CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the review of literature with a view to examine how the

problem has been analyzed by different researchers from time to time. The review is

classified in to four parts as under:

1. Studies focused on agricultural growth

2. Studies focused on growth and instability in agriculture.

3. Studies focused on the decomposition of sources of instability.

4. Other related studies.

3.2 Studies Focused on Agricultural Growth

Haffis et al., (1992)1 worked out the growth patterns on food grains economy of

India. This study employed secondary data of 40 years time series from 1949-50 to 1988-89.

The net results emerged than the study that though the productivity of food grain crops

has increased during the last 40 years, nut this increase in productivity has failed to boost

up the area under the production of these crops due to the shifting of a portion of land.

The contribution of yield effect increased from 53.42 per cent in the first decade to

104.06 per cent in the fourth decade. Finally, the study concludes at a low growth rate or

present level of area, our country has achieved self-sufficiency in food grains production

recently. Some implications of the policy are given in the study.

Singh and Kaur (1992)2 studied the growth in agricultural productivity in Punjab.

It had been increasing at a growth rate of little above 4 per cent during the seventies and

eighties. The average productivity per hectare increased from Rs. 3294 per hectare in

1 Haffis , Shaik, Y. V. R. Reddy, P. Lakshmi and R. K. Raju, (1992), “Growth Patterns in Foodgrains

Economy of India”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLVI, No.12, pp: 905-908. 2 Singh, Karam and Kulwinder Kaur, (1992), “Growth in Agricultural Productivity and Nature of

Technological Changes in Punjab Agriculture”, Agricultural Situation of India, Vol. XLVII, No. 4,

pp: 355-358.

33

1970-71 to Rs. 4914 in 1980-81 and further to Rs. 6544 per hectare in 1988-89.

The growth in productivity was leveling off in various districts. During the seventies, as

many as 4 districts had growth rate higher than 5 per cent but during the eighties only

2 districts had this much growth.

Verma (1992)3 reviewed the contribution of agriculture as growth component can

be analyzed and examined in terms of (i) product contribution; (ii) factor contribution and

(iii) market contribution. It would be interesting to discuss how Indian agriculture had

behaved on these fronts in recent past and particularly during 80‟s.

Sinha and Thakur (1993)4 analyzed the growth performance of major food crops

in Bihar. The study highlights the remarkable increase in area, production and productivity of

the wheat followed by rice and maize throughout the study period. The variability analysis

revealed that the yield for all these three crops was found to be more stable in the post-green

revolution period as compared to the pre-green revolution period. Further, the Chow‟s test

also supported the fact that the new production technology had a significant impact in

production process of Wheat and Maize during the Green Revolution period. In case of rice,

technological progress was observed over the time, though it has no significant impact on the

production of rice during the period of Green Revolution.

Bastine and Palanisami (1994)5 analyzed the trends in growth rates over the

period 1965-66 to 1989-90 and the decadal changes in growth rates of area, production

and productivity of major crops of Kerala. Despite the fact that the value of the

agricultural product per unit of land in Kerala is one of the highest in the country because

of diverse crop combination.

3 Verma, B. N. (1992), “Agriculture as a Growth Component in Indian Economy During 80‟s”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLVI, No.11, pp: 793-798. 4 Sinha, D. K., and Jawahar Thakur, (1993), “An Economic Analysis of Growth Performance of Major

Food Crops in Bihar”, Agricultural Situation of India, Vol. XLVIII, No. 7, pp: 543-548. 5 Bastine, C. Latha and K. Palanisami, (1994), “An Analysis of Growth Trends of Principal Crops in

Kerala”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLVIII, No.12, pp: 885-891.

34

Bhatnagar and Nandal (1994)6 addressed about the growth of wheat in Haryana.

The result suggested that the growth rates of wheat for a period of 25 years (1966-67 to

1990-91) were found highly significant. Interaction between area and yield had played a

significant role in increasing the production of wheat. Further, the production has

increased to a larger extent by adoption of high yielding varieties of wheat, good

irrigation facilities, good consumption of fertilizers, adoption of proper technology and

also good harvesting price of wheat. Thus, wheat being a relatively much less risky crop

as compared to other Rabi crops impetus the farmers to increase the area under wheat.

