal temperature and relative humidity of STCDA building. ……...82 Graph 5-2 Graph showing the internal temperature and relative humidity of Malindi Caravan Serai………………………………………………………………………………………….86 Graph 5-3 Graph showing the internal temperature and relative humidity of Michenzani Apartment Block 1…………………………………………………………………………………….100 Graph 5-4 (a) Graph showing comparative analysis internal temperatures of logged buildings ………..101 Graph 5-4 (b) Graph showing comparative analysis internal temperatures of logged buildings………...110

xii

List of Terminologies

Baraza - stone bench, which is also a meeting or gathering place

and reception area.

Boriti - these are mangrove poles used as support in the con-

struction of flat roofs and suspended floor slabs along the Swahi-

li coast. Boriti refers to the rounded poles. The term varies along

the East African coast.

Bao - Is a traditional board game played in most of East Africa

coast. Bao is Swahili word for game.

Buibui - black cloak or cover worn over all other clothing by

Muslim women.

Biashara - A Swahili word translated to mean business.

Chowk - Hindi word for a multi-purpose courtyard.

Dhows - a traditional wooden sailing ship.

Harem - the private family quarters of a Muslim house.

Ibadi - Muslim sect that originated in Oman.

Kaskazi - Swahili name for the north-east monsoon winds

which blow from October to February.

Kiswahili - Northern Bantu language incorporating many words

with Arabic roots and used as a lingua franca in East Africa.

Kiwanda - open walled courtyard.

Kanzu - Is a hite or cream coloured robe worn by Muslim men

Kusi - A Swahili name for the southeast monsoon winds which blow

from June to September.

Mabati - this is a Swahili term for corrugated iron sheets.

Majlis- the main reception room of a Swahili house.

Makuti - thatch material used for roofing and shade structures; the

word also means a roof covered with thatch, or a house covered with

a thatch roof

Mihrab - prayer niche; also implies shape of the prayer niche.

Mitaa - ward or section of a town.

Musafarkhana - (Swahili/Persian) house of travellers.

Musharabiya- latticework of turned or carved wood used for

screens or enclosing balconies for privacy and ventilation.

Ng'ambo - A Swahili word translated to mean the other side

Plattenbauten - A German word to refer to a building whose

structure is constructed using large prefabricated concrete slabs

Sebule - indoor reception, front room or guest room, usually next to

the entrance, but sometimes on the first floor.

Swahili - a cultural group of Bantu origin in East Coast of Africa.

Arab traders called the inhabitants along the coast the Swahili, a

term derived from the Arabic word sahil or ‘coast’.

Zangh - Arab word translated to mean coast of the black people

1

Abstract

Abstract

Zanzibar Island poses two conflicting modes of construction; the heavyweight construction that is predomi-

nant in the Stone Town and lightweight construction in the newer buildings Ng'ambo. Debate on warm hu-

mid climate design has been going on for a while now with most factions advocating for lightweight con-

struction over the heavyweight construction. This study was undertaken to establish which of the two kinds

of built forms was best suited for Zanzibar in terms of user thermal comfort and further give recommenda-

tions for further development in island.

Literature review confirms the existence of both modes of construction in Zanzibar and further identifies

the building typologies in both Stone Town and Ng'ambo. Using the case study strategy and purposive sam-

pling, the author studies the urban morphology, the street character and selected case study buildings in both

Stone Town and Ng'ambo. For more clarity on the subject of thermal comfort, scientific data logging was

done for the case study buildings. From the comparative studies undertaken, its was clear that indeed the

buildings in Stone Town had a better thermal performance than the newer buildings of Ng'ambo. This is

found evidence that validates the heavyweight construction for Zanzibar in terms of user thermal comfort.

Concluding from that, three key approaches for achieving human thermal comfort in cooling applications

are thus recommended: passive design to minimise heat gains, adaptive living and natural dehumidification

to minimise the ever high humidity levels experienced in Zanzibar.

