34

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this chapter, a review of literature is made relating to the

identified research problem to know what has been so far found.

2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A review of literature is made on the studies related to studies

economic empowerment on women carried out in India and abroad.

Literature review on each issue relating to the research topic is given

under the following studies: Empowerment, Reasons for Women‟s

entry into economic activity and Motivating Factors, Gender

Discrimination and Exploitation, Sexual Harassment, Attitude of

husband, Role stress, Role conflict and Job satisfaction.

2.1.1 Socio-economic background of Women

Achi Reddy (1990) discussed the socio-economic factors on

working conditions of women construction labourers in Hyderabad.

Wage discriminations and sexual exploitation are said to be the

constant cry of these women. They are placed lowest in the

construction activities.

Manpower Journal (1990) discusses the development of women

as human resource under various heads; they are the indicators of

women‟s equality, women‟s economic position, economic growth,

economic rights, economic participation, occupational distribution,

women‟s social status and observations on economic participation.

Sangwan (1990) based on a study in rural Haryana found that

cooking, fetching water, washing, house maintenance and child care

were the major concerns of almost all families in all the selected

35

districts which accounted for about 81/4 hours per day. About 4

hours for cooking and meal services, 1 hour for fetching water, 1 1/4

hours for washing, 1 hour for house maintenance and child care and

1 hour for personal care, 3 hours for care of animals were spent in a

day. The remaining time was spent on sleep and leisure activities.

Rita Sood (1991), women who belong to lower middle income

and lower income families are normally taking up job essentially due

to economic necessity. Some of the women employees expressed the

view that they are working for their emotional satisfaction rather

than due to economic necessity.

2.2 CHANGING STATUS OF WORKING WOMEN

Lalitha Devi (1982) studied that workingwomen are enjoying

freedom, power of decision-making and dignity at home due to

economic independence. So also they are receiving good

co-operation, appreciation and recognition at their work place. Usha

Talwar (1984) found that the power of the workingwomen was

significantly more than that of the non-working women.

Raghunadha Reddy (1986) found that 42 per cent of working women

take decisions in their family matters normally children‟s education,

shopping etc, but not about the major issues like housing, savings

and future of children etc.

Indira Devi, (1987) identified that the impact of employment of

women is clearly seen in their dominance in tasks related to control

of money and freedom in spending etc. while education of wives

initiated the process of change in decision-making, the employment

furthered it by altering the male dominance in decision making.

36

Ramanamma and Usha Bambawale (1987) according to most

of the workingwomen hand their pay packets to husband or father,

keeping a small share of their earning for their personal use. They

are not given any decision making power in respect of their salary or

the total family funds. They are only made to administer it but not

allowed to make any major decision.

Anitha Sharma, (1990) study reveals that there is significant

change in psychological set up of women and family members. Due

to modernization there is considerable change in attitudes of working

women. Workingwomen would not regard free mixing with the

opposite sex as a taboo. Vidya Rani, (1990) found that women‟s

status in the family has no doubt changed for the better due to her

employment outside the home but the change is not really for the

better as her domestic status continues to be same. The

modernization has little impact on husband‟s attitude as they still

demand that their wives to look after them.

Rajendra Prasad Jaiswal (1993) was reported workingwomen

have achieved a position of authority and recognition with regard to

salary spending. There are cases where the property has been

acquired through the women‟s earning, but it is in the name of their

husbands position of the women in the family has not changed in a

significant way.

Sanjay Kethan Jana (1993) studied “Working women and

modernization” based on the assumption that urbanization,

education and employment have brought about significant changes

in attitude and behaviour of working women in respect of family,

37

marriage, education, social participation, political participation,

mass media and world view‟. Findings revealed the fact that even

educated workingwomen did not change their old and traditional

views and perceptions.

Sangeeta Nagaich (1997) conducted research on „changing

status of women in India‟ to find out the effect of education and

urbanization on female participation. Based on the findings she

concluded that industrialization, urbanization and education have

not touched major portion of the population consequently female

participation rate has remained low.

Upreti, Sunita (1993) conducted a study in Nepal found that

Majority of the respondents have been able to make an adjustment

between the housework and office work. They were satisfied with

their job and argued that their status was equal to that of their male

counterparts.

2.3 STUDIES EARNING INCOME AND MOTIVATING FACTORS

Rita Sood, (1991) according to women who belong to lower

middle income and lower income families are normally taking up job

essentially due to economic necessity. Some of the women

employees expressed the view that they are working for their

emotional satisfaction rather than due to economic necessity.

Ramu (1989) and Mathur (1992) revealed that economic need

does not always drive women into labour force. The occupational

choices that women make are complex and determined by a variety

of personal and family considerations of which economic need is

profound.

38

Sogra, Khair Jahan, (1992) stated that for female managers in

Bangladesh who are young, highly qualified, motivated first

generation working women, the need at the work place is affiliation.

Sudha Deshpande and L.K.Deshpande (1992) took up a study

to observe the influence of New Economic Policy on female

employment. The study is done in three sections. The first section

begins with a discussion of feminization as a process indicating the

underlying causes. The second section examines the database for

studying the process and shows the form it can take in an urban

labour market like Bombay. The renal section analyses the future

pattern of female employment in the context of New Economic Policy.

Ramu Kumar, (1993) found that women executives were

seeking fulfillment of higher order needs, expressed in terms such as

recognition of work, use of abilities and achievement.

Bhushan and Rambha Prasad, (1993) according to among

educated women, concern for status has positive relationship with

age in as much as the teen-aged girls have less concern for status

than the matured women in the age group of 25 to 50 years. In the

same age group, the working educated women have higher concern

for status than the non-working women or the house wives.

Yadava (1995) has studied the relationship between women‟s

status and fertility. He observed statistical significant association

between women‟s status and caste, socio-economic status of

household, educational and occupational status of husband.

Positive association between women‟s status and use of

contraception is found. The author stressed to improve the

39

educational level of girls is told that they could play a more active

role in family planning and managing resources. Education and job

opportunities should be created for females. These two factors alone

may play a major role in increasing the status of women and hence

in reducing fertility. He has also highlighted that responsibilities in

decision-making process should also be given to family.

Mukhul Mukherjee (1996) has conducted a study on

occupational data of women employment in labour market. The

extent of opportunities available to women in the labour market is

indicated by employment diversification of women. The level of

occupational diversification of women labour force is noted to be very

high in the developing countries, where majority of women are

engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Larger diversification for

employment of women is essential for diverse skills, more wages and

most importantly better access to development. Empowerment of

women can be achieved if only they overcome the inequality in the

society. The study suggests the requirements for the economic

achievement of women employees.

Ratna Kumari (1997) reviewed the plan wise paradigm shift of

developmental programmes for women, explained how, when, where

and why the shift was made during the planning era in India. She

also presented various government policies relating to the welfare,

development and empowerment of women. She also enlightened the

constraints for the success of those programmes like problem of

identification of potential beneficiaries, lack of information about the

developmental programmes for women among the poor, inadequate

technical expertise to undertake manufacturing activities, problems

40

of credit, marketing etc. She suggested the strategies for socio –

economic development of women and stressed the need to enlarge

the role of women to improve the status of women and family welfare.

