Biblical Theology

Biblical theology is integral to the whole pro-cess of discerning the meaning of the biblicaltext and of applying this meaning to the con-temporary scene. While we distinguish it fromother theological disciplines, such as sys-tematics, historical theology, apologetics andpractical theology, its relationship to thesedisciplines is one of interdependence. Becausebiblical theology is the fruit of exegesis of thetexts of the various biblical corpora it has alogical priority over systematics and the otherspecialized types of theologizing. However,the mutuality of the disciplines can be seen inour coming to the task of exegesis with cer-tain dogmatic presuppositions about thenature and authority of the Bible. Further-more, the history of theology and of biblicalinterpretation means that we engage in ourtask as biblical theologians from within aliving tradition of the Christian church. Bibli-cal theology is principally concerned with theoverall theological message of the whole Bi-ble. It seeks to understand the parts inrelation to the whole and, to achieve this, itmust work with the mutual interaction of theliterary, historical, and theological dimensionsof the various corpora, and with the inter-relationships of these within the whole canonof Scripture. Only in this way do we takeproper account of the fact that God has spo-ken to us in Scripture.

Although arguably the most demandingtype of Bible study, ironically biblical theo-logy holds the greatest interest outside theacademy, i.e. in the Christian church and forordinary Christians, promoting as it does ahigh view not only of the Bible, but also ofJesus and the gospel. Most Christians have agenuine interest in the worlds of the Bible, inits language, thought forms, archaeology, ge-ography and history (the subject matter of aconventional Bible dictionary). Most also liketo engage in the interpretation of individualpassages (the function of a Bible commen-tary). However, all Christians have an in-tensely personal interest, or more accuratelystake, in the subject of biblical theology, i.e.what the Bible teaches about God and hisdealings with the human race. And biblicaltheology of one sort or another, whether ac-

knowledged as such or not, is usually what isgoing on when the Bible is preached effect-ively, studied rigorously or read intently byChristian believers.

Of course, not everyone has so positive aview of the discipline. There are some whodeny its viability, if not its right to exist. Theyquestion its presuppositions, arguing that thethe canon was a late decision of the church,that 'orthodoxy' was a late and artificialimposition, and that the books of the Biblepresent manifold and contradictory theo-logies. They also believe that literary theoryand the social sciences introduce factors thatmake biblical theology disreputable (see"Challenges to Biblical Theology).

On the other hand, there are doubtlessthose who may wonder what other sort oftheology there could possibly he for Chris-tians if the Bible is supposed to be thefoundation of our faith and practice. How-ever, there is no doubt that many theologiesare not biblical, just as many studies of theBible are not theological (see *SystematicTheology and Biblical Theology).

What exactly is biblical theology? It is im-perative that we understand what biblicaltheology is, for the *history of biblical theo-logy shows that confusion ensues and dis-tortions arise when practitioners are not clearabout what they are doing. There are in fact anumber of valid answers to the question ofwhat biblical theology is, just as there are anumber of answers to the question of whatcivil engineering is, for instance, depending onwhich way we look at the subject.

To make the comparison clear, civil engin-eering may be defined as the activity whichresults from the cooperation of variousdisciplines including metallurgy, physics,mathematics, sociology and town planningwith the goal of producing bridges, sewers,roads, canals, etc. It may also be defined asthe physical activity of construction in all itsvigour and complexity. Similarly, biblicaltheology may be defined as the cooperation ofvarious disciplines, and with reference to itsvarious processes or methods and its intendedproduct.

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Biblical theology

The primacy of biblical theology

The Bible is not only the best selling, but alsothe most studied book of all time. Theolo-gians have pored over its pages for hundredsof years, and most branches of the humanitieshave brought their expertise to bear on thetask of examining it. English departmentsstudy it for its aesthetic value, for the way itsnarratives and poetry enthral and move read-ers. Sociologists are fascinated by the groupdynamics it enshrines, anthropologists by thepower of its rites and symbols, and historiansby the impact of its movements and ideas onthe course of the world at large.

Without questioning the legitimacy of theBible as an object of academic study for awide range of disciplines, biblical theologyurges that the interpretation of the text can-not be left there. Biblical theology is not justone of a number of ways to read the Bible, asif there is theologically motivated interpret-ation alongside historically, aesthetically orideologically motivated interpretation. Not toattend to theological interpretation is to stopshort of interpretation, to ignore the interestsof the texts themselves. If not to misinterpret,at best it is to engage in incomplete interpret-ation. Biblical study is incomplete until bib-lical theology has been done.

The books of the Bible are first and fore-most religious texts. To ignore this dimensionis forgivable, if one's interests lie elsewhere.No one would dispute the legitimacy ofstudying Shakespeare's plays for their artistryand language, or to consider the evidence theyprovide of the social mores or political con-ventions of their day, or to trace their impacton the history of literature and ideas. But todo only this is by no means to engage in theinterpretation of Shakespeare. The same prin-ciple applies to the Bible.