Chapter One.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

1.2 Problem statement

1.3 Aims and Objectives

1.4 Research Questions

1.5 Scope and Limitations

1.6 Justification of Study

1.7 Significance of Study

1.8 Research Methodology

1.9 Structure of the Research Paper

3

Background Study

The discovery of monsoon winds on the Indian Ocean saw a start of rigorous trade along the East African

coast. As a result a host of cities and towns grew, stretching all the way from southern Somalia to north-

ern Mozambique as shown in Fig 1.1. Today, these towns portray unique character and cultural manifes-

tations, brought about by centuries old trade activity on the Indian Ocean. However not all of these his-

toric towns have survived to tell their whole story. Gede, a once thriving community on the East African

coast, today only excavated ruins to show their prior existence. Kilwa as shown in Fig 1.2 , was once a

burgeoning empire along the East African coast but has since suffered the same fate as the latter as it

stands in ruins to this date. Nonetheless all these historic towns stand as testament to the Indian Ocean

trade.

Zanzibar grew as a key centre for Slave trade and spices in the 1800s under the control of Omanis mak-

ing it an important point of trade along the East African coast. However a treaty between the British and

the Omanis in 1873 closed the slave market but did not affect the trading of other commodities. Today,

Zanzibar Stone Town stands as a testament of a mix of cultural influences by the Europeans, Arabs, Indi-

ans and indigenous Africans over time. The ancient town is an outstanding material manifestation of cul-

tural fusion and harmonization. For the above reason among others, the town was declared as UNESCO

World Heritage Site in 2000. According to UNESCO, the stone town of Zanzibar illustrates in an excep-

tional manner, in its architecture and urban structure, the intense seaborne trading activities between Asia

and Africa over centuries.

Ng’ambo is situated about halfway along the west coast of Zanzibar Island and is much larger than the

Stone town and more modern. The term Ng’ambo is a Swahili word which when translated means the

‘other side’. Ng’ambo is a sprawling area of mainly single-storey houses, local shops and offices, cover-

ing a much wider area than Stone Town. According Myers (1997), when Ng'ambo began in the 1850s,

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1.1 Map showing the towns along East Afr ican Coast.

Source: http//egyptsearchreloaded.proboards.com

Fig. 1.2 Gereza, Kilwa For t, 2011

Source: http//.wmf.org/slide-show/historic-sites-kilwa

4

Z a n z i b a r

S t o n e To wn

N g ' a m b o

Fig. 1.3 Image showing map Zanzibar island on the map

Source: Chauvin & Papadaki, Masters Thesis( 2014), Chalmers University, Sweden

Fig. 1.4 Image showing location of Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo on the map

Source: Chauvin & Papadaki, Masters Thesis( 2014), Chalmers University, Sweden

Background Study

5

1.2 Problem Statement

Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng’ambo are only a street apart. Despite the close proximity, the difference be-

tween the Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng’ambo is apparent. Zanzibar Stone Town shows a rich heritage

due to mix of cultures brought by influences from the Arabs, Europeans and the Indians over time. Charac-

teristic of Zanzibar Stone town are the maze like town structure with narrow streets, heavyweight build-

ings of 2 to 3 storeys with rich facades of carved doors and windows and expressive balconies. The build-

ings are then finished in lime plaster and lime wash. “[…] the native town – a filthy labyrinth, a capri-

cious arabesque of disorderly lanes, and alleys, and impasses, here broad, there narrow; now choked with

offal, then choked with ruin. It would be the work of weeks to learn the threading of the planless maze,

and what white man would have the heart to learn it?” [Richard Burton, 1872, cited in Myers, 1993, 110].

Across Creek Road is Ng’ambo, with wider streets and buildings with blank facades. However Myers

(1993) observed that there were an infinite amount of side paths in between the houses that created an

even more confusing and complex web of paths and alleyways. Higher lightweight buildings with more

storeys compared to buildings in Zanzibar Stone Town are evident in Ng’ambo i.e. the large apartment

blocks at Michenzani area. This has resulted in an urban structure that is different from that of the Stone

town. Furthermore new materials and ways of construction are used in the Ng’ambo area.

most of its land was recognised by Omani and European law courts as the property of the royal family and

allied merchants. The earliest residents were their slaves and servants. Between late 1960s and early

1970s the revolutionary government of Zanzibar with the aid of East Germany, built several apartment

blocks in the Michenzani area. These blocks of apartments are virtually the tallest buildings in Zanzibar

Island, ranging from four storeys to seven storeys. However these apartments are not the only buildings

that show sense of modernity and changing times on the island. The vast area of Ng’ambo manifests its

modernity and change in its town structure and building articulation.

