Driver training and learning design from a developmental perspective Erik Roelofs Cito, Arnhem Version 1

Contents 1. Life-long learning within different traffic roles ................................................................................... 1

2. Elements of competent driving ........................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Four task levels .............................................................................................................................. 4

2.2 Elements of competence ............................................................................................................... 4

2.3 Performance criteria for competent driving ................................................................................. 7

3. Ingredients for driver learning design ................................................................................................. 8

3.1. A mental model for driving........................................................................................................... 8

3.1.1 Perception and decision making ............................................................................................ 9

3.1.2 Action execution ..................................................................................................................... 9

3.1.3 KSAEMP-Basis ....................................................................................................................... 10

3.2. The balance between own capability and driving task complexity ............................................ 10

3.2.1 Which factors determine performance capability? ............................................................. 11

3.2.2 Which situations enhance the driving task requirements? What is being complicated? .... 12

3.3 The development of independence and fading support of the driving instructor ..................... 15

3.4 General pedagogical principles ................................................................................................... 18

References ............................................................................................................................................. 23

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Driver training and learning design from a developmental perspective Erik Roelofs Cito, Arnhem

1. Life-long learning within different traffic roles In describing driver learning we tend to think of the period from the start of driver training at the age of 16, 17 or 18 years, until the time the license is obtained. If we were to take driver training and learning seriously, we would rather see it as a continuous, permanent and developing. Every citizen participates in traffic during his lifetime, be it in a passive role as a passenger or in an active role as pedestrians, cyclists, moped, or a car driver. Figure 1 summarizes how we participate in traffic in various roles throughout our life, roughly from 0 to 70 years. Participation in traffic starts early. Young children have their first experiences in traffic by riding with their parents, their caregivers, by walking on the street, and playing with friends and siblings. By that time all the rudiments of driving (in)competence are already built, by seeing how significant others drive, how the driver drives the school bus or by walking and cycling themselves. During primary education, there may be traffic classes, sometimes leading to a bicycle certificate around the age of eleven (in the Netherlands). In the period from 12 to 16 years teenagers experience various traffic roles: riding a bicycle, a scooter or a moped, or being in the role of a passenger in a car or bus or other means of public transportation on the way to school, the gym or some other destination. Typically, in the Netherlands, in that period, the role of traffic education is limited, with the exception of the preparation for the moped license. The phase in which traffic participants drive lasts long and culminates in the period between 25 and 50 years. Especially after the age of seventy, the use of cars drops sharply, as is the case for overall mobility during that life stage.

Figure 1: Traffic roles during different life stages

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0-4 5 -12 12-16 17-24 25-50 50-70 70+

Num

ber o

f kilo

met

ers

per d

ay

Age in years

6. Travel by public transportation

5. Travelling as car passenger

4. Driving a car

3. Moped riding

2. Cycling

1. Walking (pedestrian role)

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An important observation for designing driver training is to take in mind that young people have already gained a lot of experience in traffic either as a passenger or as an active participant. Although not systematically studied, we suspect that the previously accumulated knowledge, attitudes, skills, as well as misconceptions and undesirable habits acquired in traffic are not addressed at the start of the driving training. We therefore advocate that learning to drive is seen as a (next) form of transportation competence that builds on the already acquired skills of walking and biking. In essence, the learner driver moves into a new traffic role, that he will alternate regularly with known roles as pedestrian, public transport user or cyclist. The new traffic role brings him into new traffic situations, involving different interactions that put additional demands on his general ‘transportation competence’. It will sometimes be necessary to take a critical look at the undesirable habits developed within the role of cyclist, such as choosing shorter but illegal routes against the traffic flow. Moreover, driver training should help learner drivers not only to become proficient drivers, but also to become more conscious cyclists and pedestrians by frequently swapping their roles: how would it be to be a cyclist at this intersection? Another element of life-long oriented driver training is the changing social role that is reflected in the driving task throughout the ‘traffic career’. During the development from young adolescence, through the stages of young adulthood, middle age, towards old adulthood different life-tasks emerge, which result in different trip purposes, under varying traffic circumstances. During each of these stages different learning needs may appear. A developmentally oriented driver learning design would ideally address the needs of each stage, in order to enable the driver to fulfill his roles in traffic and to deal with changing traffic environments and corresponding safety concerns (Cf. Mc Gwin & Brown 1999).

Figure 2: Traffic roles during different life stages In the period prior to the driver training, the learner driver develops into an independent and responsible road user, as a pedestrian, public transport user and cyclist. In the period of primary and secondary education the range of action increases due to growing social networks. During initial driver training the learner driver acquires initial driving competence, ideally in a role as an independent and responsible driver. The need to travel at different times and over greater distances increases with the ever- growing social networks. Young drivers gradually make more miles, often for social trip purposes, which bring them in risky situations, such as driving during nights and weekend with peers. Increasingly daily life tasks must be combined with the driving task, which comes with higher task demands and subsequent risks. These are not yet fully acknowledged and dealt with. Learning activities may aim at typical young driver problems: overestimation of own skills and distraction by cell phone use (Engström et al., 2003; Gregersen, 1996; Gregersen, & Bjurulf; 1996; Mynttinen, et al., 2010; Preusser Ferguson, & Williams, 1998; Summala, 1987). Among the skills to be developed are those of

Acquisition of initialdriving competence

Becoming aresponsibledriver

Sustaining competence and adapting to new roles

Loss of proficiency: compensation training, restrictions and retreat

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self-reflection and awareness of emotions during driving. Ideally, the young driver develops a social and responsible driving style. The more experienced middle aged driver (30-55 years of age) takes on a number of social roles in traffic, such as an employee, a parent, a taxi driver. Often this is accompanied by the intrusion of undesirable driving habits, such as more agitated and irritated driving or driving too fast or with limited empathy for other road users, especially if various forms of stress are involved. Awareness and adaptation of the changed driving style is often the subject of continued learning. For the drivers who have committed serious violations, rehabilitation courses are aimed at developing safer and more social thing driving habits. Older drivers, especially those over 70 years of age, face increasing limitations because of physical and cognitive decline, reflecting in an increased crash risk. Learning activities may be aimed at compensation for lost abilities, by thoughtful choices when or not to go out by car. Eventually it may be decided to suggest or impose restrictions or even retreat as a driver. This often against the backdrop of a need to remain mobile in a world of gradually shrinking social networks and dependence on others. In figure 2 the driver roles and the accompanying educational concerns are summarized.