Biblical theology as multidisciplinaryendeavourThe biblical theologian needs all the help heor she can get from the other areas of biblicaland theological study. Indeed, biblical theo-logy must never be thought of as independentof the other disciplines. It presupposes them.In reading the Bible it does not neglect his-tory, for theology is grounded in the revela-tion of God in history and salvation history ispart of real history. Thus biblical theologyavoids an atemporal approach and pays close

attention to the Bible's overarching 'story'. Aswell as recognizing the profoundly historicalrootedness of the biblical books, it also ac-cepts their occasional nature, literary qualityand powerful vitality. And it treats such textswith a due sensitivity to the different genresand literary features represented. Biblical the-ology is impossible without the contributionsof those disciplines which take as their focusthe historical and literary dimensions of theBible.

Strangely enough, within the so-calledtheological disciplines there has been a neglectof the theological interpretation of Scripture.This is in part due to the explosion of know-ledge and the practice of specialization whichhas led to a compartmentalizing of the discip-lines. Biblical scholars, for the purpose of di-vision of labour, divide themselves into OT orNT specialists, and even within these divi-sions specialize further, in for instance thePentateuch, wisdom or prophecy, or the Gos-pels, Paul or Hebrews. Such boundariesbecome barriers to the extent that no one ac-cepts the responsibility of reading the Bible asa whole. On the contrary, such reading ispositively discouraged, as trespassing onsomeone else's territory and feigning expertisein an area where one is not well versed.Worse still, systematic theologians are dis-couraged from using Scripture too specificallyfor the same reason, in order not to seem na-ive in their exegesis of biblical texts. Withoutdenying the immensity of the intellectualchallenge, biblical theology calls for the disci-plines to work together towards a commongoal. As Francis Watson states, 'biblical the-ology is an interdisciplinary approach tobiblical interpretation which seeks to dis-mantle the barriers that at present separatebiblical scholarship from Christian theology'(Text and Truth, p. vii).

Biblical theology as engaged, theologicalinterpretation of ScriptureAs noted above, different readers of the Bibletreat it differently, depending on the nature oftheir interest in it. The Bible is everythingfrom ancient artefact to historical testimonyto entertaining literature. How the biblicaltexts are construed distinguishes the differentapproaches to the Bible. Biblical theologyconsiders the biblical texts to be ChristianScripture and its reading of them is shapedaccordingly (see *Scripture). It affirms that

Scripture was written not just for historiansand literary critics, but for Christian believers,`for us' (Rom. 4:24; 1 Cor. 9:10; NN) and 'forour instruction' (1 Cor. 10:11; RSV).

Indeed the primary location for a theologi-cal interpretation of Scripture is the churchrather than the university (S. Fowl and L.Jones, Reading in Communion). Biblical the-ology is practised by Christian communitiesand is intricately linked to their determinationto shape their faith, life, worship and servicein accordance with Scripture under the guid-ance of the Spirit (see *Preaching and BiblicalTheology). One of the achievements of mod-ern hermeneutics is to lay to rest the fallacy ofthe dispassionate, disinterested reader. All ofus bring to the Bible pre-understandings andpre-dispositions which affect what we makeof what we read. Purely objective interpreta-tion is not only a myth but an inappropriatestrategy for reading the Bible. For biblicaltheology, the primary goal of exegesis is notobjectivity but to hear Scripture as the wordof God.

This is not to say that OT or NT scholarsought not to do biblical theology (contra H.Rdisdnen). They are in the privileged positionof having direct access to the literary and his-torical study of the Bible upon which biblicaltheology must build. Rather, it is to say thatwhen Christian biblical scholars read the Bi-ble they ought to read it as Christians,reflecting on their own faith in the light ofwhat they read. Biblical scholars who do notshare this faith are of course also able to dobiblical theology, in the sense of describingthe theology of (say) Paul or even of sometheme across the canon. But they do so asoutsiders, so to speak, not with sympathy andconsent, which is the ideal hermeneutic forbiblical theology.

Texts assume a certain kind of audience,someone who is best disposed to make senseof what is written, the person or group forwhom the texts are intended (M. Bockmuehl,in SJT 51, pp. 298-300). In the case of theBible the implied or model readers are thosewho care about what the texts assert and af-firm. Such readers believe the apostolicwitness to God's work in Jesus Christ, eventhough they 'have not seen' (1 Pet. 1:8). Theyhave undergone a religious, moral and intel-lectual conversion to the gospel of which thetexts speak. They live their lives as part of alocal community of faith. Even texts like

Biblical theology

Luke-Acts and the Pastoral Epistles, thoughwritten to individuals, make clear that theirultimate address is the believing communitiesto which these individuals belong. And thosetexts addressed to specific churches often givehints that the author's concern is for an evenwider audience (cf. 1 Cor. 1:2, 'to ... all thosein every place who call on the name of theLord Jesus'). To do biblical theology, then, isto read the Bible as a Christian, someone whowelcomes the witness of Scripture to whatGod was and is doing in Christ, which is 'ac-cording to the Scriptures'. The biblicaltheologian makes no apology for his or herexplicitly theological assumptions about thenature and identity of God.

Peter Stuhlmacher states the matter tren-chantly: 'A biblical theology ... must attemptto interpret the Old and New Testament tra-dition as it wants to be interpreted. For thisreason, it cannot read these texts only from acritical distance as historical sources butmust, at the same time, take them seriously astestimonies of faith which belong to the HolyScripture of early Christianity' ( How To DoBiblical Theology, p. 1).