Fig. 1.5 Picture showing image of Sultan Sayyid Said of Zanzibar Source: http//en.wikipedia.org

Fig. 1.6 Histor ic picture of the Creek that separated Stone Town from Ng'ambo Source: http//.wmf.org/slide-show/historic-sites-kilwa

Background Study

6

1.3 Aims and Objectives

Design in warm humid climate is very sensitive and careful design should be undertaken to ensure thermal

comfort as stated by Steven S. Szokolay (2004). The greater Zanzibar area lies within the warm humid cli-

mate and as such any buildings constructed in the island should respond to the thermal comfort needs of

users. Szokolay (2004) further states that typical of this climate is the elevated house of lightweight con-

struction for a freestanding house. For urban developments he states that a mix of lightweight and heavy-

weight construction together with ventilation strategies will adequately respond to this climate. The study

seeks to take an in depth look at the buildings and urban geometry and how they affect the thermal environ-

ment both inside and outside the buildings. What buildings properly respond adequately to the thermal

comfort needs of the area? If neither respond to the thermal comfort needs of the people, which is the better

way of building in the area?

i) Establish the effect of street geometry on thermal comfort in both Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo

ii) Establish which of the two areas: Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo, has buildings that adequately

respond to thermal comfort needs of users.

iii) Establish the better way of building in Zanzibar with regards to thermal comfort.

Fig. 1.7 Image showing the aer ial view of Stone Town.

Source: http//8thingstodo.com

Fig. 1.8 image showing a panoramic view of the seafront of Zanzibar Stone Town. Source: http//.en.wikipedia.org

Background Study

7

i) The study is limited to a section in both Ng’ambo area and the Stone Town due to constraints of

time and resources. That is a street and case study houses on both sides.

ii) The study is limited to comparative analysis of the two towns under town planning and structure,

spatial elements, architectural elements, contextual elements and climatic, historical aspects.

1.5 Scope And Limitations

1.6 Justification of Study

i) What is the effect of street geometry on thermal comfort in both Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo?

ii) Which of the two areas: Zanzibar Stone Town and Ng'ambo, has buildings that adequately respond to

thermal comfort needs of users.?

iii) Which is the better way of building in Zanzibar with regards to thermal comfort.

1.4 Research Questions

Studies pertaining the subject of thermal comfort in built forms in the warm humid climates and in particu-

lar along the East African coast, have been vastly done. A thesis by Kimanzi (2009) B. Arch Thesis UoN,

looked into the subject in the coastal town of Mombasa where it focused on light weight and heavyweight

houses. This study seeks to look at a much similar situation only that it focus on the island of Zanzibar off

the coast of Tanzania. In particular, it focuses on dominant heavyweight buildings of old Zanzibar Stone

Town and predominant Light weight buildings of the new town of Ng'ambo; the two towns only being a

street a part

Fig. 1.9 Image showing aer ial view of Michenzani apartments

Source: Chauvin & Papadaki, Masters Thesis( 2014), Chalmers University, Sweden

Fig. 1.10 Men at a baraza along Karume Road in Ng'ambo Source: Chauvin & Papadaki, Masters Thesis( 2014), Chalmers University, Sweden

Background Study

8

1.8 Research Methodology

The study calls for both qualitative and quantitative methods for research. This will ensure effectiveness in

data collection and information build up for the study.

a) Literature Review on published material

i) Francesco Siravo (1996), Zanzibar; A plan for the Historic Town. the Aga khan trust for culture; his-

toric cities support programme- the gallery publications.

The book gives an insight to Zanzibar as the capital of Zanzibar Archipelago; its history and develop-

ment and an account of the building typologies in the island. Discussed as well is the future for conser-

vation of the heritage and built form of Zanzibar.

ii) Szokolay, S., (2004), Introduction to Architectural Science: The basis of Sustainable Design, Archi-

tectural Press, Oxford Great Britain.