Muthuraja (2001) has discussed and proved that efforts it

improve women‟s position need to focus on economic factors. Women

as head, Thirty-five per cent of Indian households are below the

poverty line and thus, in most cases they depend exclusively on

women‟s income, as per the sharamshakti report. Even where there

is a male earner, women‟s earning form a major part of the income of

poor households. Moreover, women contribute a larger share to basic

family maintenance, better health and nutrition of the family

particularly her children. The women empowerment is the final goal,

but it cannot be achieved quickly since it has to bring out a change

in the perception of male-dominated society so as to accord the same

dignity and honor to women both at family and social levels as to

men.

Susham (2002) Asian countries have experienced the strong

leadership of women like Mother Teresa, Indira Gandhi, Benagir

Butto, Kalpana Chawala, Lata Mangeshkar and Sonia Gandhi in the

recent past. All these women had strong driving force within them

that could lead them to such top positions in spite of the roadblocks.

They all had the confidence to move forward in the system in which

they were forced to work or to action to overcome the barrier with in

the system. But the statistics demonstrate that such women at

higher positions are in minority in any field of work life is it

educational, technical, administration, medicine or management.

This leads to think that what are the factors, which keep women

41

away from aspiring positions, participation and contribution to the

system in spite of high academic excellence.

2.4 STUDIES RELATED TO GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND

EXPLOITATION

Rashmi Arya, (1990) revealed that women are discriminated at

the time of recruitments. Branch managers do not take interest in

taking more number of female employees in the branch because they

say that ladies always create a headache with their every day new

problems and difficulties. This attitude of managers should be

changed.

Rajendra Prasad Jaiswal, (1993)observed that salary difference

between men and women employees is quite perceptible when the

data are correlated with their designation women have lower income

status.

The study made by Mrs. Rama Joshi (1993) investigates the

possible gender-related differences in the determination of job

performance. The parameters of performance included were (a)

absence, (b) performance evaluations and (c) commitment to the

organization. The results indicated some similarities as also some

critical differences in the determinants of job (that is related to

family)

Desouza, Gita (1994) found that women in management across

organizations were not promoted less frequently than men. They did

not spend significantly more time at each managerial level in their

present organizations, or receive fewer increases with each

managerial promotion. Therefore, under the original definition of the

glass ceiling, the study conducted here did not show that it exists.

42

However, the existence of gender-based segregation was evident in

other ways. Women in management were found to be clustered into

relatively few occupational functions and in smaller organizations.

Women were also found to gain in terms of their relative position in

the managerial hierarchy in smaller organizations, but lose out in

terms of the same in larger organizations. Men, on the other hand,

gained in terms of their relative position in the managerial hierarchy

in larger organizations. The study also discovered that women

managers are paid much less than male managers, a finding that is

consistent with national reports.

The study made by Sanghamitra and Preetham (1995) throws

light upon many aspects like, there are very few women in higher

ranks and there is inequality between men and women in these

aspects. Questioning the small numbers they explain the reason as

a “Consequence of sex-role stereotypes about women and job

gendering”. The sex typing of management as a male occupation

requiring male qualifications poser, major barriers to women to grow

to management level.

Amartya Sen (2001) feels that work on gender inequality is of

seminal importance. He has worked on problems of discrimination

against women in the development process, on survivorship

differentials between men and women under conditions of social

discrimination against women, and on women‟s agency in the

process of social development. There are seven types of inequality

such as 1.Mortality inequality 2.Natality inequality 3.Basic facility

inequality 4.Special opportunity inequality 5.Professional inequality

6.Ownership inequality and 7.Household inequality.

43

2.5 ATTITUDE OF HUSBAND

Vidya Rani, (1990) observed the modernization has little

impact on husband‟s attitude as they still demand that their wives to

look after them.

Anitha Sharms, (1990) identified that majority of husbands

showed positive attitude towards employment of their wives, only 10

per cent of them were unhappy.

Rita Sood, (1991) study reveals that equality of education of

husband and wife has been found to have a positive relation with

sharing of household work. Superiority of husband continues to be

there in spite of the fact that wives are also earning in the same

manner.

Kim Su-Soon, (1996) stated that Korean wives had more

martial satisfaction when they perceived fairness in the division of

housework. One-fourth of women had egalitarian provider role

attitudes. One-half reported that they felt unfairness about the

division of housework with their husbands, while most of the

husbands did not participate in the housework. However, contrary to

the expectations of finding low marital satisfaction from the

respondents, two-thirds of the wives reported that they were satisfied

with their marriages.

Park, Juhee, (1997) observed that most of the women

professors perceive that husband and families have positive attitudes

towards their roles.

44

2.6 ROLE STRESS

According to Mc Carthy, Mary E (1990) the experience of

burnout is different depending on the level of the organization in that

non-management personnel experienced the highest burnout.

Environmental variable were found to significantly contribute to the

experience of burnout and their specific impact also varied with the

respondents place in the organizational hierarchy. Psychological

sense of community was found to be significantly and negatively

related to burnout.

Anup. K. Singh and Punam Sahgal (1995) stated men

experienced greater role erosion than women; single career husbands

have higher well being, and workingwomen display higher irritability,

anxiety and depression.

Weyman. W. Jean Maritin (1996) the study was undertaken by

revealed women who were younger with higher total role overload

scores and more severe total hassles were more likely to report

higher fatigue scores than their counterparts.

Deepali singh, (1999) found the effect of stress factor on men

and women are not different. Coping strategies are clear in both the

cases but approaches are different.

Raju and Sarada (2004) believed that absence or adequacy of

the empowerment can either add or reduce role stress.

Enhancement of personal control can facilitate the employees to gain

control over their jobs. Such feelings are equivalent to providing

empowerment, which helps to reduce role stress.

45

2.7 ROLE CONFLICT

Shantha Kohil and Lakshmiswaramma (1991) identified that

the problems like lack of crèche facility, insufficient maternity leave

facility and employer‟s objection to bring the child to the work place

result in dual role conflict. Working mothers spend minimum of 8-

hours‟ time outside their home. Longer duration of working hours

has adverse effect on breast-feeding. They get support from their

family members to look after the child in their absence.

Bashril A Dala (1991) stated the working role of women led to

certain degree of dissociation with the traditional joint family

structure. It created a conflict situation in the traditional joint family,

which led to its disorganization. The more crucial problems for

working women are related to child rearing causing frustration.

Sobhavatamma, (1991) identified that though there are many

difficulties in meeting demands of dual roles, majority of the

respondents opined that office work and family work both are

enjoyable. Only 30 per cent of them felt that the time spent with their

children was sufficient, 47 per cent felt that time is insufficient. 52

per cent said that is was difficult to carry on the household work and

office work during pregnancy.

Rita Sood (1991) stated women were being increasingly

consulted for family decisions like utilization of money, major

investments and children care. Role conflict among women is

gradually decreasing due to husband participation in household

activities.