Figure 3: Elements of the cube of driving competence

2. Elements of competent driving The design of driver training starts with the question: what is competent driving? In answering that question, we use a cube as a metaphor (see Figure 3). The cube has three dimensions, each with a central question. First, what do we mean by driving? This relates to the dimension of the task levels. Second, what should the driver know, be able to do and be willing to do? This relates to the dimension of the competence elements. Third, how do we observe driving competence? This pertains to the dimension of the performance criteria. A design of driver training provides answers to all these questions. The three dimensions of the cube are divided into layers, which together define competent driving.

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2.1 Four task levels The first dimension of the cube describes the task levels of driving. Driving involves more than operating the vehicle. Driving a car is a task that is intertwined with daily life and work tasks. This is a principle that should be central from the outset of driver training. This idea is not new and has been advocated by experts who have recently formulated the so-called " Goals for Driver Education '' for driver training, summarized in the so-called GDE matrix (Hatakka, et al. 2002). The task level of "live and travel" refers to personality traits, attitudes, values, aspirations and lifestyle of the driver which may affect his driving. Choices at the level of living impact the way they solve traffic situations and how they handle the vehicle. Think of the decision to take the car instead of a bus or a bike, the choice to take passengers, baggage and to continue daily activities in the car: socializing with peers, doing business, raising children. The combination of high stress levels and time pressure due to tight schedules may lead to driving in a hurry. A young driver who is sensitive to pressure from peers may decide to drive to a party with friends in the car, while using the phone, with all possible consequences. Think of distracted driving with dangerously high speeds at intersections or on rural roads. The second level, referring to planning and navigating, are strategic tasks: Choosing and preparing the route, the choice of means of transport (car, public transport, bicycle, ride, etc.). Thinking in advance about the situations in which you may end up as a driver and plan accordingly, is critical for safe and smooth participation in those situations themselves. For example, on days with snow and fog a choice to drive may lead to difficult and dangerous situations for which the driver was not prepared. It may be useful to prepare for expected traffic situations in other cities or other countries, to prevent unpleasant surprises. Outdated maps on the car navigator can make a drive unexpectedly difficult. The third level refers to the actual driving in traffic situations, i.e. solving traffic tasks in cooperation with other road users. Consider the following: meeting, overtaking other road users, or turning and crossing at intersections, or merging and exiting on highways. At this level of observation, decision, and action execution skills are important. At least as important is the ability to communicate and empathize with other road users, especially when it is so difficult, sitting in a closed space, where the others cannot be heard or seen face to face. The fourth level of driving refers to the technical operation of the vehicle, a necessary but not sufficient condition for skilled task execution. Examples are cruising, steering and accelerating, driving through bends and performing special maneuvers such as turning and parking. At the stage of initial driver training, vehicle control is still crucial. Training courses that aim at skid control can often be counterproductive, because trained drivers show greater risk taking, as a result of overconfidence in difficult situations. The four levels of driving are inseparably connected in the daily life of the driver. All levels should therefore be addressed in the driver training. It is essential that during the training the (learner) driver is made aware of the interdependence of choices at the level of life tasks (care, leisure, work, etc.) and choices at the levels of planning, navigating, participation and vehicle handling.

2.2 Elements of competence One thing that most researchers and educators agree on is that driving is a complex skill. Competent participation in traffic requires a combination of different qualities of the driver. The different elements of competence form the second dimension in the definition of driving skill. Table 1 is an attempt to describe the various elements, without claiming to be exhaustive. The probably most recognized element of competence is "know and understand". Without directly accessible knowledge it is not possible to participate safely, smoothly, and socially in traffic. Knowledge could include the following: theory of the driving task, including traffic, knowledge and

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understanding of traffic as a system, knowledge about factors that determine the complexity of traffic, potential risk factors located in the driver, the vehicle and the environment. Less obvious, but also important are social roles in traffic, and the effects of driving habits and lifestyle. Except directly accessible knowledge and understanding, it is important that the driver can adequately "decide and act' in traffic. The driver makes decisions on the basis of an assessment of the situation (perception), predictions and evaluations of the consequences of different courses of action. A less frequently mentioned quality is that of 'empathy and acceptance" by the driver. Driving takes place in interaction with others, within a traffic system. Driving is a social activity: every action of the driver has implications for other road users. Empathizing with the interests and needs of others during driving and changes of perspectives with others can be seen as a social and moral competence. Acceptance of rules and norms of behavior are part of it. Driving requires justifiable moral judgments. The question is whether the choices made in traffic are morally justifiable, seen from the interests of the driver and others. This competence element is probably an underestimated aspect in driver training. We expect that driver training will face limitations when it comes to the development of a sound moral judgment. The intended ' empathy and acceptance' requires a level of moral development that may not be accomplished by a number of (learner) drivers. However, doing nothing about it, is not an option. A fourth element, 'self-regulation and self-reflection’ means that the driver is able to take responsibility for his own behavior. He is aware of his own choices, and reflects on the impact of his behavior on others. In addition such a driver finds ways to adjust his driving on the basis of this critical reflection. Part of a fruitful self-reflection is the correct attribution of causes of errors or problems in traffic to oneself or to the environment. Further, self-regulation shows in the control over emotions in traffic. This is also referred to as emotional self-regulation. Losing oneself in emotions in traffic, basically means that the self-regulation disappears, which is a breeding ground for unsafe traffic behavior.

