Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

General overview of Theories of General overview of Theories of Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology

Domains of DevelopmentDomains of Development 1. 1. Physical developmentPhysical development -changes in body size, -changes in body size,

proportions, appearance, brain development, proportions, appearance, brain development, perceptual and motor capacities, & physical health.perceptual and motor capacities, & physical health.

   2.  2.  Cognitive developmentCognitive development –thought processes, –thought processes,

intellectual abilities (attention, memory, problem intellectual abilities (attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity), & capacity to solving, imagination, creativity), & capacity to represent the world through language.represent the world through language.

3. 3. Emotional and Social developmentEmotional and Social development – – emotional expression, feelings, interpersonal skills, emotional expression, feelings, interpersonal skills, self-understanding, & emotional regulation. self-understanding, & emotional regulation.

Periods of DevelopmentPeriods of Development 1.  1.  The Prenatal PeriodThe Prenatal Period (conception-to-birth) Rapid (conception-to-birth) Rapid

change occurs during which a one-celled organism is change occurs during which a one-celled organism is transformed into a human baby. transformed into a human baby.

2. 2. Infancy and toddler hood (Infancy and toddler hood (birth to 2 years) Rapid birth to 2 years) Rapid changes in physiology, perceptual & motor capacities, changes in physiology, perceptual & motor capacities, language acquisition, and emotional development. language acquisition, and emotional development.

3. 3. Early childhood (Early childhood (2 to 6 yrs). Child’s body grows, 2 to 6 yrs). Child’s body grows, motor skills become more complex and refined, behavior motor skills become more complex and refined, behavior is more self-controlled and sufficient. Child engages in is more self-controlled and sufficient. Child engages in imaginative play, obtains greater autonomy, develops imaginative play, obtains greater autonomy, develops fluent language and learns morals.  fluent language and learns morals.  

Periods of Development contd.Periods of Development contd. 1.  1.  Middle childhoodMiddle childhood (6 to 11 yrs). Children master (6 to 11 yrs). Children master

reading, grammar, mathematics,and other academics. reading, grammar, mathematics,and other academics. They become more independent, responsible, their They become more independent, responsible, their thought processes become more logical, athletic ability thought processes become more logical, athletic ability improves, and sense of self becomes more advanced. improves, and sense of self becomes more advanced.

   2.  2.  AdolescenceAdolescence (11 to 20 yrs). Thought processes (11 to 20 yrs). Thought processes

becomes more abstract, sexual maturity is reached, becomes more abstract, sexual maturity is reached, interest in preparation for college or work becomes interest in preparation for college or work becomes salient. Emotion regulation changing.salient. Emotion regulation changing.

Themes of DevelopmentThemes of Development A. A. Biological versus Environmental InfluenceBiological versus Environmental Influence    Do humans develop based on biological factors Do humans develop based on biological factors

(genetic factors, chemicals in brain) or (genetic factors, chemicals in brain) or environmental experiences (parental rearing, environmental experiences (parental rearing, social factors)? social factors)?

Current view - both factors influence human Current view - both factors influence human development. development.

How do both biological and environmental factors How do both biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental variations in interact to produce developmental variations in different children?different children?

Themes of DevelopmentThemes of Development B.B. Active Versus Passive ChildActive Versus Passive Child    

Are children passive recipients of environmental Are children passive recipients of environmental stimuli or active explorers in their surroundings? stimuli or active explorers in their surroundings?

Children are active in shaping, controlling, and Children are active in shaping, controlling, and directing the course of their own development. directing the course of their own development.

   Parents and teachers do not simply mold children. Parents and teachers do not simply mold children.

Rather, children and adults have interactions that Rather, children and adults have interactions that influence each other (systems theory).influence each other (systems theory).

Themes of DevelopmentThemes of Development C. C. Continuity Versus DiscontinuityContinuity Versus Discontinuity    Is development a continuous process or does it occur in Is development a continuous process or does it occur in

discrete stages? discrete stages?

Current view- is a middle-of-the-road position.Current view- is a middle-of-the-road position.

Development is essentially continuous, but interspersed Development is essentially continuous, but interspersed with periods of transition in which change may be with periods of transition in which change may be sudden. sudden.

Transitions - biological (crawling, walking), Transitions - biological (crawling, walking), psychological (the development of emotions- smiling, psychological (the development of emotions- smiling, temper tantrums, etc.) & social (peer relationships.)temper tantrums, etc.) & social (peer relationships.)

Themes of DevelopmentThemes of Development D. D. Situational Influences versus Individual Situational Influences versus Individual

CharacteristicsCharacteristics   How much does the context of the situation influence How much does the context of the situation influence

what we learn about children?what we learn about children?

Do children respond similarly in different situations Do children respond similarly in different situations (with friends, around their parents, relatives, strangers, (with friends, around their parents, relatives, strangers, etc.)?etc.)?

Most researchers look at role of personality and Most researchers look at role of personality and situational factors. situational factors. 