46

Deepa Mathur, (1992) revealed that high proportion of

working women was satisfied with their work role. Nearly half of the

respondents complained of adverse effect of their employment on

their children. Remaining believed that they children were favorably

affected. The gains from employment were seen to compensate the

strains in most cases. They feel proud of their achievement and

regard themselves as having edge over their non-working

counterparts.

Simon (1992) believed that parent role stress has a differential

impact on men and women‟s level of psychological distress. The main

argument is that the quality of parent –child relationship will have

greater impact on women‟s distress than on men‟s because family

role identities are stronger for women than men, and women more

than men are socialized to feel responsible for the quality of their

family relationships.

Thoits (1992) reported no gender difference in salience of

family-role identities in a random sample of married men and

women. In line with identity theory Stryker (1987) parents for whom

the parental role was highly salient compared to those for whom it

was less salient were more affected by parental strains-that is, they

reported higher psychological distress.

Eknath, Suryaprabha, Kopay, (1996) moderate to high levels of

stress is observed in cases of women with younger children and

women whose husbands did not help with household

responsibilities.

Park, Juhee, (1997) conducted a study and the findings

suggest that working women with younger children trend to

47

experience higher stress levels than working women with older

children. It can be concluded that most of the women professors

perceive their work outside have positive effect on their children.

Yitzhak Fried (2003) the moderating influence of job security

on the effect of role clarity on employee performance. The results

support their hypothesis. That is, job performance increased over a

time under higher levels of role clarity. Moreover, this increase in

performance was maximized when both role clarity and job security

were high, while deterioration in performance was greatest when role

clarity was low and job security was high.

2.8 JOB SATISFACTION

Vidya Rani, (1990) examined that working women felt that they

have limited promotional opportunities and their jobs are not

suitable to their educational qualifications and they do not get scope

to use their ideas, imagination and creative faculties in their jobs.

This leads to dissatisfaction.

Rajendra Prasad Jaiswal (1993) found that among women

scientists job satisfaction and job commitment were relatively low

when compared to men.

2.9 REVIEWS ON WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP

Narendra S. Bisht, Ramesh C. Misra and Anil K. Srivastava

(1989) in their book “Entrepreneurship: Reflections and

Investigation” state that the problem of entrepreneurship is

considered to be one of the most acute problems confronted by the

under-developed economies, and the death of entrepreneurs as

48

possibly the most potent limiting factor on their industrialization. In

our country, village and small scale industries are treated as an

integral and continuing element in the economic structure. However,

women entrepreneurship is an area, which has been very much

neglected in academic studies and research in India.

Samiuddin (1989) in his book “Entrepreneurship Development

in India” states that an entrepreneur is primarily one who owns a

business, has initiative and skill for production by use of an

invention to produce a new product or old one in new way by new or

old materials. An enterprise is an undertaking and the entrepreneur

is one who organizes and manages it and takes its risk. Initiative,

risk bearing, coordinating of factors of production, use of innovation

and provision of capital are the basic elements of entrepreneurship.

Lack of entrepreneurship is a limiting factor for acceleration of

process of industrialization in India.

B.E.V.V.N. Murthy (1989) in his book “Entrepreneurship in

Small Towns” presents the story of the entrepreneurs in two small

towns in coastal Andhra, who used their traditional culture and

recently acquired skills to respond to new structures of economic

opportunity in the process of improving their social status and

initiating a process of economic change. The entrepreneurial spirit in

India was displayed during pre-independence period by a few groups

and sections of the society. Community-wise, Parsis and Marwaris

have distinguished themselves and have set the pace for economic

leadership. The history of growing entrepreneurship in India leaves

many questions unanswered.

49

Anna (1990) conducted a sweetly on the trend of women

entrepreneurship in the state of Kerala selecting 102 women

entrepreneurs from various districts. The important findings of the

study were not the women entrepreneurs of Kerala have emerged

from varied socio- economic, educated and cultural backgrounds.

Christian women were better educated and more enterprising that

them counter parts.

Harinarayan Rao (1991) Conducted a study to assess the

factors that impede and slow down the process of entrepreneurial

development among women in backward manadals of Ananthapuram

district of Andhra Pradesh, poor financial study lack of family

Support, illiteracy, lack of managerial skills, sense factors

influencing women entrepreneur. The important conclusion of the

study was that the men folk have to be greatly inflamed to extent

support to women entrepreneurs.

Vasant Desai (1991) published a book on Entrepreneurship

and Development principle primary and policies. The purpose of the

study was to describe the essential feature of an entrepreneur and

entrepreneurship to provide a sense of direction for Planners and

policy makers on the one hand and the emergency both men and

women, educational uneducated, Professional and non- professional

to reap immense benefits and decide the future course of action, on

the other hand.

The investigation of Ravichandra (1991) was made from the

point of view of Psychological factors contributing to the Success of

entrepreneurs. The focus of the research was move on the

50

entrepreneur rather than on the enterprise. The investigation was

limited to 60 entrepreneurs dividing into two group‟s premiers.

Performance was Judged on the basis of different criteria related to

Psychological and managerial factors. The finding of the Present

study suggest some Characteristics for successfully be Identified and

Selected and a person to be a Successful entrepreneur requires a

very Careful understanding of oneself, others and things. Personal

attributes of individuals are very Crucial in determining

entrepreneurial Success such as Self-Confidence and people willing

to take moderate amount of risk. Besides important personal

attributes for a person to be Successful entrepreneur it is necessary

that a continues to achieve knowledge and skill.

Durgadaya (1992) made a study on women entrepreneurship

in Bangladesh. The financial agencies should earmark funds for the

women entrepreneurs, and mass media like radio, T.V. etc., can be

used in polarizing the Special programmers on entrepreneurship

increase its awareness and interest among women entrepreneurs.

M. Gangadhara Rao (1992) “Entrepreneurship and

Entrepreneurial Development” provides a comprehensive and

scintillating account of the various aspects of entrepreneurship and

entrepreneurial development, outlined by distinguished

academicians. The motivational dilemmas of entrepreneurs have

been presented. The factors that go into successful

entrepreneurship, the entrepreneurial process and promises, the

problems of small-scale entrepreneurs have been discussed in an

elaborate fashion subsequently.

51

M.A. Khan (1992) in his book “Entrepreneurial Development

Programmes in India” gives an analytical account of the

Entrepreneurial Development Programmes in India conducted by

various promotional agencies. These agencies are playing a catalytic

and crucial role in the promotion and development of small-scale

entrepreneurship in different regions of the country by extending a

host of supportive facilities to the potential entrepreneurs and

entrepreneurs.

Lalitha Rani (1993) focused her studies on women

entrepreneur in Visakhapatnam. The objectives of studies were to

analyze their motivational factors major strength and weaknesses to

analyze the degree of work home conflict and to examine the

performance of women entrepreneur. The study conducted their

women entrepreneur in-spite of their travails and hardships are a

satisfied and confident lot in these societies and a model to other

women.