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Table 1: elements of competence described on four task levels of driving

Driving task levels Empathize and accept Decide and execute action Know and understand Self-regulation and reflection

1. Combining life and work tasks with driving

• Empathize with social situation of which driving is a part

• Resolve conflicts between life-level goals and travel purposes

• Social roles • Cultural awareness • Habits and ways of living and

how this affects driving

• Align life-level goals with travel purposes

• Reflect on the quality of the alignment

• Reflect on collaboration with other road users

2. Planning and navigation

• Consider driving as a social activity

• Take responsibility for the functioning of the traffic system

• Anticipate expected other road users and their interests, needs, capabilities and habits

• Choose for a means of transportation based on consideration of anticipated positive and negative effects for themselves and others in traffic

• Calibrate: choose traffic tasks with levels of complexity that are in accordance with one’s own task capability

Knowledge of: • The why behind traffic rules • Traffic as a system • Factors that determine the

complexity of traffic tasks • Personal risk factors and

factors regarding vehicle and traffic environment

• Factors that determine one’s own task capability

• Specific traffic rules • Theory of the driving task

• Reflection on the effects of own driving behavior for traffic safety and other criteria

• Plan, organize, adjust route based on accomplishment of travel purposes

• Monitor and correct miscalibrations regarding task complexity and own capability

3. Participation in different traffic situations

• Comply to the traffic rules • Empathize with direct needs of

other road users in traffic situations

• Solve traffic situations according to criteria using the processes of perception, anticipation, evaluation, decision making

• Specific traffic rules • Theory of the driving task

• Adjust driving behavior based on observations of own and others’ driving behavior

• Control and regulate emotions in traffic

4. Vehicle handling • Empathize with the effects of

own driving style on other road users.

• Automated transformation of intended solutions into action execution

• Anticipate effects of speed choice, use of space on other road users

• Critical monitoring and corrections of own errors

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2.3 Performance criteria for competent driving The third dimension of the competence cube describes the criteria of competent driving. Driving performance can be measured against five criteria: safety, social driving behavior, contributing to smooth flow, environmentally-responsible driving, and controlled driving. In essence, the criteria describe the desirable effects of traffic participation. Safe driving refers to one’s ability to drive in such a way that the risk of injury or damage to driver or other road users is kept to a minimum. Safety relates to one’s own speed, as well as the speed and distance of others. Drivers should ensure that they have sufficient, built-in safety margins. On a strategic level, this means that drivers plan their routes so they can reach their destinations in time, driving at a safe speed. From a tactical and operational standpoint, drivers continuously adjust their speed to the circumstances / task situations and according to their own ability. They drive at safe distances from the vehicles in front of them. They assess the risks, recognize dangers in time and choose to act accordingly. Driving with consideration for other road users (social driving behavior) means that drivers not only focus on their own safety and flow, but also take into account the interests of others. This means that they should be acting considerately and not be overly concerned about whether they are in the right or whether others are wrong. They should avoid surprising others by making their intentions clear well in advance and by giving others road space to correct their mistakes. Such drivers empathize with other road users and can assess whether their own behavior causes others to be irritated or nervous. They do not react to aggression by other road users. Facilitating traffic flow implies the ability to drive in traffic without impeding the progress of other road users. On a strategic level, this means that the person drives in a decisive manner and makes sensible decisions to, for instance, set off outside peak traffic hours or to take another route during rush hour. His actions are not only safe but also vigorous and smooth. A driver chooses where to stop or where to turn in a way that causes the least convenience to other traffic. The same applies to performing maneuvers, such as reversing and parking. These tasks are carried out in such a way that they do not hinder other road users. Environmentally-responsible driving involves driving in such a way that emissions of harmful gases and noise levels are kept to a minimum and that optimal use of fuel is achieved. On a strategic level, this may mean avoiding roads with heavy traffic. Driving with correct tire pressure is another example on a strategic level. On a tactical level, such driving involves avoiding large changes in speed: calm accelerating and decelerating; changing up to a higher gear in good time and making use of the car’s rolling momentum. The engine should be switched off during long stops. On an operational level, one might think of gentle use of the accelerator and clutch when carrying out maneuvers. Controlled driving relates to the technical control and operation of the vehicle. At a strategic level, this could mean knowing how to use navigation systems, putting on snow chains, etc. At a tactical level, it is more concerned with performing technical, traffic-related tasks. Does the driver check his surroundings and drive smoothly? Does the driver carry out turns, stop and start flexibly and smoothly? Also at an operational level, all maneuvers should be flexible and controlled. Steering, stepping on the accelerator, disengaging and engaging the clutch and braking should be performed automatically It is recommended to monitor the progress of (learner) drivers throughout the whole driver training phase. In essence all traffic rules can be traced back to these five basic criteria. Of course, knowledge and application of traffic rules should be object of assessment, but driving assessment should address more than that. Sometimes it may not be possible to drive completely safely, smoothly, environmentally friendly, socially acceptable and comfortably at the same time, but instead an optimum for all must be found.

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3. Ingredients for driver learning design As described above driving competence is much more than participation in traffic, traffic rule knowledge and vehicle control. The proposed cube with three dimensions is a departure point for a broader approach to driving competence. The next question is what the essential elements should be of instructional learning design, a pedagogy for driver learning. Which principles make a case for driver learning (cf. Beanland, Goode, Salmon, & Lenné, 2013)? Without claiming to be complete we describe four core ingredients and its practical implications for learning design: 1) A mental model of driving, 2) the safety balance approach: the balance between one’s own capability and the complexity requirement of driving tasks, 3) the development of independence by a fading degree of control by the driving instructor and 4) general pedagogical principles that have been found to be effective in the context of school education.

3.1. A mental model for driving The first ingredient for driver learning design is the tenet that drivers at all task levels are involved in a (serious) mental task process (cf. Groeger, 2000): the driver is “at work". When going through this mental process, drivers must simultaneously take various factors into consideration: the state of the passengers, baggage, other traffic, traffic intensity, weather conditions, and so on. In addition, drivers perform other competing (life) tasks that may impair the quality of the mental activities necessary for driving, such as phoning, texting, talking, listening to a radio show, mentally preparing for work, feeling angry with other road users, etc. Driving can be considered a cognitive- affective decision-making process, in which the driver automatically and quickly goes through a chain of mental processes: observing, predicting, empathizing with others, evaluating, deciding, and executing actions. These actions lead to consequences in traffic situations: the fluency of traffic flow, safety for the driver and others, justice to be done to the interests of other participants, fuel consumption, emissions, and ride comfort.

Figure 4: a mental model for driving (Roelofs, E.C., et al., 2008).

Driving task situation

• Knowledge• Skills• Attitudes• Emotions• Moods• Personality traits

Basis

Perception &decision making

Action execution

Consequences

Reflection

Reflection

Competing tasks(E.g. phoning, peer interaction)

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Below we discuss the mental processes involved in more detail.