Themes of DevelopmentThemes of Development E. E. Risk and ResilienceRisk and Resilience    How do we respond to the risks we encounter as we How do we respond to the risks we encounter as we

develop?develop? Risks-- divorce, death of loved one, accidents, Risks-- divorce, death of loved one, accidents,

disease, poverty, etc. disease, poverty, etc.

Children differ with regard to how they cope with Children differ with regard to how they cope with these risks. Some are severely impaired, others are these risks. Some are severely impaired, others are quite resilient.quite resilient.

  

Factors influencing ResilienceFactors influencing Resilience 3 factors buffer children from effects of risk & stress. 3 factors buffer children from effects of risk & stress.

1. 1. Positive Individual AttributesPositive Individual Attributes – Children with easy – Children with easy dispositions, high self-esteem, and intelligence adapt dispositions, high self-esteem, and intelligence adapt more easily to stressors. Girls have the edge here.more easily to stressors. Girls have the edge here.

2. 2. Supportive Family EnvironmentSupportive Family Environment – presence of one – presence of one caring supportive parent buffers adverse effects of caring supportive parent buffers adverse effects of poverty, divorce, & child abuse. poverty, divorce, & child abuse. (Good news for single (Good news for single parents!!!parents!!!))

   3. Positive influence of agencies outside home 3. Positive influence of agencies outside home (church, (church,

school, peers), improves resiliency.school, peers), improves resiliency.

Theories of DevelopmentTheories of Development The Psychodynamic View (Freud – 1856-1939)The Psychodynamic View (Freud – 1856-1939)

Popular- 1930s & 1940s.Popular- 1930s & 1940s.

Children move through a series of stages in which Children move through a series of stages in which they must resolve they must resolve unconscious conflictsunconscious conflicts between between biological drives and societal expectations.biological drives and societal expectations.

The unsuccessful completion of one of these The unsuccessful completion of one of these stages led to development of dysfunctional or stages led to development of dysfunctional or abnormal behavior.abnormal behavior.

Structures of MindStructures of Mind1. Id1. Id- present from birth this structure is unconscious and - present from birth this structure is unconscious and

seeks to gratify our most basic urges: hunger, thirst, seeks to gratify our most basic urges: hunger, thirst, elimination of waste, and sex. elimination of waste, and sex.

(“I want” of our personality).(“I want” of our personality).

2. 2. EgoEgo- is primarily conscious, and tries to satisfy the - is primarily conscious, and tries to satisfy the demands of the id, without compromising the norms of demands of the id, without compromising the norms of society. The ego works according to the reality society. The ego works according to the reality principle. principle.

3. Super-ego3. Super-ego: the last structure to develop, it is our moral : the last structure to develop, it is our moral center, it tells us what is right and wrong. center, it tells us what is right and wrong.

Psychosexual Stages of DevelopmentPsychosexual Stages of Development 1.  1.  OralOral (0-1 year) –infants gains satisfaction from oral (0-1 year) –infants gains satisfaction from oral

stimulation (sucking, licking). stimulation (sucking, licking).    2. 2. AnalAnal (second year of life)- Child’s main source of libidinous (second year of life)- Child’s main source of libidinous

pleasure comes from passing and retaining feces. pleasure comes from passing and retaining feces.    3. 3. PhallicPhallic (3 to 5)- child’s main source of gratification results (3 to 5)- child’s main source of gratification results

from stimulation of the genitals. from stimulation of the genitals. ** Child must overcome ** Child must overcome Oedipal and ElectraOedipal and Electra complexes. complexes.    4. 4. LatencyLatency (6-12) - during this stage sexual impulses are (6-12) - during this stage sexual impulses are

dormant.dormant.

5. Genital5. Genital (young adulthood)- During this stage the child (young adulthood)- During this stage the child develops heterosexual interests.develops heterosexual interests.

Cons of Freud’s TheoryCons of Freud’s Theory 1. Freud had no scientific data to support his 1. Freud had no scientific data to support his

theories.theories. 2. Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.) 2. Freud’s theories (unconscious, libido, etc.)

cannot be observed.cannot be observed. 3. Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the 3. Theory explains behavior (post-hoc) after the

fact.fact. 4. Observations not representative of population.4. Observations not representative of population.

5. Theory based on upper class female patients. 5. Theory based on upper class female patients. The patients were wealthy Viennese women.The patients were wealthy Viennese women.

Pros of Freud’s WorkPros of Freud’s Work 1. Focused on the influence of unconscious 1. Focused on the influence of unconscious

processes.processes.

Currently, we know that implicit memories and Currently, we know that implicit memories and cognitions influencing behavior (Mere-exposure cognitions influencing behavior (Mere-exposure effect).effect).

2.  Stressed that events in childhood do influence 2.  Stressed that events in childhood do influence our adult behavior.our adult behavior.

3.  Defense mechanisms3.  Defense mechanisms

Learning Theory/BehaviorismLearning Theory/Behaviorism LearningLearning is a relatively permanent change is a relatively permanent change

brought about by knowledge and/or experience.brought about by knowledge and/or experience.

Popular- 1940s-1960Popular- 1940s-1960

Human development is influenced by Human development is influenced by environmental factors. environmental factors.