Arthur, Richard, Kishore and Hesan (1993) attempted to study

the effects of education on business ownership. The study found

that likelihood increased with increasing levels of education. This

finding supports the nation that less educated women may faced

financial human capital constraints which limit their business

pursuits.

Kaushik (1994) in this study entitled entrepreneurial

competencies and gender wise variation, discussed the concept of

entrepreneur competencies as determinants of entrepreneurial

success the findings of the study conclude that successful female

52

entrepreneurs were more like the successful male entrepreneurship

and were significantly different from un successful female

entrepreneurship gender may therefore not be a determinate of

competence levels and in turn entrepreneur success.

Hussain (1994) conducted a study on women entrepreneur in

Bangladesh. He portrayed the constraints faced by women

entrepreneur in relation to their characters tics and the model for

success in entrepreneurship to make the climate congenial for

women entrepreneur and all the systems like socio sphere system

support system, resource system and self sphere system supportive

it was suggested that the support agencies should be staffed with

female workers this according to author, will help to improve women

entrepreneur‟s access to support system, their by favorably changing

the existing self sphere system and resources system directly and

indirectly.

Srivastava (1994) conducted a study on women entrepreneur

in India engaged in wide variety of new traditional business activates.

The study revealed that these women were well equipped with

education and experience and were highly motivated to do their

business so as to gain enhanced economic and social status. The

author opines that this is indicative of healthy foundation of small

business entrepreneur with high growth prospects. The conclusion

of the study was that give suitable and timely infrastructural support

by the government and its various agencies small women

entrepreneur can contribute significantly to the enlistment of India‟s

economy.

53

Jyotsna (1994) conducted a survey of 200 women entrepreneur

selected from four metropolitan cities of India to study the direction

and extent of women entrepreneurship appears to be a recent

phenomenon which came on the scene in the 70‟s but showed a real

spurt in the eighties especially in the latter half of the decade. The

specific barriers with which women entrepreneur were confronted

were property male names, segregation of sexes, lack of education

experience, information and based bankers approach.

Manoj Kumar and Govindappa (1995) pointed out in their

study on Entrepreneurship in Agro processing Indus in Devangere in

Karnataka state that “previous in the closely related activity” and

market knowledge most important in inducing factor to move into

entrepreneurship they also Suggested that the grow the in

investment false turnover and the size of the employment were

three imp criteria to evaluate entrepreneurial performance.

Venkateswara Rao (1995) in his study fries to evaluate the role

of District Industries center (DIC) in promotion and Development of

small scale village and cottage industries. SCs and STs were

benefited by DIC s in terms of share in the number of Small Scale

Units If has also been observed that Telangana District industries

center fared for better than the rest.

Mishra (1995) attempted study the economic independence of

women in the state of Orissa. The study tried the transformation

Societies to a modern economy. The traditional society was caste

oriented. Women of peasant castes were agriculturists, potter women

preferred pottery, fisher women rising, Weller women wealing and

54

spinning and Dalit women cleaning the roads. However in the

process of industrialization many modern women displaced women

from them occupations. In conclusion, the study revealed that

Potential of women has been only marginally utilized in the state of

Orissa even though the Government Camp up with certain Policies

and incentives for women.

Brimmer (1995) analyses the role of managing agency system

on setting of entrepreneurship in India. To him, the managing agency

system as a form of industrial organization helped the Concentration

in the hands of a few large firms, the control of administration and

financing of a number of industrial firms, by virtue of their being the

Promoters.

Simone (1995) attempted to study the role of micro lending

institutions in meeting the requirements of women micro

entrepreneur micro lending institutions, whether they are open to all

micro entrepreneur or specialize in lending to women would be

rules, principles and procedures, and their staff to be accessible and

friendly. The challenge is to reap the benefits of scaling up without

comprising on the unsure aortic approaches found to work in

attracting women micro entrepreneur.

Taylor and Brooks bank (1995) examined the marketing

practices among small New Zealand organizations by taking a sample

of 427 small business owners. Findings revealed that the small

business firm looks the marketing practices differently from their

larger counterparts.

55

Breen (1995) examined financial and family issues by taking a

sample of 211 female entrepreneurs from Australia. The study

highlighted that female business owners faced the problem of getting

finance and started business with low initial capital. On the family

front women entrepreneurs faced the problem of supervision and

care for sick children.

Gain (1997) wrote that the development initiatives for the

women changed from welfare approach to development and there to

participation during the course of last few decades. The author

analyzed four case studies where women have carried out group

activities successfully. The women have been able to increase their

incomes and stand up against exploitation. The author gave a

conclusion that the group approach is a workable approach in the

process of economic and social empowerment of women.

Anupa Siddhu (1997) and others in the book “Sustainable

Entrepreneurship in Communities” explain that the national

economy of India today is in a phase where due to globalization,

business opportunities have become extensive, so also the

challenges. As a result, organizational and technological innovations,

superior quality and customer satisfaction with resource

optimization would be seen as vital. Experiences of last few decades

both in India and abroad clearly show that it is possible to develop

entrepreneurship through planned efforts.

Shalini and Sharma (1997) conducted a study on women

entrepreneur of Agra with the objectives of analyzing the problems

faced by women entrepreneur and to suggest the remediate

56

measures. The important suggestions made by the study were

providing financial support and formulating a proper policy by the

government for the benefit of women entrepreneurship.

Charumati (1997) attempted to perform SWOT analysis on

women entrepreneurs taking a sample of 50 women entrepreneurs in

Tamilnadu. The study focused on the major strengths, weakness

opportunities and threats of these women. The study concluded that

there is a positive indication that women entrepreneurs were

Confident of overcoming the minor weakness and threats utilizing

the major strengths and opportunities that they posses.

Barbora (1997) tried to bring out some of the cases of women

entrepreneur of U.S. The author focused here analysis on the factors

which have lead these women to open up their new own business.

One group of corporate refugees were women who reversed to

sacrifice their family for a seat in the board room and the other

women just prefer the opportunities of self employment to the

prospect or working for a big organization the author strongly feels

that women business owners are a growing social force which require

a more curious attention of the policy makers.

More and Buttner (1997) analyses the case of 129 successful

women entrepreneur to explore the reasons for the rise and success

of women entrepreneur in the U.S. The authors tried to study the

driving forces which led these women to leave the organization

environment as on incubator for entrepreneurship. The study

concluded with suggestions for future entrepreneur and for

organization which wish to halt the mass exit of women from their

corporate environment.

57

Rani (1997) tried to analyses their successful women

entrepreneur in U.K. The study revolved round these three cases

and a detailed analysis was presented. The first women believed that

women have the potential to take up entrepreneurship as career and

that the competencies required for the purpose can be developed if

there is a desire to do something independently the second women

suggested their women should be ready to take any opportunity that

comes to them and one can enjoy being in business, the third women

felt that the qualities of entrepreneurship can be acqtured and to

some extent depend on ones bringing up.