3.1.1 Perception and decision making The driver starts off with perceiving the most important information about the situation on the road. Non-relevant information will be “ignored”. This essential information relates to the road and its surroundings: road markings, road signs, the weather, the quality of the road, etc. It also relates to other people on the road: Where are the other road users located, and what is their speed? The driver will also evaluate the status and dynamics of his own vehicle: Where am I driving now, and at what speed? The stage of perception is all about active observation. It is about what the driver observes and whether or not the driver actually understands what he observes: What does this road sign mean? What does this situation mean? The things observed by the driver will also strongly depend on his knowledge: Yes, I recognize this is a merging lane; this is where I have to give way; this is a cyclist going this and that way and he could swerve. Experienced drivers will understand the things they observe based on their experience in previous, similar situations. Merely seeing a certain situation may cause the driver to respond in a certain way. Errors in perception may lead to wrong actions. Based on the information perceived, the driver can anticipate the result of certain actions (overtaking a vehicle, passing a vehicle, turning into a road). The expectations are already there, and these form the basis for the decisions that will be made. For instance, if I keep driving like this and the pedestrian crosses the road, my car might hit the pedestrian. I can slow down and/or I could give a signal to alert the pedestrian that he should not be crossing the road. If the driver is capable of anticipating the course of events accurately, then he will have more time to respond in the event of the situation becoming critical. It is crucial for the driver to have a certain amount of knowledge about traffic and road situations to be able to anticipate certain events. Drivers cannot anticipate things they do not know about. The initial anticipation will be checked against the course of events when driving. After another round of perception, the driver will anticipate different things, and so on. What also matters in addition to anticipating and anticipating the risk that something might happen in the event of a particular action, is how the driver values the consequences he anticipates (i.e. the meaning he gives to those consequences). The driver may weigh up several different aspects against one another (such as traffic safety, traffic flow, well-being, comfort, ease, etc.). During this evaluation process, traffic regulations, traffic insights and the ability to change perspectives with the other road users play an important role. Based on the perception, anticipation and evaluation chain the driver decides whether or not to take action, or consider an alternative option. He selects and develops the most suitable action based on the circumstances at hand. The driver will assess whether it would be best to slow down, to accelerate, to drive in a different direction, to signal, etc. In addition, it is also important for the driver to realize what he does and does not have under direct control. Then, the driver will select the best option and carry out the action, e.g. pressing the brake pedal, pressing the throttle, or turning the steering wheel.

3.1.2 Action execution The action decided upon by the driver must be carried out. This results in a change of speed or direction of the vehicle, which then creates a new situation on the road, causing the driver to start the task process all over again from the beginning. Proficient drivers are usually unaware that they are completing this process of perception → anticipation → evaluation → decision-making → action. In the majority of cases, the driver will almost automatically take action after perceiving the situation on the road. When a driver notices

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that he is driving too close to the middle of the road, he will correct this immediately by turning the steering wheel. In that case, there is no need for a complex process of anticipation, evaluation and decision-making. However, if the situation on the road is complex or entirely new, the driver will be more or less aware of completing each step of the process. It often occurs that one of the sub-processes is hindered by the situation at hand (see 3.2). Beginner drivers in particular will need to complete each step of the process very carefully in order to reach a decision. The proficient driver ideally regularly reflects on his own decisions and actions (see the returning arrows in Figure 4). This is done in order to make new or modified short-term decisions. In addition, the reflection also contributes to the regulation of underlying emotions and moods that determine the driving. In the long term reflection contributes to the updating of one’s own base of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. Awareness of these mental task processes and the risks of distraction by other tasks is an important pillar of the ideal driver training. By addressing the essential mental processes and their effects on the driver and his environment, driving will be will considered more than an individualistic activity. Moreover, we expect that using a mental model of the driving process, will enable the (learner) driver to critically reflect on his own learning and driving process. Obviously the model needs to be put in understandable and practical terms for the (learner) driver.

3.1.3 KSAEMP-Basis The process of perception, decision making and action may be influenced by a range of factors that can be referred to as KSAEMP-basis (knowledge, attitudes, skills, emotions, moods and personality traits). In table 1 most of the KSA elements that the driver needs to develop, were mentioned. To mention a few:

• Personality traits (need for a thrill, impulsiveness) • Beliefs about oneself as a driver • Trust in one’s own driving skills and sense of control • Attitudes towards norms and rule, speed limitations • Level of moral development • Risk perception skills (the perceived and tolerated severity of consequences and the

implications for the driver) • The assessment of the risk that these consequences will occur if no action is taken

3.2. The balance between own capability and driving task complexity A second ingredient for driver learning design is the principle of maintaining a safety balance. A proficient driver maintains the best possible balance between task complexity on the one hand and his own task capability on the other hand. This requires deliverate acquistion of higher order skills on the part of the (learner), including situational awareness, the use of visual search strategies, hazard anticipation, and risk management (Deery, 1999; Endsley; 2000; Grayson et al 2003; Isler, Starkey, & Sheppard, 2011; Isler, Starkey, & Williamson, 2009). The idea of keeping a safety balance, also referred to as "calibration" (De Craen, 2010), is illustrated in Figure 5 and has its origin in Fuller’s task-capability- interface model (Fuller, 2005). This ‘higher order’ skill required from drivers is the ability to choose traffic situations that they can handle with their level of competence. If they make the wrong strategic choice, drivers find themselves in situations they cannot manage. There is thus a crucial balance between level of competence and task requirements. As long as the task requirements do not exceed the level of competence of the driver, then he will be in control of the situation (see the lower part of Figure 3, below). However, if the task requirements exceed the level of competence of the driver, then he will

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lose control of the situation. In many cases, other road users will adjust to the driving behavior of the driver and will therefore compensate for any errors. Sometimes, there may be a lucky escape, but in some cases, this situation may result in a collision (as shown in the upper part of Figure 3).

Figure 5: balance between competence and task requirements

Fuller (2005), the author of this balance model, states that most road users attempt to keep the difficulty of the task at a constant level in order to maintain an agreeable amount of task-related stress.