Naidu et al., (1994)7 points out the trends in area, production and productivity of

major crops in Andhra Pradesh. They found that the time series analysis from 1980-81 to

1989-90 indicated high productivity of rice per unit of area in Srikakulam district and

increase in area under groundnut in all the three districts viz., Srikakulam, Vizianagaram

and Visakhapatnam. They also concluded that ragi and bajra based cropping system was

slowly fading away and in its place the more remunerative commercial crops like

groundnut and sugarcane were creeping in. Though the sesamum and mesta were other

important crops of this area, better deal to be given to these crops for better production

and productivity. Setting up of a full-fledged groundnut research station may be highly

helpful to the oilseed farmer of this tract.

Singh and Singh (1994)8 estimated the growth of agriculture in Punjab. The paper

shows that Punjab had made a remarkable progress in agriculture. The need of the day

was to sustain agricultural productivity. Over-exploitation of underground water was a

matter of great concern to agricultural scientists and the Government. Area under

protective food crops like pulses had declined. There was a need to increase area under

leguminous crops so that they may enrich the soil with nitrogen. Besides chemical

fertilizers use of organic manures should also be encouraged.

6 Bhatnagar, Sharad and D. S. Nandal, (1994), “Growth of Wheat in Haryana”, Agricultural Situation

of India, Vol. XLIX, No. 8, pp: 575-578. 7 Naidu, M. R., K. Ramalinga Swamy and T. K. V. V. Mallikarjuna Rao, (1994), “Trends in Area,

Production and Productivity of Major Crops in North Coastal Districts of Andhra Pradesh”,

Agricultural Situation of India, Vol. XLIX, No. 8, pp: 571-574. 8 Singh, Guriqbal and Jasvinder Singh, (1994), “Growth of Agriculture in Punjab”, Agricultural

Situation of India, Vol. XLIX, No. 8, pp: 587-591.

35

Ghosh and Neogi (1995)9 carried out the supply response of foodgrains and policy

actions. They made an attempt to study the growth of per capita production of rice, wheat and

foodgrains as a whole and to find out the possible connection between different policy

actions of the government, on the one hand, and production and marker prices, on the other.

Mander and Sharma (1995)10

dealt with production performance of cereal crops in

India. The data for the study were obtained from statistical Abstracts of India for the

years 1966-67 through 1988-89. The growth rates of production, area and yield of

important cereal crops such as rice, jowar, maize, bajra and wheat for different States

were worked out by making use of an exponential function.

Sharma and Joshi (1995)11

discussed about the performance of rice production

and factors affecting acreage under rice in regions of India. For the purpose of this study,

secondary data on acreage, production and yield of rice in different traditional coastal and

non-traditional rice growing regions were collected from different published sources for

the periods 1970-71 to 1988-89. Compound growth rates of acreage, production and yield

of rice were worked out by fitting exponential functions.

Maheshwari (1996)12

assessed the agricultural growth in Karnataka. She used the

kinked exponential estimates of rates of growth to arrive at more complete picture of trends,

it was found that in Karnataka the yield increased brought about by HYV seeds were not

really revolutionary. These findings pointed out the importance of water management in a

semi-dry area like Karnataka in maintaining growth in the agricultural sector.

9 Ghosh, Nilabja and Chiranjib Neogi, (1995), “Supply Response of Foodgrains and Policy Actions:

A Model with Rational Exceptional Hypothesis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.

50, No. 2, pp: 135-152. 10

Mander, G. S., and J. L. Sharma, (1995), “Production Performance of Cereal Crops in India – State-wise

Analysis”, Agricultural Situation of India, Vol. XLXII, No. 28, pp: 57-61. 11

Sharma, Vijay Paul and P. K. Joshi, (1995), “Performance of Rice Production and Factors Affecting

Acreage under Rice in Coastal Regions of India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics,

Vol. 50, No. 2, pp: 153-167. 12

Maheshwari, Asha, (1996), “Agricultural Growth in a Semi-Arid Area – The Case of Karnataka”,

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp: 315-327.