BehaviorismBehaviorism - focuses on observable behaviors, - focuses on observable behaviors, rather than on consciousness. rather than on consciousness.

Types of LearningTypes of Learning Classical condition: reflexive learning by associationClassical condition: reflexive learning by association

Pavlov’s study: Pavlov’s study:

Step 1: Meat Powder (UCS)---------Salivation (UCR)Step 1: Meat Powder (UCS)---------Salivation (UCR) Step 2: Bell (CS) --------Step 2: Bell (CS) -------- ---Meat Powder (UCS)--Salivation ---Meat Powder (UCS)--Salivation

(UCR)(UCR)

(pair bell with meat)(pair bell with meat)

Step 3: Bell (CS)--------------------Salivation (CR)Step 3: Bell (CS)--------------------Salivation (CR)

Watson & Rayner (1920)Watson & Rayner (1920) Conditioned emotional responses in an 11-Conditioned emotional responses in an 11-

month-old infant (“Little Albert”).month-old infant (“Little Albert”).

Used classical conditioning to get infant to fear Used classical conditioning to get infant to fear white furry objects (rats, santa’s beard, fur coat, white furry objects (rats, santa’s beard, fur coat, etc.).etc.).

They did this by presenting a loud obnoxious They did this by presenting a loud obnoxious noise (CS) whenever “Albert” showed an interest noise (CS) whenever “Albert” showed an interest in the white furry rat. Soon, child came to fear in the white furry rat. Soon, child came to fear white furry objects without presence of noise.white furry objects without presence of noise.

Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner)Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Operant conditioningOperant conditioning – behavior may be – behavior may be

learned or extinguished through use of reinforcers learned or extinguished through use of reinforcers (rewards) or punishments. (rewards) or punishments.

Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement E.g., a good grade received after studying for an E.g., a good grade received after studying for an

examexam

Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement E.g., smoking behavior increases to reduce the E.g., smoking behavior increases to reduce the

aversive sensations associated with a nicotine fit.aversive sensations associated with a nicotine fit.

Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory Modeling (Albert Bandura)Modeling (Albert Bandura)

We learn the consequences of given actions by We learn the consequences of given actions by observing what happens to others. observing what happens to others.

Observing whether others are reinforced or Observing whether others are reinforced or punished for given behaviors may influence the punished for given behaviors may influence the probability that we will produce such behaviors. probability that we will produce such behaviors.

Added benefit: We don’t have to be punished to Added benefit: We don’t have to be punished to learn “what-not-to-do.” learn “what-not-to-do.”

Cognitive Developmental TheoryCognitive Developmental Theory   Piaget’s theory (1960s)Piaget’s theory (1960s)

Children actively construct knowledge as they Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world, & their manipulate and explore their world, & their cognitive development takes place in stages.cognitive development takes place in stages.

Argued that children Argued that children adaptadapt to their surroundings. to their surroundings.

Children don’t come out with blank slate, but with Children don’t come out with blank slate, but with methods for acquiring knowledge.methods for acquiring knowledge.

Processes of ChangeProcesses of Change According to Piaget 2 complementary cognitive According to Piaget 2 complementary cognitive

processes play a major role in promoting change processes play a major role in promoting change and increase children’s cognitive understanding of and increase children’s cognitive understanding of their world. their world.

AssimilationAssimilation is the process by which children is the process by which children absorb new information in with their current absorb new information in with their current framework (schema).framework (schema).

AccomodationAccomodation is the process by which children is the process by which children modify existing knowledge structures based on modify existing knowledge structures based on incorporating new information. incorporating new information.

  

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development SensorimotorSensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)- infants acquire knowledge (birth to 2 yrs)- infants acquire knowledge

by “acting” on their environment, using their senses and by “acting” on their environment, using their senses and movements to explore the world.movements to explore the world.

PreoperationalPreoperational (2-7 yrs)- preschool-age children acquire (2-7 yrs)- preschool-age children acquire advanced language skills and start to think using symbols. advanced language skills and start to think using symbols.

Concrete operationalConcrete operational (7-11 yrs)- Children’s reasoning (7-11 yrs)- Children’s reasoning becomes logical. They learn to logically organize becomes logical. They learn to logically organize concepts. They learn conservation of liquids and solids. concepts. They learn conservation of liquids and solids.

Formal operationalFormal operational (11+ yrs)-Abstract thinking comes (11+ yrs)-Abstract thinking comes on-line, problem solving ability improves. on-line, problem solving ability improves.

Cons of Piaget’s theoryCons of Piaget’s theory

1. Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants 1. Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers. and preschoolers.

(E.g., when young children are given tasks scaled (E.g., when young children are given tasks scaled down in difficulty, their understanding appears closer to down in difficulty, their understanding appears closer to that of older children and the adult) that of older children and the adult)

2.2.Children’s performance on Piagetian tasks can be Children’s performance on Piagetian tasks can be improved with training. improved with training.

Suggests there is a problem with the assumption that Suggests there is a problem with the assumption that discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best way to foster development.way to foster development.