3.2.1 Which factors determine performance capability? To a large degree, the driver is able to influence the task requirements by adjusting his driving behavior at various levels. When a driver accelerates, the task of driving becomes more difficult. The faster you drive, the less time you have to process information, to make decisions, to take action and to correct errors. Multi-tasking (or, more correctly, task-switching) and other distractions—such as talking on the phone or changing CDs in the CD player, or the presence of passengers—make the driving task even harder. Of course, the driver can try to make the task of driving easier, e.g. by slowing down or by ending the phone call. Adjusting the speed is the most useful and immediate method for adjusting the task requirements. However, even prior to driving, the task can be made easier. For instance, a driver could decide not to drive at all if the roads are slippery or if there is too much fog. Or, he could decide to leave at a time that is outside peak-hour and, thus, reduce the difficulty and complexity of the traffic situations you encounter. The chosen route can make a difference as well. While the driver has the capacity to adjust the task requirements so that they remain manageable, he may not always choose to do so. Indeed, the personality and emotional profile of the driver may lead to a deliberate choice to increase task requirements, for example by seeking out difficult road situations. This may be the case when a driver feels the need to release stress or to find a thrill, or when a driver feels under time pressure and is in a hurry, and deliberately pushes himself “near the edge” (which, of course, may lead to going over the edge).

Loss of Control

Lucky escape

Collision

Performancecapability (C)

Task require-ments (T)

C < T

Performancecapability (C) Task require-

ments (T)

C > T

In control

Others compensating

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On the other side of the balance scale, competence, or performance capability, is also not constant. When his level of competence reduces, a driver is more likely to be overwhelmed by task requirements. Such a reduction may occur when a driver is very tired or sleepy, is in a terrible mood or frustrated about other road users, is experiencing stress or anxiety (which may be work-related), or is under the influence of intoxicating substances. As a result, the driving behavior may not be properly adjusted to the traffic conditions. In Figure 6 the influence of some of these factors is depicted. Also, work-related factors, such as long days and tight schedules may influence the way that the personality of a driver affects the balance between task capability and task complexity.

Figure 6: How personal factors can affect the balance between competence and task requirements

3.2.2 Which situations enhance the driving task requirements? What is being complicated? In many cases, the driver cannot avoid ending up in certain situations on the road when these situations are part of the route he is taking (to and from work, to friends, on a holiday). In addition, one intersection may be more complicated than another, and one part of the day may present more complicated road situations than another. In other words there are situational factors that cause the task requirements to be higher (see figure 7) and that will affect the balance between competence and task requirements resulting in driver errors.

Less aware of traffic situation Distraction

Performance capability (C)

Task requirements

(T)

C < T

Risk factor: Low experience

Risk factor: peer pressure

Personal factors

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Figure 7: How situational factors can affect the balance between competence and task requirements Table 2 explains how certain characteristics of a situation on the road may hinder the task process of driving. Most of the factors are drawn from research on error studies (Stanton & Salmon, 2009). The table also mentions the parts of the task process of driving that are hampered, as well as the problems this may lead to. Table 2: Which task process is being hampered by critical factors in the traffic situation?

Task process ► Perception Anticipation Evaluation Decision-making

Action execution

Critical characteristics of the traffic situation ▼

Problem ► Failure to perceive properly

Failure to decide in good time Making the wrong decision

Failure to act in good time or adequately

Sight and visibility (Sight obstruction, masking, camouflage)

X

Distractors X X Regulation and recognizability (driver surprised) X X Presence of other participants at the same time/place X Density of consecutive traffic tasks, time pressure X X

Speed differences X X X Available space to carry out actions X X Road conditions (grip, hills, bends) X Adverse weather conditions (hindering vehicle control) X

Performance capability (C)

Task requirements

(T)

C < T

• Sight and visibility • Distractors• Other participants • Regulation and recognizability• Speed differences• Time pressure• Space to carry out actions• Adverse road conditions• Adverse weather conditions

Situational factors

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The left-hand column in the table lists the characteristics of situations on the road that may hinder the driver. Even though we are aware that this list is not complete, we do distinguish nine different characteristics of critical situations on the road. First, sight and visibility. A traffic task becomes more complex when sight and visibility are limited. This happens in case of sight obstruction (parked cars blocking your view), masking (rows of trees), and camouflage (small silhouettes of cyclists, dark clothes within a dark environment) of blinding by light (a low sun, blinding headlight glare from opposing traffic lanes). Perception and subsequent anticipation of the traffic situation will become more difficult. Second, distractors. When a major event occurs in traffic, drivers may be distracted and may lose valuable time and space to act adequately: an accident on the opposite side of the road, a surveillance police car, festivities, low-flying hot-air balloons, etc. Distractions can also occur inside the vehicle (phone calls, operating the CD player, operating the navigation system while driving, etc.). A third factor pertains to the degree in which traffic situations are regulated and recognizable. The lesser the situation is regulated by means of traffic signs, the more the (learner) driver has to derive the most appropriate course of action, which puts higher demands on his (limited) cognitive resources. Roads without lines, without speed indications ask for more interpretation than roads with clearly separated lanes and traffic signs. Intersections with traffic lights put less demands on the driver’s decision making skill than intersections that are regulated. Related to this is the recognizability of the traffic scene. The course of the road or the situation on the road may suddenly change, which may cause the driver to feel disoriented for a while. Some examples: road markings that suddenly stop, continuous street lights that suddenly come to an end, intersections that are not very clearly indicated, new signs that were previously not there, or a change in the road layout. A fourth factor relates to other participants arriving at the scene at the same time. One of the most complicating factors is when other road users arrive at the same location on the road at the same time, e.g. cyclists and motorists who arrive at an intersection at the same time, or multiple intersections where one must cross several flows of traffic. A fifth factor, related to this, is the density of consecutive traffic tasks which may cause different levels of time pressure. When subtasks in a traffic scenario follow up quickly within a short time span the time pressure will increase. An example: roundabouts with many exits and with traffic entering, exiting and changing lanes all at once. Each scenario requires the driver to oversee the situation and to reach a decision very quickly. Contrary, driving on a deserted motorway will cause hardly any time pressure. Sixth, as the speed differences between traffic participants are larger, it is more difficult to notice changes in situations, as free spaces can be suddenly occupied. This will influence the timely decision and proper estimation of available spaces. Cyclists on the road require the speed to be reduced when deciding to either stay behind or to pass them. Slowly merging heavy vehicles can force the driver to adjust his own speed and position on the road, causing an extra demand on the decision-making process of the (learner) driver. Seventh, available space to carry out actions is an important factor of task complexity. Several situations on the road offer little space for vehicles while the speed at which the driver is driving may leave him with little time to make a decision and to act adequately. See also the above example of roundabouts. When the road changes to a narrow section, like with road works, the actions the driver takes will be made even more difficult due to the narrow width of the lanes. The driver will be required to act with more accuracy or precision, leaving no space for even small errors. Eighth, adverse conditions such as impaired grip, steep descends, sharp bends, potholes can complicate vehicle control. Very steep roads can make it hard for the driver to accelerate and may therefore create dangerous situations, e.g. when the driver tries to overtake other cars. Winding roads can require a lot of driving skill from the driver and may require the driver to slow down. Risks will arise when the chosen speed and distance are not adapted to the road conditions. Finally in addition to light and road conditions (sight obstruction), adverse weather conditions may have adverse effects on vehicle control. For instance in case of strong winds, cars can become less steerable, depending on the environment (bridges, open areas) and size and weight of the cars. The