This book looks closely at three facets in the built environment; thermal, luminous and sonic environ-

ments. Of interest to this study is the thermal environment as it clearly delves in the whole concept of

thermal comfort and the building requirements for various climatic regions

According to Szokolay (2004), design in warm humid climate is sensitive and careful design should be un-

dertaken to ensure the thermal comfort needs are met. Various factors among them being technology, for-

eign influences, religion etc., have played a major role in shaping the urban structure and the built form in

Ng’ambo. With the comparative study of Ng’ambo and Zanzibar stone town, it is the intention of the study

to contribute to existing knowledge on design for warm humid climate and come up with the ideal construc-

tion for Zanzibar Island.

1.7 Significance of Study

Fig. 1.12 Image showing the Sultans palace in Zan-zibar in 1893

Source: http//tzaffairs.org

Fig. 1.11 Image showing the restored Old Dispensary building in Zanzibar

Source: http//tzaffairs.org

Background Study

9

iii) Garth Andrew Myers, (1997), Sticks and Stones: Colonialism and Zanzibar Housing, Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, UK.

The book concentrates on house building and domestic environments in Zanzibar's city of Ng'ambo

or the ‘Other Side’ as its at times referred to, during the 20th Century. What comes out clearly is the

struggles for cultural hegemony over Zanzibar's built environment.

iv) Otto Koenigsberger (1975) Manual for Tropical housing and Building, Orient Longman Private Lim-

ited, United Kingdom.

The book describes the various climatic typologies and goes further to delve into the design considera-

tions for building for the zones. Of interest to this study is the warm humid climate and the book accu-

rately describes the zone and puts forth design considerations to ensure thermal comfort

v) Antoni Folkers (2010), Modern Architecture in Africa, Martien de Vletter, Amsterdam, Nedherlands

The book explains how modern and contemporary structures conceived, planned and built in a bid to

meet aspirations of residents from all over Africa. Among other cities of Africa discussed, the book

delves in to Zanzibar and traces growth of the area, in particular Ng'ambo.

vi) Salma Damar Salmuji (2008), The Architecture of Oman, Garnet Publishing Limited, Reading, UK

The book provides a first comprehensive account of the architecture of Oman. It analyses building

types and architectural elements which reflect both the importance of the various cultural and commer-

cial influences that have flowed through the long history of Oman and her historical trade links with

East Africa and India.

vii) Siravo F. , Pulver A. (1986) , Planning Lamu, Conservation of an East African Seaport, National Mu-

seums of Kenya, Nairobi Kenya.

The book gives an account of Swahili architecture in the Island of Lamu coupled with an account of

growth of the Swahili coast stretching all the way from south Mogadishu to northern Mozambique.

Background Study

Fig. 1.13 Image showing trade winds in the Indian Ocean Source: http//www.sahistory.org.za

10

b) Literature review on unpublished material

i) Kimanzi J.(2009) Thermal Comfort in warm-humid climate design- The case of Light and Heavy

weight houses in Mombasa B. Arch Thesis (UoN)

This thesis examines the thermal comfort levels of built forms in the Town of Mombasa, the focus being

on heavyweight and lightweight construction. The study focus three regions; the Old Town of Mombasa,

the New Town of Mombasa and mud and wattle section in Kongowea.

ii) Peninah W. Mutonga (2014), Evolution of Swahili Architecture: A case study of Mombasa, Lamu &

Zanzibar. B. Arch Thesis (UoN)

The thesis investigates the various factors that impacted on the transformations of Swahili Architecture

and the contributions of various societies to the evolution of Swahili Architecture. The study provides a

basic understanding of the historical origin of some architectural elements of the different typologies of

the traditional Swahili houses.

iii) Mwangi Billy Ndegwa, (2014), Indian Architecture and its Influence on the built form in Stone Town,

Zanzibar. B. Arch Thesis (UoN)

The thesis evaluates the Indian influences on the built forms of the Stone Town of Zanzibar during their

rigorous trade activities on the island, centuries past. It provides an understanding of the history of the

Indians on the East Africa coast and eventually their contribution to the architecture present on the

island.

iv) Mukami Njeri.(2014), A comparative analysis of Lamu old Town and Shella Town, B. Arch Thesis

(UoN)

The thesis focuses on Lamu island and investigates the subtle differences and similarities of the Lamu

Old Town and Shella town in terms of architectural expression of the built form and town planning.