Biblical theology as construction siteThe task of biblical theology is to present theteaching of the Bible about God and his rela-tions to the world in a way that lets thebiblical texts set the agenda. 'This goal isachieved by allowing them to serve as thevery stuff of inductive study and by readingthe books more or less in their historical se-quence. In other words, biblical theologysubscribes to the primacy of the text; the in-terpretive interest of biblical theology cor-responds as closely as possible to what thetext is about. In this sense biblical theologymay be distinguished from philosophical the-ology, which relies more directly upon reason,natural theology, which looks to the naturalworld and order for knowledge of God, andsystematic theology, which concentrates onthe contemporary articulation of Christianfaith.

Beyond this fundamental point, the biblicaltheology which this volume attempts to prac-tise includes five other specifications:

1. the tools of the trade are analysis andsynthesis;

2. the building materials consist of bothbiblical concepts and biblical words;

3. the bridge to be constructed is a single

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Biblical theology

span across the whole Bible;4. the building plans follow the blueprint

of the Bible's `storyline'; andS. the foundation and pinnacle of the struc-

ture is Jesus Christ.

Analysis and synthesisBiblical theology is characterized by two dis-tinct but related activities which may bebroadly described as analysis and synthesis.The first seeks to reconstruct the individualtheologies of the writings or collections ofwritings of the Bible. Exemplary here is G.B.Caird's biblical theology of the NT whichhosts an imaginary symposium with the vari-ous authors in attendance, such as Luke, Paul,John and the author of Hebrews, a sort ofapostolic conference in which each distinctivevoice is heard. The accent in such work is onthe particular contribution to theology of thebook or books in question.

There is a temptation in studying the Bi-ble's theology too quickly to read one part ofit in the light of another and thus to miss theindividual contours of the terrain and flattenout the whole. In doing biblical theologymuch is lost if James is read in the light ofPaul, or Mark in the light of Matthew. It ismore accurate and productive first to letJames be James and Mark be Mark and soon, thus appreciating their particular coloursand hues, before going on to see how theirperspectives look on the larger canonical can-vas. Too often one part of the Bible is givenundue and oppressive priority over the others(see "Unity and Diversity of Scripture).

Part Two of the present volume employsthis method, analysing the distinctive theo-logies of the various corpora and books of theBible in their own right. To analyse the theo-logy of a book of the Bible is to read it as ar-ticulating a particular vision of the divine–human relationship, to consider its uniquepart in the progressive unfolding of God'splan of salvation for humanity.

Part Three focuses on the task of synthesisby presenting the theology of particularthemes across the whole Bible. This approach,called 'pan-biblical theology' by James Barr,is concerned ultimately to construct one singletheology for the Bible in its entirety. It con-fronts the question: in what sense can the Oldand New Testaments be read as a coherentwhole (see "Relationship of the Old Testa-ment and New Testament)? This question has

6

many facets and lies at the heart of not onlythe method but also the substance of biblicaltheology.

To return to our analogy with civil engi-neering, if analysis involves the individualtradespeople working from their own planson different parts of the project, synthesisrecalls the work of the site architect or fore-man who is responsible for the overallstructure. Both have a necessary function toperform.

Concepts, not just wordsA further question of method concerns theextent to which the study of the Bible's theol-ogy should be based on word studies. Such anapproach admittedly has its attractions; howbetter to do theology on the Bible's ownterms than by undertaking exhaustive investi-gations of its key terms? A number of majorreference works have taken this approach inthe past. However, it has been rightly criti-cized. Word studies alone are a shakyfoundation upon which to base theology. Astudy of the biblical words for "love, for ex-ample, does not fairly represent the Bible'steaching on love, since it ignores numerousnarratives and parables, such as the GoodSamaritan, which do not mention the word`love' but are nonetheless highly relevant. Theword for 'church' is rarely used in the Gos-pels, but they contain much significantmaterial for a treatment of the topic of thechurch, including the notion of the kingdomas embodied in the lives of people on earth,the calling of the twelve disciples to be withJesus, and the frequent use of communal lan-guage such as family, fraternity, little flockand city. Sometimes a biblical author willpursue the same concept as another authorbut with his own vocabulary. Concepts ratherthan words are a surer footing on which tobase thematic study such as that involved inbiblical-theological synthesis.

In most cases the concept is in fact far big-ger than the words normally used to refer toit, even when the words in question appearfrequently. Three examples suffice to makethe point, namely, grace, exclusion and gen-tleness.

A number of biblical words are relevant toan understanding of "grace, including mercy,love, kindness and beneficence. The vocab-ulary of grace denotes spontaneous kindnessand acts of generosity grounded in a disposi-

tion of compassion towards those in need.However, the biblical concept includes thenotions of loyalty and constancy, often inconnection with the covenant. Grace as acharacteristic of God grounds divine–humanrelations in his generous initiative and sus-taining faithfulness. Of course, the concept ofgrace can be present, and often is, even whenthe related words are absent, especially whenGod visits people for the purposes of blessingand salvation.