36

Misra and Panda (1996)13

analyzed the development of agriculture in Orissa during

eighties and indicate the strategy that need to be followed in the nineties. They found that the

growth rate of agricultural production had shown no significant increase during 1969-70 to

1981-82. However, the recent development in production is not so unsatisfactory.

The growth rate of production and yield of all the crops was found quite significant.

Prasad et al., (1996)14

assessed the growth pattern in area, production and

productivity of rice crop and also found out the causes for disparities in rice yield in

Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. In order to find out the growth pattern they

collected secondary data from season and crop reports and computed compound growth

rates with help of exponential function. They also collected the primary data to prove the

yield discrepancies. They found that the co-efficient of variation of area, production and

productivity were found to be by and large stable in the study area. They also found that

the soil type, soil fertility and irrigation sources were the reasons for yield disparities in

the sample area.

Singh et al., (1996)15

analyzed the growth behaviour of agriculture in the State of

Madhya Pradesh. They also used the exponential form of the function. Their study covers

two short-run and one long-run period to analyze the growth behaviour. They found that

the growth rates of area, production and productivity of most of the crops were

statistically significant during short-run. Their analysis revealed that there was a need to

minimize acreage fluctuations via expanding irrigational network.

Tripathy (1996)16

made an attempt to find the growth and trends in area, yield and

production of rice in Orissa. The results of the present study indicated that the output of

13

Misra, B. and R. K. Panda, (1996), “Perspectives of Agricultural Development in Orissa”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIII, No. 6, pp: 403-408. 14

Prasad, Y. Eswara, M. Manohar Rao and Narasimbha Reddy, (1996), “Analysis of Growth and Causes

for yield Disparities in Rice in Karimnagar District of Andhra Pradesh”, Agricultural Situation in

India, Vol. LIII, No. 2, pp: 69-72. 15

Singh, Lal Mrigendra, Neelkanth G. Pendse and S. K. Choubey, (1996) “An Economic Analysis of

Crop Production in Madhya Pradesh during 1969-70 to 1991-92”, Agricultural Situation in India,

Vol. LIII, No. 2, pp: 89-92. 16

Tripathy, S. (1996), “Growth and Trends in Area, Yield and Production of Rice in Orissa”,

Agricultural Situation of India, Vol. LII, No. 10, pp: 661-664.

37

rice during the post-green revolution period grew at an annual rate of 1.43 per cent and

this was contributed solely by per-hectare yield. Area under rice experienced deceleration

due to diversion of area to oilseeds and pulses.

Bhalla and Singh (1997)17

highlighted the results of an analysis of state level data

on area and output of 43 crops for the years from 1962-65 to 1992-95. It reveled that

there was a marked acceleration in the growth rate of agriculture output in India during

1980-83 to 1992-95 as compared with the earlier periods. Furthermore, Agricultural

growth had become regionally much more diversified.

Dhindsa and Sharma (1997)18

attempted to analyze the growth behaviour and

factors influencing the supply of various pulse crops in Punjab. The specific objectives of

the study were (a) to study the growth of area, production and yield of various pulse

crops in Punjab during 1966-67 to 1991-92, (b) to examine the acreage response of

various factors determining the decisions regarding allocation of land among different

pulse crops in Punjab and its various sub-regions, (c) to estimate the short-run elasticities

of acreage under various pulse crops with respect to various price and non-price factors

and (d) to suggest measures to increase the production of pulse crops in the state.

Kalirajan and Shand (1997)19

studied the sources of output growth in Indian

agriculture. They observed that TFP growth in the pre-reform period was negative in four

out of 15 states and that, by the end of the decade, it was small for those states where the

contribution of TFP growth was positive. The contribution of technology (in its two

components) to output growth declined substantially, particularly from 1988 to 1990.