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weather may also affect the road surface (rain, snow, wet areas that freeze over, etc.), which reduces the tires’ grip on the road. The increased amount of concentration required and the stress experienced by the driver will affect the amount of information the driver is able to process. An important pillar of driving instructional design is that participants are made aware of the balance between their own capabilities and the task requirements. Disturbances of this balance can result in dangerous situations. The driver must be made aware of the factors that cause imbalance and often originate in life level tasks which interfere with driving. Therefore the learner driver is to be stimulated to ensure that he always has sufficient surplus competence in relation to the task requirements. It is clear that this requires ongoing critical self-reflection and self-regulation on the part of the (learner) driver, as depicted in Table 1. In addition, it is important that the learner driver develops a realistic self-image as a driver. Distorted self-images bring about overestimation of the own capability, and these need to be recognized and adjusted during driver training, before young drivers find themselves in unacceptable dangerous situations.

3.3 The development of independence and fading support of the driving instructor A fourth ingredient of learning design, or driving pedagogy, is that the learner driver is stimulated to carry out traffic tasks increasingly independently. A guiding principle taken from learning psychology is that the instructor leaves those learning functions to the driver which he already has mastered (Shuell, 1993; Vermunt & Verloop, 1999; Winne, & Hadwin, 1998). Traffic tasks that learner drivers engage in during driving lessons may initially be partly or completely executed by their driving instructors, for instance when the instructor carries out a demo drive. In later stages of the driver training the driver takes over full control of all traffic tasks. In a developmentally designed driver training program the traffic tasks become increasingly complex, depending on the stage of driver progress. To enable the learner driver to drive increasingly independent, the instructor will increasingly ‘fade out’ his support (Collins, Brown, & Newman, (1989). This means that he offers gradually less support to the execution of the driving task, as regards all sub processes of driving, as described above (perception, anticipation, decision, action execution). When the instructor regulates all learning activities the learning environment is referred to as ‘direct instruction’ (Rosenshine, B. 2009). When most of the activities are handed over to the learner driver the instructors’ activities can be characterized as ‘coaching’. In designing driver learning, the challenge is to find an optimal mix of instruction and coaching, in such a way that the learner moves forward towards proficiency and independence. The gradual decrease of instructional support is best organized around the complexity level of the traffic environment. In developing his driving competence the (learner) driver is able to carry out driving tasks in increasingly complex environments. This pedagogical principle ‘from simple to complex’ is widely used across a range of educational contexts. Figure 8 depicts a developmental course from environments with limited traffic, towards environments with highly complicated traffic. In the traffic environments that are visited during training, increasingly more complicating factors come into play, such as limited sight, multiple, high task density and time pressure. In this figure we have suggested four phases of driver training with accompanying task environments, differing in complexity level.

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Figure 8: a developmental course of increasingly complex traffic tasks We would argue that the instructor uses an approach that takes into account the level of development of the learner driver , especially in terms of his self-regulation skill (see table 1). Self-regulation involves acting from intrinsic motivation, focus on clear personal learning goals, and a focus on self-reflection and self-criticism. The driving instructor can support the initial acquisition, practice and independent execution of the driving task. This support can be targeted at three levels of the driving task: planning and navigation, participation in traffic, and vehicle handling. The kind of support can vary depending on the level of (learner) driver development (Butler & Winne; 1995; Vermunt, & Verloop, 1999; Vermunt, & Verschaffel, 2000) and the next learning progression (Heritage, 2007) or proximal zone of development (Vygotsky, 1978). The support of planning and navigating refers to help in planning the (lesson) route, adapting the route depending on the circumstances or the travel goal, anticipation in case of longer task chains, preparing in advance for traffic tasks ahead. With the latter we mean traffic tasks which require a longer preparation. For example, to prepare for taking an exit on the motorway from the indication '1500 meter', which requires a well-timed decision on the part of the driver. It can be expected that the learner driver who is in a more advanced stage will make increasingly more independent strategic choices before and during driving. The driving instructor can give different degrees of support, which are elaborated in the scheme below.

Support in solving traffic tasks (interaction with other traffic). Support is aimed at the various task processes which are involved in driving: perception, anticipation, predicting, deciding, action execution. Support can relate to more than one task process. For example: The LD is approaching an intersection which must be crossed. The instructor can refer to the kind of intersection (is it regulated? Is there a right of way?), the location and speed of the own vehicle, looking right and left to other traffic, is there enough time and space to cross safely, and what would be the safest option at the moment (stop or drive). Again there are different degrees of support: a) Instructing exactly what the LD has to do (stop at this point, accelerate gently now, because…); b) Instruct task processes (because the sight is limited here, you could better…), c) provide hints (“mind that you have enough space to safely cross the street”) and d) leave it to the learner driver (do not say or do anything).