The notion of "exclusion from the believ-ing community (excommunication or churchdiscipline) is captured in a host of terms. Inone key passage alone, 1 Corinthians 5, it isexpressed in five different ways, using theverbs `to remove', 'to drive out', '(not) to eatwith', `to deliver (to Satan)' and `to purgeaway'. However, the topic raises questionsabout the motivations for such drastic actionwhich are not communicated simply by theappearance of such words. The fact that peo-ple are to be disciplined is less instructive thanthe reasons for the judgment. In the Bible se-rious offenders are excluded from thecommunity because of the solidarity of thecommunity, in order to maintain the holinessof the group, due to a breach of covenant, inthe hope of restoration and because of theprospect of salvation. Such teaching can begleaned only from a range of material in-cluding both laws and historical examples ofexclusion.

"Gentleness is a somewhat ambiguousconcept, for it can denote both strength andvulnerability. Usually in the Bible it is a posi-tive quality, a characteristic of peaceable andcontrolled kindness, the opposite of arroganceor domination. The concept can be expressedusing any of the following terms: 'gentleness';`graciousness'; 'clemency'; `kindness'; 'humil-ity'; 'consideration'; 'courtesy'; 'loving-kindness'; and 'meekness'. However, it de-serves a coherent treatment which a series ofindividual word studies does not accomplish,since it is both a defining attribute of Godand Jesus and constitutive of Christian char-acter.

If concepts are generally bigger thanwords, some concepts have a relatively slimlexical base and yet can lay no less a claim tobe of central importance. There are many ex-amples, including hospitality, providence,vanity, testimony and revelation.

There is no specific word for "hospitality

Biblical theology

in the OT, and yet the practice is evident inthe welcome, food, shelter and protection-asylum that guests received in OT times.Commands in the Pentateuch and exhort-ations in the prophets to care for strangersattest to the importance of hospitality in theOT. Narratives demonstrate that hospitalitywas closely connected to the recognition ofYahweh's lordship and to covenant loyalty.Stories provide evidence of God's presenceand provision in the context of hospitality.And hospitality is at the heart of the gospeland practice of the early church.

One concept which raises issues about thecharacter of God and divine government butdoes not correspond to one particular term is"providence; the idea is expressed by a clusterof biblical terms. A precise linguistic basis isdifficult to identify. The notion of providence,which encapsulates the conviction that Godsustains the world that he has created anddirects it to its appointed destiny, is scatteredthroughout and at many points taken forgranted in the Bible. Belief in God's provi-dence evokes not only humility and wonder,but also gratitude and trust, for believersknow God as Father. The subject simply can-not be treated adequately by doing a fewword studies.

The word for "vanity occurs only here andthere in the Bible. However, the concept cap-tures much of the human predicament of sinunder God's wrath. The whole of salvationhistory, from creation to the ultimate con-summation of all things, illustrates the tensionwhich arises between the wilful desires ofhuman folly and the benevolent purposes of aloving God. The earliest biblical example ofthis tension is the divine curse on the ground(Gen. 3:17-19), which resulted from the at-tempt of disobedient humanity to becomeautonomous, like God. The mutual harmonybetween God, humanity and the created orderwas disrupted, and working the land becamea toil and burdensome. The removal of van-ity, at the other end of salvation history, is apicture of ultimate redemption. The subject isnoteworthy in the Bible for both its poign-ancy and its scant explicit mention.

The technical terms 'witness' and 'testi-mony', given their infrequent appearance,might seem incidental to the message of theBible. However, the concept of *testimony isfound throughout the canon. Because of thecardinal role played by the law in the forma-

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Biblical theology

tion and life of ancient Israel, the roots oftestimony are juridical. But because that lifewas not divided into discrete legal and relig-ious compartments, those juridical rootsblossom throughout the biblical narrative intoreligious proclamation, confession and mar-tyrdom. This intermingling of legal and re-ligious testimony is entirely natural, for thelaw was given in order that Israel, by obeyingthe law, might be a living testimony to itsauthor, the Lord their God (Deut. 4:5-8;26:16-19). In Scripture heaven, earth, Johnthe Baptist, the apostles and in fact all God'speople give testimony. Indeed, the pinnacle ofbiblical testimony is its proclamation of God'sunfolding purpose to bring salvation to theends of the earth, whereby every tongue willtestify that there is but one true God, and thatthis one true God has made Jesus Christ Lordof all.

The word 'revelation' and its cognates oc-cur fewer than one hundred times in thewhole Bible, according to the NIV. However,the ubiquity and centrality of *revelation, asthe disclosure by God of truths at which peo-ple could not arrive without divine initiativeand enabling, is considerably more impressivethan this statistic implies. The study of revela-tion must extend beyond the mere use of theword. The Bible does not so much discuss orreflect on revelation as assume, embody andconvey it in a hundred different ways. Revela-tion is as universal as creation itself, isaccomplished by God both speaking and act-ing, and involves both the miraculous, likedreams, visions and prophecy, and the mun-dane.

A whole-Bible biblical theologyOver the last couple of centuries there hasbeen a division in the practice of biblical theo-logy into virtually separate consideration ofOT and NT theology. Until a few notableexceptions in recent times no one wrote bibli-cal theologies of the whole Bible. The presentvolume aims to contribute to a whole-Biblebiblical theology (see *The Canon of Scrip-ture) in a number of ways. Part Two articles,for instance, are not deaf to such concerns inthat while concentrating on analysis, they givesome consideration to the place of the distinc-tive ideas under discussion in the canon, bothin terms of OT antecedents (for the NT arti-cles) and NT developments (for the OTarticles).