Sawant (1997)20

presented an update of growth performance of India‟s

agricultural sector for the green revolution period. He focused on the national and state

17

Bhalla, G. S., and Gurmail Singh, (1997), “Recent Developments in Indian Agriculture: A State Level

Analysis”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 32, No. 13, pp: A2-A18. 18

Dhindsa, K. S. and Anju Sharma, (1997), “A Regional Analysis of Growth and Supply Responses of

Pulses – A Study of Punjab”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp: 87-100. 19

Kalirajan, K. P. and R. T. Shand, (1997), “Sources of Output Growth in Indian Agriculture”, Indian

Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52, No. 4, pp: 693-706. 20

Sawant, S. D., (1997), “Performance of Indian Agriculture with Special Reference to Regional

Variations”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp: 374-386.

38

level analysis of aggregate growth performance, i.e., of crop and livestock sub-sectors

combined, elaborates evaluation of growth in the crop sector and emerging regional

patterns of growth and diversification.

Shiyani and Pandya (1998)21

measured the diversification of agriculture in

Gujarat. They concluded from the results presented in this study that there existed wide

spatiotemporal disparity in the acreage allocation under different crops. In general, the

farmers had shifted their cropping pattern from the subsistence crops to the commercial

crops. On an average, relatively higher growth rate of acreage under tur, castor, rapeseed-

mustard, sugarcane, maize and wheat were found in different agro-climatic sub-zones of

Gujarat, whereas negative compound growth rates of acreage under pearl millet, jowar

and cotton were noticed in most of the zones.

Srivastava (1998)22

examined the agricultural development in Bihar in the context

of performance of agriculture during the period 1970-71 to 1991-92; potential generated

and constraints inhabiting agricultural development and strategy for agricultural

development. He found that there was a decline in the net area sown during the latter

parts of his study.

Brothakur and Bhattacharyya (1999)23

used compound growth rates which

computed for area, production and productivity of rice based on the exponential function

for three periods [viz., pre-green revolution period (1951-52 to 1970-71), post-green

revolution period (1971-72 to 1993-94) and the total period (1951-52 to 1993-94)].

Although, the high yielding varieties were introduced in the State of Assam during 1965-66,

its impact was felt only after 1971-72. Hence, the period 1951-52 to 1970-71 was

considered as the pre-green revolution period.

21

Shiyani, R. L., and H. R. Pandya, (1998), “Diversification of Agriculture in Gujarat: A Spatio-Temporal

Analysis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp: 627-638. 22

Srivastava, G. C. (1998), “Sustainable Agricultural Development in Bihar: Potential and Constraints”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LV, No. 4, pp: 197-207. 23

Brothakur, S. and B. K. Bhattacharyya, (1999), “Trend Analysis of Area, Production and Productivity

of Rice in Assam: 1951-1993”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVI, No. 4, pp: 203-206.

39

Chugh and Satyapal (1999)24

evaluated that the data had been indexed on base

year (Triennium ending 1974-75). Use had been made of linear and exponential models

for the estimation of growth rates. Comparison had also been made on the growth rates of

production, between the States and within the period of his study.

Chattopadhyay and Das (2000)25

estimated of growth rate in West Bengal

agriculture. They found that the rainfall did not have any significant effect on agricultural

production and, the recent developments in West Bengal agriculture was lopsided. Only a

few crops had dominated the field of the farmers by elbowing out other crops, like high

protein pulses, wheat etc., and the locational base had also not been widened.

Dashora et al., (2000)26

enquired about growth in production of important pulse

crops in Rajasthan. They found that the output growth in aggregate pulse crops was

positive but non-significant in the overall period. The contribution of area in the

aggregate pulse crops output was 53 per cent while that of yield was 22 per cent.

Joshi et al., (2001)27

focused about the agricultural performance in semi-arid

tropics of India. This study concluded that the performance of superior crops, like rice

and wheat, was remarkable, while that of inferior crops, like pearlmillet and sorghum,

was quite dismal. Pearlmillet-sorghum, cotton-sorghum, and sorghum based cropping

systems proved to be the systems of low-income and higher risk in comparison to rice,

and rice-wheat based cropping systems.