Mishra and Bal (1997) made a study of 110 entrepreneurs of

units registered under DIC in the towns of the state of Orissa to

know the factors influencing the new entrepreneurial class to

undertake industrial entrepreneurship. The study reveals that

majority of entrepreneurs had ambitions like Strong desire to life to

Continue family business and to give shape to them ideas and skill.

Sharon (1998) made an analysis on the growth of women

business firms in the US and tried to bring out Certain facts about

the passion and the problems of the women and Business here in

used from 3 million in the Mid 1980‟s Contributory an bestialized

$ 40 billion Annually to the US Economy to 8 Million Contributory

$ 2.38 trillion now, the facts about Women entrepreneur as enviably

by U.S Small Business Administration (SBA). The US Scenes Berne

their National business foundation for women business heinous.

Women have to face extra Challenger has one of the biggest challenge

is the comfiest between work and family. In other corner the last 25

years, women business awareness has created their own movements

and have invited the investment to keep it going.

58

Rabindra N. Kanungo (1998) in his book “Entrepreneurship &

Innovation-Models for Development” focuses was on minimizing the

disadvantages of women by equalising educational and employment

opportunities within existing development programmes. The

approach was on income generation and training crafts. The

assumption was that income generation would solve women's

problems. Attention to the productive aspect of women's lives did not

consider their reproductive roles, which do not have economic value

when, performed in the family.

Parani Chami (1998) attempted to study the problems and

prospects of Women entrepreneur in Pondicherry the study analysis

the growth of women entrepreneur in Purani Charan from the period

1984 – 85 to 1997 – 98. The Women entrepreneur constitutes only a

small percentage of the SSI Units and the reasons for Situation as

analyses by the study were that Women were not nearly to stumble

back to the growth of SSI Units in general and Women entrepreneur.

In Practice were Dept of Science and Technology and policy

formulated by the Govt. of Pondicherry has given special benefits to

Women Entrepreneurs. The Pondicherry Industrial Promotion

Development and Investment Conponebin evolved a new scheme

Called Mahila Udyam Nidhi Gon helping the women Entrepreneur,

The study Conduct that the Infrastructural facilities available in

Pondicherry. The incentives and subsidies available, average large

scale multinational Corporations growth condense and export

processor zones promise good prosperity gone the Women

entrepreneur in Pondicherry.

59

Srinivasan and Srinivasa galu (1998) conducted a pilot study

on women entrepreneurs in Chennai with a Sample of 50

entrepreneurs to help them. The problems are Production problems,

marketing problems, and problems of government assistance etc. The

remedial measures suggested were Special policing by government

financial institution for Women, giving them Subsidies and

Conclusions, establishing special advisory organization to guide

women entrepreneurs.

Asha (1998) tried to bring in the various schemes, programmes

and subsidies provided by organizations like NISIE, SIDBI, etc, for

the promotion of entrepreneurship among women. The author

opined that a holistic approach `is required to facilitate women‟s

participation in business in larger numbers and utilize their potential

fully for the economic development and balanced growth of the

country.

Nalinee (1998) tried to bring out the socio- cultural barriers

confronting women entrepreneur. The various barriers analyzed by

the author were possible pressure from husband to conform to the

traditional role and his unwillingness to accept her as an

independent equal, family system, time pressure her own fear,

diffidence and guilt and social forces. The author opines that to

develop a women entrepreneur what does not fell role conflict early

socialization right from childhood plays a role. According to her the

family environment responsibility, participation in decision making

partner and content of education expose to literature inculcating

entrepreneurial urge play a role in developing women into an

entrepreneur.

60

Chaudhary and Sharma (1998) made a study on women

entrepreneur the study highlighted the various rural development

programs. The programs analyzed ware Indira Mahila Yojan

Rashtriya Mahila Kosh etc. the authors opined that there are huge

prospects for rural women entrepreneur as the nationalized banks

have started giving special attention to this group, the union budget

of the 1998-99 increased its budget for rural development by 69

percent over the previous year budget and the ninth plan has given

priority to agriculture and rural an adequate protective employment.

Caputo and Dolinsky (1998) he examined the role of financial

and human capital of household member to pursue self-employment

among females. The analysis revealed that business knowledge and

cooperation of husband in family matters contribute a lot to pursue

the business. Finding further suggested that government should

provide necessary skills to women to ensure rapid growth of

entrepreneurship.

Punitha et al., (1999) examined the problems and constraints

faced by women entrepreneurs in the Pondicherry region. A sample

of 120 females enterprises were personally interviewed during the

period June to July 1999 out of which 42 belonged to rural and 78 to

urban areas. The major problems faced by rural women

entrepreneurs are competition from better quality products and

marketing problems. The problems for urban entrepreneurs are,

apart from the competition from better quality products, the difficulty

in getting loans. The least problems faced by both rural and urban

women entrepreneurs are ignorant about schemes distance from

market and ignorant about agency and institutions.

61

Selvaraj (2000) in his study attempted to explain the behavior

process of becoming entrepreneurs. He maintained that individual

feels the need to become an entrepreneur because of social and

personal factors such as need to attain status, dissatisfaction with

present position, motives for high power achievement, innovation.

etc.

Gopal Joshi (2001) mentioned that the Entrepreneurship

Development in the 21st century would be influenced by the growing

concern towards business ethics among domestic as well as

multinational Corporations. The likely scenario of entrepreneurship

development in the current century would be dominated by growth in

information and Communication technology and business

development services.

D.D. Mali (2001) in the book “Training for Entrepreneurship

and Self-Employment” starts with brief review of the progress made

in the field of entrepreneurship development till mid 80s.

Establishment of positive linkage between entrepreneurship and

economic prosperity and emergence of strong planned effort was the

two major contributions of 60s. Similarly varieties of EDP strategy

and models were developed and field-tested during 1970s. The book

concludes with points of caution against those tendencies, which are

likely to dilute the EDPs efforts and consequently may erode

credibility.

Bliss and Garrat (2001) have examined the working of

organization for women in Poland. The paper has examined the

various activities performed by their associations to promote women

62

entrepreneurs. Information was collected from 12 support

organization for women. Data collected from these organizations

highlighted that basic purpose of these organization has been to

provide inputs to women entrepreneurs in the field of professional

ethics, protection of rights of women entrepreneurs and their

companies, exchange of experience and other activities.

M.K. Hussain, M. Kabir (2001) his work on purdah, mobility

and women‟s empowerment reproductive behavior in rural

Bangladesh his says that improved the status of women in society

increasing economic opportunities for women and rising the value of

women‟s labour increases the likelihood that parent will see

daughter‟s as Economic assets and liabilities. The reproductive

decision making process reflects tradition, religious belief, family

structure, household economics. They also learn functional literacy

to draw many from the banks and to educate their children and

about benefit of keeping small family norm. Women who have taken

advantages of this new economic opportunity are more likely to be

empowered then other women.