8

Whereas it might be convenient to treat abook like *Proverbs in isolation, a responsiblebiblical theological approach goes beyond asummary of its many practical themes andaddresses its place in the Bible as a whole.Proverbs displays little interest in the mainbiblical themes of covenant and salvation-history. How then can it be related to the restof the Bible when its content seems periph-eral? The article in Part Two suggests that theanswer may lie partly in the Solomonic narra-tive, where Solomon's wisdom is connectedwith the account of the building and dedica-tion of the temple. With Solomon and thetemple, God is in the midst of his people inZion, and rules through his anointed kingwho is the son of David. In short, the revela-tion of God's wisdom in his plan of salvationis the only framework within which authentichuman wisdom can flourish. The considera-tion of such questions has a profound effecton how Proverbs is read and distinguishes awhole-Bible biblical theology.

The links between the Testaments in theform of direct quotation of or allusion to theearlier by the later are obvious to every readerfamiliar with the OT and are of vital impor-tance to biblical theology (see "NewTestament use of the Old Testament). Virtu-ally every major doctrine in the NT issupported with some reference to Scripture.The search for the unity of the Bible, how-ever, cannot limit itself to such quotationsand even allusions, for even where these ex-plicit links are rare the NT texts can scarcelybe understood without reference to the way inwhich they relate to the OT. In twenty-onechapters the Gospel of "John, for example,quotes the OT only some fifteen times. YetJohn's opening phrase, 'in the beginning', re-calls the beginning of Genesis, and theGospel's teaching about Jesus throughout isfirmly grounded in OT antecedents, from Je-sus as the son sent by the father and the breaddescending from heaven, to Jesus as the ful-fil ment of Jewish feasts (Tabernacles andPassover) and institutions (the Temple), to theseven 'I am' sayings.

Particular biblical themes are investigatedin Part Three in a manner which attempts tosynthesize the message of the Bible. Obviouslythe choice of topics in itself has an impact onthe results which emerge from the variousinvestigations. As well as subjects which havea basis in a wide range of biblical texts,

themes were chosen which span the Testa-ments and clearly call for some attempt atsynthesis. Instead of one article on Passoverand another on the Lord's Supper, there is anentry on *Sacred Meals which treats thePassover and the Lord's Supper, along withthe peace offering, the last supper and themarriage supper of the Lamb, as part of theone vibrant and purposeful tradition. Simi-larly, rather than an article on the ascensionof Jesus, there is one on *exaltation whichsets Jesus' ascension in the context of the fre-quent presentation of God in the OT as thegreat king over all the earth, proud human-ity's urge to lift itself up in self-sufficiency anddisobedience, and Jesus' enthronement inheaven and second coming.

Furthermore, in articles on what mightnormally be considered specifically NTthemes due consideration is given to OTroots. The term *kingdom of God/heaven',for instance, does not occur in the OT. None-theless, the idea of the rule of God overcreation, all creatures, the kingdoms of theworld and, in a unique and special way, overhis chosen and redeemed people, is the veryheart of the message of the OT. The 'king-dom' in the NT can be understood onlyagainst the backdrop of this rule and domin-ion, which is characteristically rejected by thehuman race, and whose final stage is antici-pated in the prophets in terms of radicalrenewal and completion.

The storyline of the BibleEven though the Bible is strictly speaking acollection of books written over hundreds ofyears with widely varying contents, it does tella unified story; the tale of creation, fall,judgment and redemption culminates with thegospel concerning Jesus Christ, which theapostles regarded as attested to by all Scrip-ture (see "Biblical History). As with any otherbook, a legitimate question to ask whenreading the Bible is: what is it about? Even ifthe Bible's storyline contains numerous sub-plots, its main story can be told, and often iswith reference to major themes of systematictheology such as "sin, "salvation and "wor-ship. Such topics act as centres around whichthe Bible's basic plot and message can be or-ganized. Thus the Bible is about humankindfalling into sin, and God's determination toput things right. It is about salvation, God'srescue plan for human beings under judg-

Biblical theology

ment. It is about the worship of the one trueGod and the rejection of gods that fail.

One goal of biblical theology, however, is,in the words of a famous hymn, to 'tell theold, old story', in fresh and unexpected ways.`Sin', 'salvation' and 'worship' are not theonly one-word answers to the question: whatis the Bible about? Others include 'violence',`peace', 'victory', 'glory' and even 'clothes'and 'cities', to name but a few of the manysubjects appearing in part three.

The Bible is about *violence, brutal butsometimes ambiguous. It begins with thefoundational premise that the fallen world,and humanity in particular, is violent. An en-tire episode of human history is sealed withthe narrator's judgment that the earth wasfilled with violence. We first encounter God'sown violence in the flood, a divine judgmentthat destroys the greater part of human andanimal life. But God's violence is different inthat it is a function of his governance that isultimately aimed towards the redemption ofhis creation. The prophets foresaw in Jesus anew and powerful vision of this redemptionin which violence is absorbed and trans-formed.

The Bible is about "peace, the bringing to-gether of warring parties. The OT is full ofthe language of peace, with which one personwishes peace upon another, or wishes to beand live in peace, free from enemies or otherdangers. However, peaceful relations betweenhumans, as important as they might be, arenot nearly so important as peace with God,which is achieved through sacrifice, in the endthat of Jesus Christ.