Pillai (2001)28

highlighted paddy productivity growth in West Bengal and Orissa.

She found that input productivity had indeed played an important role in the growth

performance in the 1980s and early 1990s in this region. While growth in inputs and total

24

Chugh, K. and Satyapal, (1999), “Statistical Appraisal of the Progress of Production of Wheat”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVI, No. 7, pp: 403-406. 25

Chattopadhyay, Arup Kumar and Purnendu Sekhar Das, (2000), “Estimation of Growth Rate:

A Critical Analysis with Reference to West Bengal Agriculture”, Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics, Vol. 55, No. 2, pp: 116-133. 26

Dashora, Snajay Kumar, J. M. Dhaka and N. L. Agarwal, (2000), “Growth in Production of Important

Pulse Crops in Rajasthan”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVII, No.8, pp: 453-458. 27

Joshi, P. K., B. S. Chandel, S. M. Virmani and J. C. Katyal, (2001), “Agricultural Performance in

Semi-Arid Tropics of India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 56, No. 1, pp: 71-87. 28

Pillai, Renuka, (2001), “An Analysis of Paddy Productivity Growth in West Bengal and Orissa”,

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 56, No. 4, pp: 613-629.

40

factor productivity had contributed significantly to the output growth in both the states,

the performance of West Bengal had been better than Orissa. This improvement in input

productivity in West Bengal had been brought about both by efficiency and technology in

the presence of variations across seasons and seed varieties. Improvements in production

technology were apparent between 1986-87 and 1990-91. Although use of inputs and

technical efficiency increased over time, it had not been as dramatic as the improvement

in the state of production technology.

Singh and Chandra (2001)29

analyzed the growth trends in area, yield and production

of food grains in Uttar Pradesh. They found that the state of Uttar Pradesh had registered a

considerable change in agricultural development during different phases of the green

revolution. Introduction of High Yield Varieties of major crops in the State in the mid-seventies

paved the way to significant rise in foodgrains production. The growth rate in production was

low during the green-revolution period compared to post-green revolution era.

Singh and Chandra (2001)30

studied the agricultural productivity in Madhya

Pradesh. The authors found that the food grains production in the state increased from

5.896 to 17.41 million tones during 1951-52 to 1996-97 achieving an annual growth of

2.38 per cent. Although, the yield during this period increased from 461 to 1105 kg/ha

but this is still very low compared to all-India average of 1614 kg/ha. The low yield was

found due to lower use of agricultural inputs mainly fertilizer and irrigation water.

The analysis has revealed that fertilizer consumption in the state increased. Yearly growth of

fertilizer use in the state has been erratic and low compared to all-India growth trend.

Ramasamy and Selvaraj (2002)31

observed the reasons for the slow growth of

pulses, oilseeds and coarse cereals. The paper showed that the growth in pulses and

oilseeds production had not kept pace with the population growth, resulting in an overall

decline in per capita availability and generally higher prices for pulses and edible oils.

29

Singh, G. and H. Chandra, (2001), “Growth Trends in Area, Yield and Production of Foodgrains in

Uttar Pradesh”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVIII, No.9, pp: 423-426. 30

Singh Gyanendra and Hukum Chandra, (2000), “Growth Trends in Area and Productivity Affecting

Total Foodgrains Production in Madhya Pradesh”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVII, No.11,

pp: 597-602. 31

Ramasamy, C., and K. N. Selvaraj (2002), “Pulses, Oilseeds and Coarse Cereals: Why they are Slow

Growth Crops”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 57, No. 3, pp: 289-314.

41

Sarkar and Chakraborty (2002)32

examined the growth crisis of food grain

production in West Bengal. The study concluded that the growth in the food grain area,

production and yield trends in the State of West Bengal had decreased significantly

during Reform Period and Overall period. This was mainly due to the significant decrease

of the growth in rice production and yield trends and pulse area, production and yield

trends, during reform period compared to the Pre-reform period, although production and

yield growth of pulse crop were negative during Pre-reform period.