Puhazhendhi V. and Satyasai K.J.S. (2001) have attempted to

evaluate the performance of SHGs with special reference to social

economic empowerment taking 560 sample households, in 223 SHGs

in 11 States. They compared the pre and post SHG situations and

constructed a social and economic index. They have observed there

was a change in the average value of assets comprising of livestock

and consumer durables by 72% and the net income per household

by 33% during the pre and post SHG periods. The social and

economic empowerment index revealed that the impact was relatively

63

more pronounced in social than economic aspects. It was underlined

that the involvement of the rural poor in SHG significantly

contributed to a positive impact. Region-wise Southern region and

model wise, the NGOs acting as non-financial intermediary,

performed better than others. It was suggested to have a developed

and effective rating system of NGOs which would help in eliminating

the ineffective NGOs in the system.

Dubhashi Medha (2001) made a study titled “Mobilising

women SHGs through government and non-government

organizations”. Which attempted to focus how various governmental

and non-governmental organizations stepped forward to empower

women through Self Help Groups (SHGs).Total 160 SHGs, were

selected from three taluks viz., Bhor, Velha and Harali of

Maharastra. The study identified two major obstacles in the

development of SHGs i.e., enterprise training and marketing. Various

government and non-government organization were helping these

women groups to become sustainable and viable. Pune Zilla Parishad

had established Savior Centre for marketing, Products made by

SHGs, and also given training to the manufacture of chalk, brooms,

paper bags etc, for the first time in Pune district, a market at the

taluka level was being set up which cater to the various requirements

of the taluka. SHGs, managed by the Jijamata Research Centre of

Gyantra bodhini at Shivapur, undertake various business activities.

The centre provides enterprise training to the members of the SHGs

and products manufactured by them had a market in California

USA. There were 20 members who contribute Rs.25 per month. The

amount is deposited in the Central Bank, Shikrapur by Shree

64

Lakshmi Group at Jregan. This group has taken loan from Canara

Bank, Waghole Branch for goat rearing on which they had to pay 13

per cent interest. SHG was formed by the NGO, Gramin Mahila Va

Balak Vikas Mandal (GMVBM) funded by the Bank of Maharastra.

All members were much more economically stable, active and

successful today. The Bank of Maharashtra had taken the initiative

for marketing the items like papad chilly and turmeric powder etc.

Study concluded from the above case studies that SHG movement

hold the key to sustainable banking with the poor. The good

performance in loan repayment had motivated banks to facilitate the

formation of SHGs. Study suggested that the field staff should be

well-equipped in nurturing the development of the SHGs and should

not succumb to pressure and hurry to meet the targets to attract

subsidy.

Dhana L.P. (2001) entrepreneurship creates wealth and reduces

unemployment. Entrepreneurs contribute to industrialization as well

as to economic growth of the nation there by they improve living

standards and tax revenues from their enterprises contribute to a

nation's treasury. Not surprisingly, then, governments have been

spending considerable sums trying to create entrepreneurs. The

question remains, however, Can entrepreneurship really be taught to

provide a response of any value, one must address the definition of

entrepreneurship. As evident from the literature, there is no

universally accepted definition of entrepreneurs or of

entrepreneurship. If entrepreneurship is equated with the causing of

economic disequilibrium as per the Schumpeterian literature than

one can argue that entrepreneurs tend to be born, rather than made.

65

In contrast, if relying on the definition provided by the Austrian

School of Economics, it is possible to train entrepreneurs to identify

opportunities and act thereon. Thus, while it can be argued that it is

difficult to teach Schumpeterian entrepreneurship, efforts to teach

Kirznerian entrepreneurship appear to have achieved some levels of

success. However, to be truly successful, training programmes must

be relevant to the host environment. It would be a fallacy to assume

that a programme that has been functional in one environment will

necessarily have the same effect elsewhere.

Ramana and Narayana Swami (2002) in the study mentioned

that in the makes of liberalization, globalization and privatization of

economics across the globe, entrepreneurship gained a special

attention for socio-economic development especially in the third

world Countries. The problems in the development of

entrepreneurship in a developing country, the problems in

development of entrepreneurship in a developing country like India.

Are many and varies because of its divers: feed Caste directives

wades income disparities low education profile and other culture

back ground.

Patil (2002) in his study of small engineering units in Kothapen

observed the twin problems of work force were labour turnover and

absenteeism due to wage differential and lack of social welfare

measure such as canteen and health facility.

Vijaya (2002) in her unpublished thesis entitled “Women

Entrepreneurship in Andhra Pradesh” focused on the problems and

reasons as to why many women entrepreneurs are not coming

66

forward into the field of entrepreneurship. The objectives of the study

were analyzing Socio-economic background of women entrepreneurs

of Visakhapatnam and Hyderabad, examining. The role Conflict they

are encountered with and study of attitudes, aspiration and

ambitions of women entrepreneur. In Conclusion, she suggested that

many government and non government organization should give

focus on women entrepreneurship development is not the outcome of

a single Contribution.

Padma Iyer (2002) in her paper on women entrepreneurs of

Uttaranchal, examines the problems and prospects of successful

women entrepreneurs of Uttaranchal through data obtained from

Entrepreneurship Development Programmes conducted in the state

during the years 1996 to 1999 by the institute of Entrepreneur

Department, Uttar Pradesh. The paper concludes optimistically by

reflecting the advancement of information technology in the state

could remove most of the constraints of women entrepreneurs but

also suggests that it will require to committed efforts of several

promoters to help women entrepreneurs in the state to be at par with

their male counterparts.

Mambula (2002) analyzed major constrains faced by SMEs in

Nigeria. A sample of 32 small business entrepreneurs was taken.

Analysis of data revealed that majority of SMEs faces the problems of

finance and infrastructure while managing their business. The

author recommended that small business entrepreneurs should

collaborate with each other to sort out the various problems faced by

them. There is need to form alliance of Government, Research

institutions and Financial institutions to create appropriate training

for prospective small business.

67

Jeanne Halladay Coughlin with Andrew R. Thomas (2002) in

the book “The Rise of Women Entrepreneurs- People, Processes and

Global Trends” documents the phenomenal growth of women-owned

businesses in terms of the effects of globalisation, the issue of female

equality, and the context of women‟s empowerment. They profile

successful entrepreneurs, explaining how they got there, delineating

their essential traits, and revealing what kinds of businesses they

start, and categorising and explaining their economic and social

motivations. The process of business formation is described along

with the challenges women face and their frequently extreme

solutions.

Dr. Raj Agrawal (2002) in his article said that there has been a

major change in the way business is being done today conventional

values might not be enough to achieve success in the Indian context,

where small, family-controlled or family-held Business dominate the

business scene, it is important to encourage and promote enterprise.

Women can play a major role in this and need to be encouraged in all

kinds of business. To prepare them to play this role, business

schools must prepare management education and entrepreneurship

development programmes for women. It is important to keep in mind

the unique position of women in society in general, and in families in

particular while preparing such training programmes.

Watson (2003) has examined the failure rates among female

control business in Australia. The analysis of study highlighted that

failure rate in female control business is relatively higher than male

controlled business. But the difference is not significant after

controlling for the effects of industry.

68

Neal E. Thornberry (2003) Large organizations that had

embarked on formalized “corporate entrepreneurship” management

development programs formed the basis for this field research.