Background Study

Fig. 1.14 and 1.15 Images showing Dhows in the Indi-an Ocean

Source: http//www.zanzibarhistory.org

11

This will be key in gathering information relevant to area of study and that are not available in published

materials. This includes maps, images and information retrieved from credible websites.

c) Internet Sources

Will involve studying of purposively selected buildings and streets in both Zanzibar Stone Town and

Ng’ambo on a criteria in a bid to answer the questions posed for the research.

d) Case Studies

Interviews;

i) With Relevant professionals i.e. architects who are conversant with Swahili architecture.

ii) With the locals of the study area who are conversant with things as they are on the ground.

Measured drawings

Scientific data logging.

Sketching and photography

Collection of maps and drawings from relevant authorities.

Collection of climatic data from meteorological stations.

e) Fieldwork Techniques

v) Nzilani Christine, (2015), Traditional Swahili Stone House: Its suitability for the warm humid climate,

B. Arch Thesis (UON)

The thesis investigates the human comfort levels of the Swahili stone houses along the Swahili coast,

with focus on Mombasa, Lamu and Zanzibar. The thesis goes a step further in ascertaining the houses

suitability in the warm humid climate where they are situated. It provides basic knowledge on the Swa-

hili stone house typologies together with their history and development.

Background Study

Fig. 1.16 Image showing carved centre post for a Zanzibar door Source: http//www.unesco.org

12

1.9 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER

Chapter One: INTRODUCTION

The chapter served to introduce the topic of research by looking at;

a) Background information

b) Problem statement

c) Aims and Objectives

d) Research Questions

e) Scope and Limitations of Study

f) Justification of Study

g) Methodology

h) Structure of the Research Paper

Chapter Two: SWAHILI COAST

Chapter Two of this study delves into the historical development of the Swahili Coast that stretches 3000

miles form Somalia to northern Mozambique as illustrated in Fig 1.17. It further analyses the various towns

that grew as a result of the rigorous trade that took place along the coast. Special focus is given to Zanzibar

as it is instrumental in this study. The chapter describes the historical development of Zanzibar island in-

cluding the eras its had gone through over the centuries. The architecture of Zanzibar Stone Town and

Ng'ambo is further discussed; a description of urban planning, streetscape and the building typologies in the

two urban areas of Zanzibar island.

Background Study

Fig. 1.17 Map showing extent of Swahili coast

Source: http//egyptsearchreloaded.proboards.com

Fig. 1.18 Image showing the seafront of Moroni, Com-oros Islands

Source: http://rozana.fm/ar /node/10202

13

Introduction

Chapter Four: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Chapter Five: CASE STUDIES

The chapter draws conclusions and gives recommendations for further research.

This chapter spells out how this study is undertaken and further describes the research design, research strat-

egy, data collection techniques, data analysis methods and presentation.

Data obtained from the field work is analysed and a comparative analysis of thermal comfort conditions

recorded in the case studies in both Stone Town and Ng'ambo is undertaken. This establishes answers to re-

search questions posed in the first chapter of introduction.

Chapter Six: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter Three: WARM HUMID CLIMATE DESIGN

This chapter analyses building design in the warm humid climate in relation to human thermal comfort. It

amalgamates known information form various building science authorities to give an in-depth understanding

of the phenomenon of human thermal comfort in built forms of the warm humid climate. The chapter further

delves into the thermal physical properties of common building materials in the coastal strip of East Africa.

Fig. 1.19 Image of a house on stilts for warm humid climate

Source: Paul Gut(1993)

Fig. 1.20 Image showing a digital data logger to beused fieldwork

Source: http://rozana.fm/ar /node/10202