Singh and Kumar (2002)33

addressed to India had made impressive strides on the

agricultural front during the last three decades. Much of the credit for this success should

go to the several million small farming families that formed the backbone of Indian

agriculture and economy. Policy support, production strategies, public investment in

infrastructure, research and extension for crop, livestock and fisheries had significantly

helped to increase food production and its availability.

Bharti et al., (2003)34

reported the growth of pulses in India. They declared that

India was a major player in the world pulses market. It was not only the largest producer

of pulses, but also biggest consumer. Though there was greater importance of pulses for

Indian consumers, its performance had been dismal in the last five decades due to a

number of constraints like their cultivation on rainfed and marginal lands, high

susceptibility to insect, pests and diseases, weather aberrations, lack of genetic break

through, diversion of pulses area to other more remunerative crops, etc. there was a wide

gap between the demand for and supply of pulses in India.

Haridoss (2003)35

examined the inter-district variations in foodgrains production

in Tamil Nadu. He concluded that Thanjavur had no model district. In foodgrains

production, Pudukkotai alone had reached more than potential target apart from

32

Sarkar, Bebnarayan and Sanjukta Chakraborty, (2002), “Growth Crisis of Foodgrains in West Bengal”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVIII, No.11, pp: 511-516. 33

Singh R. B., and Praduman Kumar, (2002), “Acceleration of India‟s Agricultural Growth during the

Tenth Five Year Plan and Beyond”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No. 5, pp: 259-266. 34

Bharti, D. K., L. S. Gangwar, Ashwani Kumar and Sandeep Kumar, (2003), “Analysis of Growth of

Pulses in India – Last Five Decades”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LX, No. 6, pp: 511-516. 35

Haridoss, R., (2003), “Inter-District Variations in Foodgrains Production in Tamil Nadu”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No. 11, pp: 673-684.

42

Thanjavur district. In the case of area under foodgrains production, the district actually

realized than the computed targets were Cuddalore, Villuppuram, Thiuvannamalai, Salem

and Dharmapuri. It was also evident that the districts except Villuppuram, Coimbatore,

Erode, Tiruchirapalli, Thanjavur and Tirunelveli had not achieved potential target in the

utilization of fertilizer. Regarding the foodgrains productivity Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam

and Madurai districts had exceeded the targets. Cropping intensity was found to exceed

the target values in the districts of Salem, Dharmapuri and Thiruvarur. Therefore,

Thanjavur was a model district for other districts in the foodgrains production in Tamil

Nadu. The Kanniyakumari district was lagging behind in the pattern and measure of

development of foodgrains production in Tamil Nadu.

Shah (2003)36

investigated the slow growth foodgrain crops in Maharashtra.

The findings of the study showed tremendous increase in pulses output over the past

decade and a half in majority of the pulses growing regions of Maharashtra. Both yield

and area expansion had contributed to this increase in pulses output. However, coarse

cereals had shown very slow growth in their output, especially after the late eighties

period. Although there had been perceptible rise in yield of coarse cereals over time, this

yield expansion could not raise coarse cereal output as majority of the regions of

Maharashtra had shown a decline in area under these crops. In fact, the effect of area

reduction was so intense that it had outweighed the effect of yield expansion and

consequently there had been a very slow growth in output of coarse cereals.

Srivastava et al., (2003)37

made an attempt to know about the growth in area,

production and productivity of pulses in eastern Uttar Pradesh. They estimated the

Compound growth rates by fitting the exponential function to the district-wise data.

They found that arhar production declined at a compound rate of 0.3 per cent per annum

in the study area. This was mainly due to the negative growth in productivity.

36

Shah, Deepak, (2003), “Sustainability of Slow Growth Foodgrain Crops in Maharashtra: Issues and

Options”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LX, No. 7, pp: 457-466. 37

Srivastava, S. C., C. Sen and A. R. Reddy, (2003), “An Analysis of Growth of Pulses in Eastern Uttar

Pradesh”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No. 12, pp: 771-775.