Results indicate that many managers can indeed be trained to act

like entrepreneurs and that these actions can result in significant

new value creation. However, companies who embark on corporate

entrepreneurial development programs also need to be award of the

pitfalls and problems that can happen, when newly trained corporate

entrepreneurs re-enter the organization.

Anil Kumar (2004) examines financing pattern of enterprises

owned by women entrepreneurs. For his study he took six districts

from Haryana and twenty entrepreneurs from each district, simple

percentages and chi-square test have been used to analyze the data.

He explains based on his data, women entrepreneurs are dependent

an internal sources of finance to set-up their business and found

awareness of various sources of finance is low among women

entrepreneurs. He stressed, modern communication media should

utilized to increase the level of awareness of various of finance and

procedure for getting loan needs to be made simple and cost

effective. And also suggest that EDP programmes should be

launched to provide them training and facilities available to them

under different schemes.

Bindu Sridhar (2005) in her articles said that, among the total

numbers of entrepreneurs in India about 10% were women and if the

present trend of women entering into the business continued it is

likely to be 20% in the next coming five years. Further she has given

guide lines aiming to help women entrepreneurs to cross some of the

69

typical pit fills that may crop up on their path to success they are

learning to juggle family with business not to forget that they are

running a business etc.,

Tagoe et al., (2005) have examined the financial challenged

faced by urban SMEs under financial sector liberalization in Ghana.

Main challenges faced by Urban SMEs are access to affordable credit

over a reasonable period. To manage this challenge SMEs should

manage record keeping in an effective manner. Moreover, availability

of collateral improves SMEs access to formal credit. But better

availability of investment avenues further reduces the accessibility of

credit to SMEs.

Kuratko, Donald F. (2005) Entrepreneurship has emerged over

the last two decades as arguably the most potent economic force the

world has ever experienced. With that expansion has come to a

similar increase in the field of entrepreneurship education. The

recent growth and development in the curricula and programs

devoted to entrepreneurship and new-venture creation have been

remarkable. The number of colleges and universities that offer

courses related to entrepreneurship has grown from a handful in the

1970s to over 1,600 in 2005. Some legitimacy has been attained in

the current state of entrepreneurship education there are critical

challenges that lie ahead.

Jayasheela and Palanna (2005) have made an attempt to study

the role of Self Help Groups in enhancing Sericulture productivity by

undertaking a case study in Karnataka. The main objectives of this

study are 1) To study the cropping pattern of SHG member

70

seri-culturists and Non-SHG member seri-culturists before and after

the project interventions. 2) To examine the provision of facilities

provided by the NGO under the project. 3) To study the impact of the

project on the productivity of both SHG member seri-culturists and

Non-SHG member seri-culturists, before and after the intervention.

The study was carried out in Gori Bidaner Taluk of Kolar District in

Karnataka, in the area of operation of the NGO. For the purpose of

this study, about 50 SHG seri-culturist members were interviewed.

Data was collected by using structured questionnaire. Along with the

SHG members, 25 Non-SHG member seri-culturist from the project

area were also interviewed in order to elicit their perceptions with

regard to the project undertaken by the NGO. The findings of the

study are change of mulberry variety from local to improved variety

has resulted in higher leaf production. Better dis-infection practices

improved the yields. Care is being taken by women during silkworm

rearing. To conclude, as a result of these and other facilities, many

SHG member seri-culturists have not only enhanced their

seri-cultural productivity, but also their total household income. If

the NGO extends its area of operations further to include the

neighboring villages and Non-SHG members, the benefits could

percolate to a larger area.

Hanuman Prasad and B.L.Verma (2006) observed that realm of

reality of sharp growth of women entrepreneurship in India is the

fact that most enterprises are owned by women but run by their

male counterparts. They found common motivating factors for

women entrepreneurs are desire to be independence, achievement

orientation etc. and also found the main reason of non-availability of

71

finance to women is their inability to provide collaterals as they do

not have any property on their name. They conclude that

technological revolution, mental revolution of society is required to

change the attitude of the society and provide women with

democratic entrepreneurial platform.

Anil Kumar (2006) examined the structure of enterprises

owned by women entrepreneurs in North India by taking a sample of

450 respondents from five states of Northern India. The analysis

revealed that there has been shift in structure of enterprises owned

by women entrepreneurs. Under new economic regime, women

entrepreneurs are entering in trading and service sector. He found

that overwhelming proportion of women entrepreneurs are suing five

workers and managing business on individual basis. He concluded

that enterprises managed on joint bases can be more beneficial to

women entrepreneurs as it will help them in solving various

problems faced by them and ultimately fetch more economies of scale

in their business.

Personal and Economic Empowerment in Rural Indian Women:

A Self-Help Group Approach is a study by Tracey L. Moyle, Maureen

Dollard and Saswata Narayan Biswas (2006) this study examined the

empowerment of women by addressing two dimensions: economic

empowerment and personal empowerment. One hundred women,

aged between 16 and 65 years, participating in self-help groups from

two rural India villages in Northwest India took part in the study.

Both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered through self-

report surveys and interviews, with the analysis yielding

contradictory findings. The quantitative data found that working

72

women reported moderate to high levels on collective efficacy,

proactive attitude, self-esteem and self efficacy with no significant

reporting of psychological distress. In contrast, examination of the

qualitative data revealed positive appraisals of self-worth, purpose

and independence and negative appraisals of pressure, challenge and

stress. The implications of these findings and the importance of this

study are discussed.

Frances Sinha (2006) carried out a study entitled “Self Help

Groups in India: A Study of the Lights and Shades”. The mission of

the study was to understand the promotion and operation of self-

help groups, how members related to one another, how groups

interacted with their communities, as well as the effect the groups

had on their social, political, and economic environments and vice

versa. This study explores the „lights‟ and the „shades‟ of SHGs, the

social and economic benefits and the draw backs. The aim is partly

to find out what is really happening at group level. It is also to try

and look at what can be done, exploring factors that contribute to

positive and negative outcomes. The sample size of the study

comprised of 214 self-help groups in 108 villages in four States and

nine districts. The research design was pilot tested in three villages

of Andhra Pradesh and three villages of Rajasthan during

September-October 2004. The main field work was carried out

between October 2004 and May 2005. It involved three teams of two-

four researchers, with initial data collection and interviews at district

and block/mandal level followed by 2-3 days training in each village.

The study has observed that the findings on financial performance of

SHGs are mixed in terms of profitability, return on capital and costs.

73

The data on defaults and portfolio at risk suggests the need for

further analysis and research in the context of variable repayment

patterns and an apparent divergence between stated norms and

practices. The level of „defunct‟ and broken groups in the study

villages on the whole over all seems relatively low (7 per cent). In

Andhra Pradesh groups may be emerging as an indicator of loan

default. In the northern region there being also groups who are

breaking and realigning – partly in response to new government

programmes and targets for credit disbursement. Most stakeholders

consider the SHG as a financially useful and sound instrument, and

worry about the social and political implications. What this study

indicates is that there are lights and shades on both sides. There are

perhaps more social lights beginning to appear, and more financial

shades. But, this study suggests that progress on either financial or

social-will require greater clarity of vision and objectives and a

systematic approach to building capacity and providing guidance.