The Bible is about "victory, which ulti-mately belongs to the Lord and is entirelywithin his gift. Yahweh's military victories,which mark the high points of the nationalexperience of pre- and early monarchical Is-rael, come about only when the people seekand obey him. Thus it is no surprise whentheir disobedience leads to ignominious defeatand exile. Confidence that victory still be-longed to Yahweh is maintained in some ofthe Psalms, where it is asserted that Yahwehhad conquered the cosmological forces ofchaos, and in the prophets, who focus not ona decisive victory in the past, but on thecoming decisive demonstration of the victoryof God in the future. In the NT, this victoryof God is demonstrated supremely in thedeath and resurrection of the Lord Jesus

9

Biblical theology History of biblical theology

Christ. Though the victory has been decisivelyachieved, its final celebration and realizationawaits the day of the Lord which is yet tocome.

The Bible is about "glory, radiant and inef-fable, lost and regained. God's gloriouspresence, whether for salvation or destruc-tion, is prominent in the key moments andcentral institutions of Israel's history and isdecisively revealed in Jesus Christ. Throughtheir sinful rebellion, human beings have for-feited the privilege, as image-bearers of God,of reflecting his glory. Yet through Christ be-lievers are restored to glory.

The Bible is about "clothes, used not onlyto denote community identity, signal socialstatus and enact legal agreements, but alsoand more significantly to illustrate God's re-demptive activity. From the first act of mercyextended to fallen humanity, the covering ofAdam and Eve with clothes, to the end of theage, when the community of the redeemedwill be clothed with an imperishable, immor-tal, heavenly dwelling, the exchange andprovision of garments portray God's graciousand redemptive provision.

The Bible is about "cities, in particularJerusalem and Babylon and their fates andassociations. Jerusalem as the religious centreof the holy land, both originally and in itsfinal restoration, represents the people ofGod. The word of God issues forth from Jeru-salem, peoples gather in Jerusalem to honourGod, and the messianic king will appear therevictoriously. Conversely, Babylon serves as asymbol of wickedness. Babylon is the proudand wicked city that will be left uninhabitedand in ruins, whose name will be cut off forall time. Christians are citizens of the Jeru-salem above. The clash between the city ofGod and the city of Satan will come to a headin the eschaton, with the fall of Babylon andthe arrival of the new Jerusalem.

Thus biblical theology explores the Bible'srich and many-sided presentation of its uni-fied message. It is committed to declaring 'thewhole counsel of God ... [in order] to feed thechurch of God' (Acts 20:27-28).

A Christ-centred structure

Finally, biblical theology maintains a con-scious focus on Jesus Christ, not in some na-ive and implausible sense, where Christ isfound in the most unlikely places, but in not-ing God's faithfulness, wisdom and purpose

10

in the progress of salvation history. It readsnot only the NT, but also the OT, as a bookabout Jesus. Even if in the OT religion wasfocused on present relationship with God,based on his dealings with and for his peoplein the past, there is a firm and growing beliefin the future coming of God on the day of theLord for judgment and salvation. Christiansbelieve that this hope culminates in Jesus andread the OT as a book which prepares forand prophesies his coming and the people ofGod he would renew and call into existence.The books of the NT connect Jesus with theOT in a variety of ways, seeing Jesus as thefulfilment of prophecy, the ideal to whichindividuals and institutions aspired, or theclimax of God's dealings revealed in varioustypes.

Virtually every theme in biblical theology,as may he seen from the examples noted inthe previous two sections, leads to Christ asthe final and definitive instalment. Not onlydo we see Christ and his work in a differentlight by considering themes such as victory,peace and glory; the momentous nature of hisappearance means that the reverse is alsotrue. A host of topics, such as "death and res-urrection and *sacrifice, and less obviously,but no less profoundly, "humanity, *Israeland *obedience, are seen differently in light ofthe advent of Christ. The article on *JesusChrist could be cross-referenced to every arti-cle in Part Three, for all the subjects arerelevant to him as God's final word and de-cisive act, and he to them. Even the articles onbiblical people, such as "Abraham, "Moses,*David, "Elisha and "Jonah, refer to Christ,in a typological sense and/or as the fulfilmentof the promises made to these people. Indeed,the Messiah is the theme which unites the Oldand New Testaments (T. D. Alexander, TheServant King). If biblical theology seeks toconnect text and truth (to use Watson'sphrase), it never forgets that Jesus is the truth.

ConclusionWhat is biblical theology? To sum up, biblicaltheology may be defined as theological inter-pretation of Scripture in and for the church. Itproceeds with historical and literary sensitiv-ity and seeks to analyse and synthesize theBible's teaching about God and his relationsto the world on its own terms, maintainingsight of the Bible's overarching narrative andChristocentric focus.

Further clarification of the nature andpromise of biblical theology is presented inthe other articles in Part One. However, inthe end, like civil engineering, biblical the-ology is best judged and understood by ex-amining what it produces. The purists willalways want more exact definition. Ultimatelythe proof that civil engineering and biblicaltheology are well conceived is in the qualityof the things they build. For the latter, thiscan be inspected in Parts Two and Three.