Phase 3Phase 2Phase 1 Phase 4

Simpletask environment

Limited traffic task environment

Fading support driving instructor Increasing driver independence &proficiency

Most complextask environment

Complextask environment

Increasingly complex traffic tasks

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1) Instructing the whole task: the driving instructor is in the lead For example: “stay behind that truck. Then you will have enough space to exit from the motorway safely” 2) Instructing parts of the task: the driving instructor takes the initiative, the learner driver follows. For example: “Try to stay two seconds behind the vehicle in front”. 3) Giving hints: the learner driver takes the initiative, the driving instructor jumps at times with hints. For example: “Mind that you will have enough space to safely exit the motorway”. 4) Leave tasks to the learner driver No comments or hints during the execution of driving tasks Finally, support with vehicle handling relates to support with steering, accelerating and decelerating, using gears (if applicable). The degrees of support can vary from a complete take-over of pedals (breaking by applying the double pedal) to verbal instructions (make a more powerful turn with your steering wheel, position the car right beside the curb) and leave to the learner driver (not saying or doing anything). The different degrees of support are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: different degrees of instructor support in the acquisition of driving competence What is supported? Degree of instructor support Planning and navigating

Route planning, adapting the route, planning of longer chains of traffic tasks

• Exact instruction in how to act • Instructing parts of task processes • Providing hints • Leave tasks to the learner driver

Interaction with other traffic

Mental task processes of solving traffic tasks (perception, anticipation, evaluation, decision making, action execution)

• Exact instruction in how to act • Instructing parts of task processes • Providing hints • Leave tasks to the learner driver

Vehicle handling

Handing of vehicle of solving traffic tasks (steering, accelerating, decelerating, maneuvering)

• Take over pedals and steering wheel

• Verbal instructions how to handle • Verbal hints • Leave tasks to the learner driver

Following the cube of driver competence (figure 3), we can add a fourth target of support: support in the combination of life level task goals and transportation goals. For reasons of parsimony we do not address this level in this paper.

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3.4 General pedagogical principles To close this paper on the principles of a developmental driver training program we describe a number of ingredients that should not be overlooked in a learning design. These originate from research sources about effective learning in regular educational settings (Anthony, & Walshaw, 2007; Brophy, & Good, 1986; Wang, Haertel, Walberg, 1993).

• High ambitions: the (young) beginning driver is sufficiently competent Research has shown that a high level of ambition of educators contributes to greater learning effects. This does not fit the sometimes heard view that only after obtaining the license the driver will start to really learn to drive. Instead, the aim of a training program should be that each person holding a driver's license, has proven the ability to drive independently and responsibly through traffic, and has shown the willingness and ability to decide whether or not it makes sense to take the car, and to combine life tasks with driving.

• Self-regulation and self-reflection In an ideal situation the learners own their learning process. This can be accomplished by allowing them to be in control of their learning and to offer them possibilities to reflect critically on their style of driving and their progress. Dutch experiences with innovative driver training programs show that systematic self-reflections along with intermediate expert/assessments make the learner drivers more aware of their driving styles and the effects on safety, flow, and comfort. By the time they go through the final on-road exam they appear to be able to mention strong and weak point in their driving performance. By specifying personal learning goals, sometimes written down in logs, learner drivers commit themselves to these goals and corresponding points of improvement, on which they work with intrinsic motivation.

• Tools for permanent learning A powerful principle for driver training is to provide tools for learning permanently. After obtaining the license the young licensed driver should continue to take the driving task seriously. This can be encouraged by informing the driver about his driving style on a regular basis. A way to monitor the driving style is to use in-car equipment which provides objective information about the driving style and points on the route where the driving style occurred. Online (self) assessments can be used to collect information about behavior and motives behind the driving behavior, ending up in reports that may elicit self-reflection (Boud, 1995, 1998).

• Address multiple senses It is important that different senses are addressed during driver training: the intellect, feeling, and sensory experience. Or to mention an old pedagogical principle, use both head, heart and hands. In terms of driver learning design this can be translated to assignments, case studies and direct experiences. A method that elicits self-reflection is the use of observation assignments, which allow learner drivers to have an active role during a drive with peer (learner) drivers. Using an observation card participants depict all encounters with other traffic and add to it how they experience them: green (safe), orange (questionable) and red (uncomfortable, unsafe, see figure 9).

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Figure 9: An observation card as a tool for reflection Discussion of the green, orange and red moments as observed during the route contributes to exchanges between learner drivers. Combinations of different learning tools addressing different senses ensure that the learning experiences will get deeply rooted into the memory of the driver.

• Dealing with differences A universal principle in all types of training, including driver training, is that the instructional approach should be adapted based on the starting conditions and styles learning, Proficient driving coaches deal with these differences by starting from personal learning needs. While it is useful for everyone to think critically about their own behavior, that does not work for all in the same way. For verbally skilful learners it is easier to work with written checklists. Less verbally learners would benefit more from pictures, colors and icons that can also support thinking. A more general measure to adapt to learner differences is to regularly monitor the progress of learner drivers, report the results in understandable ways and adapt the training content and approach bespoke.

• Opportunities to practice Research shows conclusively that expertise is acquired only after many hours of practice in a variety of task situations. We should expect no ‘expert drivers’ of driver training, but we can expect a sufficient basis for initial driving competence. The results of periodic driver training research, which were carried out on a regular basis in the Netherlands indicated that ‘many opportunities to practice’ was a good predictor for the success rate on the first exam. In addition to on-road driving lessons, driving simulators, from simple 180 degree screen-based versions towards 270 degrees high-end

Observation card coached trip

Explanation (be specific!):

Safe space

Safe speed

Nobody is hindered

Allotting space to others

Communicating with others

Driver: Observer:

1

2

3

5

4

1 Close following Renault

on motorway2. Close approach car in front

on road outside built-up area3.Speed difference with cars

on main lane high!

4. Cyclist overtaken with large

space cushion

5. Reduced speed at intersection

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models, can be used to create a great variety of circumstances and situations. It is however important that the learner driver will experience enough different traffic scenarios that address all essential factors of task complexity that may cause imbalance in traffic complexity and developed task capability so far. Another example of extensive practice is supervised driving during the stage of a provisional license, with adult coaches, under the condition that all practice experiences should be discussed afterwards in a professional coaching manner.