Rego (2006) has made an attempt to study about the nexus of

women empowerment and NGOs. According to the author, NGOs are

playing a crucial role in the field of rural development in general and

rural women empowerment in specific. The determining factors for

the socio economic status of women are education and occupation,

the importance of which is different for those in the developed and

the developing countries. The study has identified many approaches

like 1) Welfare approach 2) Equity approach 3) Anti-poverty approach

4) Efficiency approach 5) Empowerment approach for the

emancipation of women. Education, employment, entrepreneur

development and participation are the indicators of empowerment,

74

development of which requires both government and non-

government agencies to work collaboratively. In this context, the

author has presented a case study whose main objective was to

analyze the impact of NGOs programmes on women empowerment

with the help of the data collected from the project area SKDRDP (a

voluntary organization involved in rural development) in Karnataka

state. Primary data were collected from women beneficiaries in two

villages. The oldest beneficiaries were treated as the „member group‟

and recent beneficiaries were treated as the „comparison group‟.

Impact was seen in terms of differences in income, savings,

occupational diversification, control over income, decision-making

with in the household, mobility of women and „comparison group‟,

rather than before and after comparison. The methodology focused

mainly on comparison between the “member group” and the

“comparison group”, rather than before joining and after joining the

group. Most of the female and male main workers in the study area

are employed in agriculture as cultivators, agricultural laborers, and

other agricultural workers. The findings of this study have created a

business counseling model, created a new selection process and

training model in entrepreneur development, and succeeded in

creating a number of policies favourable to women. Designed and

implemented successfully new training programmes for rural

entrepreneurs through grassroots NGOs in entrepreneurial approach

with a success rate of 90 per cent.

Shashikala Sitaram (2007) undertook an evaluation study

entitled Promoting Urban Social development Through Self Help

Groups in Karnataka in May 2007. The Karnataka Urban

75

Infrastructure Development Project (the project) was implemented

from 1996 to 2004, supported by two loans and technical support

from the Asian Development Bank. This case study evaluates the Self

Help Groups and their Federations, as facilitated under the project.

The study is based on field visits to the project towns in Karnataka

during August and September 2005, and was updated during May

2007. It integrates secondary sources of information. This study

assesses that the credit for introducing the concept in urban slums

of Karnataka goes to the Project. The project started helping the

formation of SHGs in the period October 1999 December 2000, and

greatly expanded its efforts in a second phase started in July 2002.

Unfortunately, the second phase lasted only 18 months, as the

project closed by mid 2004. The Self Help Group program covered

23,324 families living below the poverty line. This constituted 40 per

cent of all families below the poverty line in the urban areas. The

results of the study showed that the membership of the SHGs has

contributed to significant changes in the lives of women in the six

towns. The most important has been the escape from or reliance on

money lenders who were charging exorbitant rates of interest. The

interests on loans have reduced from 120 per cent per annum to 24

per cent. Due to exposure to programmes of entrepreneurial

development and availability of credit facilities, many of the women

and their families have now ventured into pursuing income

generation activities. This has allowed for an increase in the

household income, which has resulted in changing the consumption

pattern, thereby improving the quality of life. The family is able to

address their basic needs better than before. The participation in the

76

SHG movement itself has been an empowering and liberating

experience for many of the poor women. The strongest impact has

been in terms of self-esteem and increased social mobility as many

women of urban slums had never been involved in such a program

before. Interactions with other women have resulted in building

congenial relationships and have reduced conflicts. It also had the

effect of spreading the SHG movement. Since women are exposed to

more programs, such as health programs, their level of awareness

has increased. Changes in decision-making patterns are setting in,

although the programme is not a panacea for most women continue

to be excluded from many major decisions that concern the

households and their lives. However, the author cautioned that

SHGs cannot be taken as the answer to solve all the problems related

to poverty alleviation. SHGs provide women with abilities to survive

in the worst situations. Nevertheless, for the 12,000 women in the

slums, this development has been a boon.

Microfinance, Self-Help Groups and Empowerment in

Maharashtra is a study carried out by Raghav Gaiha and Arul

Nandhi (2007) this study assesses the benefits of microfinance

through self-help groups, based on a specially designed survey in

selected villages in Pune district. While the benefits in terms of

higher income, consumption, and savings matter for the poor, the

focus here is broader. An attempt was made to assess some key

dimensions of women‟s empowerment – defined broadly as expansion

of freedom of choice and action to shape their own lives. While

targeting of microfinance through SHGs was unsatisfactory in terms

of an income criterion but it was better in terms of other indicators of

77

deprivation such as low caste, landlessness and illiteracy. However,

what is, noteworthy is that the loans were used largely for health and

education of children and for production-related expenses especially

by the disadvantaged. Using different methods and data sources,

various dimensions of empowerment were confirmed. Some of the

mechanisms involved in it were identified and assessed. Not only do

SHGs benefit from the presence of networks, but also contribute to

trust, reciprocity and associational capital through strengthening of

local institutions and domestic violence got reduced.

Renuka Viswanath (2008) analyzed about the various

problems faced by the women in various business fields like finance,

marketing etc. she wants the women entrepreneurs must be

encouraged by providing adequate training programmes right from

the school level to make them a powerful entrepreneurs, and this

programme must also include some technical exposure. She also

discussed about various financial institutes and also explained the

marketing problems of women entrepreneurs. It means that a market

survey to select the product should be made part of all training

programmes.

Ananta Basudev Sahuand and Sandhya Rani Das (2009) have

made an attempt to analyze the role performance of SHGs in

promoting women‟s‟ empowerment in Gajapati District of Orissa. The

broad objective of the study was to analyze the operating system of

SHGs for mobilization of savings, delivery of credit to the needy,

management of group funds, repayment of loans, building up

leadership, establishing linkage with banks and examine the social

benefits derived by the members. In order to collect and gather

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primary data, field observations through structured questionnaire

refined survey methods were employed. In addition, information was

also collected through discussions and interviews with local NGOs

and government‟s grass roots level workers. There are 281 SHGs

working in Gajapati district. Here the researcher has chosen 10

SHGs from each block of the district. In total, the study covers 50

SHGs with 800 members. The study revealed that SHGs had set a

new agenda for financial intermediation by banks in the form of

micro-credit. By the formation of SHGs, credits are demanded for

various purposes (domestic, health, festivals, repayment of old debts,

investment, etc.). Similarly different economic activities (collection,

processing and marketing of minor forest products, individual

business, goatery, dairy etc.) are undertaken by the SHG members

after joining the group. Habits of savings, economic independence,

self confidence, social cohesion, asset ownership, freedom from debt,

additional employment, etc. were the benefits derived by the SHG

members. Thus, SHGs have served the cause of women

empowerment, social solidarity and socio-economic betterment of the

poor for their consolidation.