BibliographyT. D Alexander, The Servant King (Leices-

ter, 1998); J. Barr, The Concept of BiblicalTheology (London, 1999); M. Bockmuehl,"`To be or not to be": The possible futures ofNew Testament scholarship', SJT 51, 1998,pp. 271-306; G. B. Caird, New TestamentTheology, compiled and edited by L. D. Hurst( Oxford, 1994); D. A. Carson, 'New Testa-ment theology', in DLNTD, pp. 796-814; B.

IntroductionWhile some trace the origin of biblical theo-logy to the Protestant Reformation, and oth-ers to J. P. Gabler's 1797 address, 'AnOration on the Proper Distinction BetweenBiblical and Dogmatic Theology and the Spe-cific Objectives of Each', the fact is that theChristian church was concerned from a veryearly date to articulate a 'biblical theology' insome form. As far as is known, the actualterm (theologia biblica, biblische Theologie)was first used in the early 1600s, but the at-tempt to discern a unified and consistenttheology in the scriptures of the OT and NTis much older.

It might be argued that biblical theologyhas its origin within the Bible itself. Sum-maries of 'salvation-history' found in the OT(e.g. Deut. 26:5-9; Neh. 9:7-37; Pss. 78, 105,106) and also in the NT (Acts 7; Heb. 11)

Childs, Biblical Theology of the Old and NewTestaments: Theological Reflection on theChristian Bible ( Minneapolis, 1992); S. Fowland L. G. Jones, Reading in Communion:Scripture and Ethics in Christian Life ( GrandRapids, 1991); R. J. Gibson (ed.), InterpretingGod's Plan: Biblical Theology and the Pastor(Carlisle, 1998); G. L. Goldsworthy, Accord-ing to Plan: The Unfolding Revelation of Godin the Bible (Leicester, 1991); J. B. Green andM. Turner, Between Two Horizons: SpanningNew Testament Studies and Systematic The-ology ( Grand Rapids, 1999); H. Rdisdnen,Beyond New Testament Theology (London,1990); P. Stuhlmacher, How To Do BiblicalTheology (Allison Park, 1995); W. VanGe-meren, The Progress of Redemption: FromCreation to the New Jerusalem (Carlisle,1995); F. Watson, Text and Truth: Redefin-

ing Biblical Theology (Edinburgh, 1997).

B. S. ROSNER

trace the continuity of God's dealings with hispeople. The NT Gospels and epistles interpretthe Christ event in the light of the OT, butalso reinterpret the OT in the light of theChrist event. Paul, it has been suggested, wasthe first 'Old Testament theologian', and thesame claim could well be made for the writerto the Hebrews.

The early and medieval periodsAs soon as the Gospels, the letters of Paul andother Christian writings began to be usedalongside the Hebrew Scriptures, and wellbefore the finalizing of what came to be rec-ognized as the NT, these scriptures wereemployed by the church in formulating itsbeliefs and in countering what it believed tobe false teaching. From the outset it faced theproblem of "unity and diversity (a majorproblem in biblical theology to this day). Thechurch refused to follow Marcion's solution

11

History of Biblical Theology

History of biblical theologyBiblical theology

Christ. Though the victory has been decisivelyachieved, its final celebration and realizationawaits the day of the Lord which is yet tocome.

The Bible is about *glory, radiant and inef-fable, lost and regained. God's gloriouspresence, whether for salvation or destruc-tion, is prominent in the key moments andcentral institutions of Israel's history and isdecisively revealed in Jesus Christ. Throughtheir sinful rebellion, human beings have for-feited the privilege, as image-bearers of God,of reflecting his glory. Yet through Christ be-lievers are restored to glory.

The Bible is about *clothes, used not onlyto denote community identity, signal socialstatus and enact legal agreements, but alsoand more significantly to illustrate God's re-demptive activity. From the first act of mercyextended to fallen humanity, the covering ofAdam and Eve with clothes, to the end of theage, when the community of the redeemedwill be clothed with an imperishable, immor-tal, heavenly dwelling, the exchange andprovision of garments portray God's graciousand redemptive provision.

The Bible is about "cities, in particularJerusalem and Babylon and their fates andassociations. Jerusalem as the religious centreof the holy land, both originally and in itsfinal restoration, represents the people ofGod. The word of God issues forth from Jeru-salem, peoples gather in Jerusalem to honourGod, and the messianic king will appear therevictoriously. Conversely, Babylon serves as asymbol of wickedness. Babylon is the proudand wicked city that will be left uninhabitedand in ruins, whose name will be cut off forall time. Christians are citizens of the Jeru-salem above. The clash between the city ofGod and the city of Satan will come to a headin the eschaton, with the fall of Babylon andthe arrival of the new Jerusalem.

Thus biblical theology explores the Bible'srich and many-sided presentation of its uni-fied message. It is committed to declaring 'thewhole counsel of God ... [in order] to feed thechurch of God' (Acts 20:27-28).