• Frequent assessments for learning and provision of feedback A final ingredient of a driver learning design is the frequent use of assessments for learning. It is known that assessments can have a strong regulating function in learning (Crooks, 1988; Sadler, 1989; Stiggins, 2002; Young, & Kim, (2010). Regular assessments help to gain insight into the progress of the learner driver. Ideally, strong and weak points of task performance and the underlying causes of performance are revealed and reported to the learner driver (Bennett, 2010). Based on the results the driver coach can think of measures to support the proximal learning progression (Black, & Wiliam, 2009; Heritage, 2007). Roughly spoken, there are four major types of assessments, ranging on a continuum of authenticity: on-road assessments, simulator-based assessments, case-based assessments, and context-free assessments. On-road (performance) assessments typically take place in the here-and-now reality of traffic, and involve direct interaction with real other objects and road users. The traffic situations are immediate, inescapable and often take place simultaneously. Consequences of erroneous behavior can be serious for the driver and others. The whole driving task is covered, in which the driver has to reach a real destination. The other forms of assessments are less authentic, although driver simulator-based assessments come close to on-road assessments in this respect. Simulations do not address real destinations and more importantly, errors do not have serious consequences. The latter can be advantageous if scenarios are presented that need to be dealt with, but are too dangerous to deliberately seek for. Case –based assessments (Schuwirth et al. 2000) involve (substantial) parts of the driving task, e.g. crossing a street as represented in a depicted or described situation. The task takes place in an imaginary reality which is not present here and now. If any, the interaction is at best indirect and is aimed at non-reacting objects and actors, like responding to photos or video clips. On the far right hand of the continuum we find context-free assessments, which typically address separate objects (such as traffic signs) and actors. These assessments involve small parts of the driving task (such as rules of way when crossing an intersection), or sometimes no task at all (the meaning of a traffic sign). Each of the types of assessments has its own strengths and weaknesses when it comes to the elements of competence to be assessed. Most of the mental processes that take place during driving can be well covered using on-road assessments, unless adequately prompted and registered. An example of a Dutch performance assessment is the Driver Performance Assessment, which is employed in Two Dutch innovative driver training programs (Roelofs, Van Onna, & Vissers, 2010). It is carried out during regular lessons and always covers a pre-defined level of traffic complexity that fits with the phase of driver training. To enable the proficient administration of these assessments, driving instructors are trained extensively in the choice of routes and the level of support to be supplied. Route choice and support need to correspond with the learner stage of development. In addition, driver coaches are trained in applying the evaluation criteria and in providing feedback to

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learner drivers. In providing feedback driver coaches are encouraged to discuss both strong and weak points of the performance. Additionally, learner drivers are trained in evaluating their own performance as shown during the assessment drive. After four on-road assessments, learner drivers appear to reflect well on their strong and weak points, and employ strategies to improve their driving. Driver examiners recently reported that the drivers from this program could explain themselves why they had passed or failed the final exam. A major disadvantage of performance assessments is that not all different types of situations can be included at will or should be included due to the risky consequences of errors. Therefore on-road assessments, especially when they take place within a limited timeframe and restricted contexts have limited generalizability (Brennan & Johnson, 1995; Messick, 1996; Ruiz-Primo, Baxter, & Shavelson, 1993; Shavelson, Baxter, & Gao, 1993). Simulator-based tests can be applied to assess cognitive processes that underlie driver performance, except for empathy with other road users. When equipped with eye-trackers, the scanning behavior and the actual field of view can be assessed. The quality of decisions and subsequent action execution can be assessed, using objective statistics (such as following time) which can be mapped on performance criteria such as safe distance, safe speed, smoothness of steering (vehicle control), avoidance of hindrance (traffic flow). An advantage of simulator-based assessments is that a great number of pre-defined critical situations can be included, that ask for a relevant decision and action, including situations which cannot be delivered on demand in on-road assessments (De Winter, 2009; Joly et l. 1997; Kappé, De Penning, Marsman, & Roelofs (2009).

Interactive versions of case-based assessments, or situational judgment tests, especially can be employed to assess separate cognitive processes (Whetzel & McDaniel, 2009). An example of these assessments is the test for situational awareness (Roelofs et al. 2008) in which the learner driver reacts on a video-clip (or video animation). Each clip represents a separate traffic task (such as turning, following) in which situational changes are to be noticed, using a variety of responses: clicking on hazards, choosing a described line of action, using arrow keys as pedals. By using case-based assessments it is possible to zoom in on specific cognitive abilities and traffic situations, to gain more diagnostic information about the learner driver. The Hazard Perception Test, part of the British theory exam for category B driving license is another example (McKenna, & Crick, 1997) of such a test.

Finally, context-free assessments are most fit for knowledge reproduction. Knowledge of specific traffic rules, of the meaning of signs can be quickly assessed by asking a large number of short questions. These assessments are in place to review the necessary knowledge. Of course there is no guarantee that knowledge of traffic signs is also applied in more authentic situations. That is why combinations of the different test types remain necessary.

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Table 4: basic types of driving assessments for learning and their characteristics Characteristics On-road

assessments Simulator-

based assessments

Case-based assessments

Context-free assessments

Task

cha

ract

eris

tics

Time perspective Here and now Here and now Imaginary NA

Drivers’ goals Yes NA NA NA Other actors and objects Yes Yes

Yes, recorded or

static

Separately mentioned

Interaction Yes, direct Yes, direct Yes, indirect NA Immediacy and simultaneity of

events Yes Yes NA NA

(serious) consequences Yes, serious Yes; not serious NA NA

Whole – part task Whole Whole Substantial

part Small part

Com

pete

nce

elem

ent

Knowledge +- +- + + Understanding +- +- + +- Empathize and

accept + - + -

Perception and decision making

+ + + -

Action execution + + - -

Self-regulation and reflection + + + -

By combining various forms of assessments during driver training, including self-evaluation by the learner driver, a more complete picture of the (learner) driver can be obtained. It would even be better if the granting of the driver’s license would be based on much more information than just the final exam, which does not do justice to the complexity and richness of the driving task, despite its authentic appeal. To conclude, the time is there for a next step in the design of driver learning to take place. Using an instructional design, which is informed both by traffic psychology, educational psychology and insights from educational research, a new generation of driver training programs is to come.

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