A Christ-centred structure

Finally, biblical theology maintains a con-scious focus on Jesus Christ, not in some na-ive and implausible sense, where Christ isfound in the most unlikely places, but in not-ing God's faithfulness, wisdom and purpose

10

in the progress of salvation history. It readsnot only the NT, but also the OT, as a bookabout Jesus. Even if in the OT religion wasfocused on present relationship with God,based on his dealings with and for his peoplein the past, there is a firm and growing beliefin the future coming of God on the day of theLord for judgment and salvation. Christiansbelieve that this hope culminates in Jesus andread the OT as a book which prepares forand prophesies his coming and the people ofGod he would renew and call into existence.The books of the NT connect Jesus with theOT in a variety of ways, seeing Jesus as thefulfilment of prophecy, the ideal to whichindividuals and institutions aspired, or theclimax of God's dealings revealed in varioustypes.

Virtually every theme in biblical theology,as may be seen from the examples noted inthe previous two sections, leads to Christ asthe final and definitive instalment. Not onlydo we see Christ and his work in a differentlight by considering themes such as victory,peace and glory; the momentous nature of hisappearance means that the reverse is alsotrue. A host of topics, such as "death and res-urrection and *sacrifice, and less obviously,but no less profoundly, "humanity, "Israeland "obedience, are seen differently in light ofthe advent of Christ. The article on " JesusChrist could be cross-referenced to every arti-cle in Part Three, for all the subjects arerelevant to him as God's final word and de-cisive act, and he to them. Even the articles onbiblical people, such as *Abraham, "Moses,"David, "Elisha and "Jonah, refer to Christ,in a typological sense and/or as the fulfilmentof the promises made to these people. Indeed,the Messiah is the theme which unites the Oldand New Testaments (T. D. Alexander, TheServant King). If biblical theology seeks toconnect text and truth (to use Watson'sphrase), it never forgets that Jesus is the truth.

ConclusionWhat is biblical theology? To sum up, biblicaltheology may be defined as theological inter-pretation of Scripture in and for the church. Itproceeds with historical and literary sensitiv-ity and seeks to analyse and synthesize theBible's teaching about God and his relationsto the world on its own terms, maintainingsight of the Bible's overarching narrative andChristocentric focus.

Further clarification of the nature andpromise of biblical theology is presented inthe other articles in Part One. However, inthe end, like civil engineering, biblical the-ology is best judged and understood by ex-amining what it produces. The purists willalways want more exact definition. Ultimatelythe proof that civil engineering and biblicaltheology are well conceived is in the qualityof the things they build. For the latter, thiscan he inspected in Parts Two and Three.

BibliographyT. D Alexander, The Servant King (Leices-

ter, 1998); J. Barr, The Concept of BiblicalTheology (London, 1999); M. Bockmuehl,"`To be or not to be": The possible futures ofNew Testament scholarship', SJT 51, 1998,pp. 271-306; G. B. Caird, New TestamentTheology, compiled and edited by L. D. Hurst( Oxford, 1994); D. A. Carson, 'New Testa-ment theology', in DLNTD, pp. 796-814; B.

IntroductionWhile some trace the origin of biblical theo-logy to the Protestant Reformation, and oth-ers to J. P. Gabler's 1797 address, 'AnOration on the Proper Distinction BetweenBiblical and Dogmatic Theology and the Spe-cific Objectives of Each', the fact is that theChristian church was concerned from a veryearly date to articulate a 'biblical theology' insome form. As far as is known, the actualterm (theologia biblica, biblische Theologie)was first used in the early 1600s, but the at-tempt to discern a unified and consistenttheology in the scriptures of the OT and NTis much older.

It might be argued that biblical theologyhas its origin within the Bible itself. Sum-maries of 'salvation-history' found in the OT(e.g. Deut. 26:5-9; Neh. 9:7-37; Pss. 78,105,106) and also in the NT (Acts 7; Heb. 11)

Childs, Biblical Theology of the Old and NewTestaments: Theological Reflection on theChristian Bible ( Minneapolis, 1992); S. Fowland L. G. Jones, Reading in Communion:Scripture and Ethics in Christian Life ( GrandRapids, 1991); R. J. Gibson (ed.), InterpretingGod's Plan: Biblical Theology and the Pastor(Carlisle, 1998); G. L. Goldsworthy, Accord-ing to Plan: The Unfolding Revelation of Godin the Bible (Leicester, 1991); J. B. Green andM. Turner, Between Two Horizons: SpanningNew Testament Studies and Systematic The-ology ( Grand Rapids, 1999); H. Raisanen,Beyond New Testament Theology (London,1990); P. Stuhlmacher, How To Do BiblicalTheology (Allison Park, 1995); W. VanGe-meren, The Progress of Redemption: FromCreation to the New Jerusalem (Carlisle,2 1995); F. Watson, Text and Truth: Redefin-ing Biblical Theology (Edinburgh, 1997).

B. S. ROSNER

trace the continuity of God's dealings with hispeople. The NT Gospels and epistles interpretthe Christ event in the light of the OT, butalso reinterpret the OT in the light of theChrist event. Paul, it has been suggested, wasthe first 'Old Testament theologian', and thesame claim could well be made for the writerto the Hebrews.

The early and medieval periodsAs soon as the Gospels, the letters of Paul andother Christian writings began to be usedalongside the Hebrew Scriptures, and wellbefore the finalizing of what came to be rec-ognized as the NT, these scriptures wereemployed by the church in formulating itsbeliefs and in countering what it believed tobe false teaching. From the outset it faced theproblem of "unity and diversity (a majorproblem in biblical theology to this day). Thechurch refused to follow Marcion's solution

11

History of Biblical Theology