43

Kumar and Jain (2004)38

analyzed the growth pace in foodgrain production and

resource use for major grain producing States of India. More specifically the objectives of

the study were:

1. To study the growth behaviour in foodgrain production;

2. To study the growth behaviour in resource use in agriculture, and

3. To highlight the policy implications of the study.

Jahanmohan et al., (2005)39

investigated the growth performance of agriculture in

agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu. This was organized into five sections viz., section I

gave the introduction; section II depicted methodology including sources of data; section

III explicited the outcome of the study; section IV summarized the results with

conclusion and section V provided the references. Compound growth rates of area,

production and productivity of the crops were worked out by fitting exponential function

for all the periods separately.

Kumar et al., (2005)40

enquired into the production performance of maize crop in

northern India. The study was mainly based on secondary data pertaining to area,

production and yield of maize crops. These secondary data were collected from the

Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DES), Government of India, various issues of

Economics Survey, and other published sources. This study pertained to the traditional

maize growing States of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and

Orissa, which together account for about 60 per cent of the maize area.

Tuteja (2006)41

analyzed the growth performance in terms of area, production and

yield of five important pulse crops (gram, arhar, moong, urad and massar) along with

38

Kumar, Sandeep and K. K. Jain, (2004), “Growth Performance of Foodgrain Production and Resource

Use in India”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXI, No. 6, pp: 409-423. 39

Jahanmohan, K. R., K. R. Sundaravaradarajan, L. P. Swaminathan, S. Padmarani and S. P. Saravanan,

(2005), “Growth Performance of Agriculture in Agro-Climatic Zones of Tamil Nadu”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LXI, No. 10, pp: 679-686. 40

Kumar, Ranjit, R. P. Singh, N. P. Singh and A. K. Vasisht, (2005), “Production Performance of Maize

Crop in Northern India: A District-wise Exploration”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXI, No.

11, pp: 765-771. 41

Tuteja, Usha, (2006), “Growth Performance and Acreage Response of Pulse Crops: A State-Level

Analysis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 610, No. 2, pp: 218-237.

44

total pulses at the all India level. She concluded that the all India pulse production grew

at the dismal rate of 0.7 per cent per annum.

Alagh (2007)42

studied the macro story of faster growth of the agricultural sector

since the eighties. Also growth was sourced by yield in the eighties with area showing no

growth. This study concluded that the cropping patterns were different and different

areas, also because these factors were of a long term or permanent nature and there was a

kind of basic stability in cropping patterns. They changed because of economic reasons or

technological reasons-but the change was slower.

Tuteja (2007)43

discussed about the need for second green revolution in India.

The author concluded that India needed second green revolution to bring food security to

its billion plus population, to remove distress of farming community and to make its

agriculture globally competitive.

Lawwa and Kumar (2008)44

measured the growth performance of oilseeds by

calculating the compound growth rates, variability and decomposition analysis.

The requisite time series data on area, production and yield of oilseeds crops were

collected from Agricultural Department, directorate of economics and statistics Rajasthan

etc. For measuring the compound growth rates (CGR) in area, production and yield,

log-linear equation was used.

Dalwai (2012)45

analyzed the dynamics of agricultural growth in India. He concluded

that India today has 1.21 billion people and is expected to overtake china and become the

world‟s most populous country by 2025. This world put tremendous pressure on natural

resources and government would have a challenge in providing food, water, health, shelter,

sanitation and jobs to all. The challenge is to channelise the additional world force to

accelerate the growth of agriculture in the country, by madding it a modern enterprise with

appropriate infusion of capital, technology, skilled resources and relevant reforms.

42

Alagh, Munish, (2007), “Indian Agriculture – Growth and Change”, Agricultural Situation in India,

Vol. LXIV, No.5, pp: 55-57. 43

Tuteja, Usha, (2007), “Indian Agriculture: In Search of Second Green Revolution”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LXIV, No. 5, pp: 9-14. 44

Lawwa, Rupesh and Anil Kumar, (2008), “Growth Performance of Oilseeds in Rajasthan”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXV, No. 9, pp: 589-592. 45

Dalwai, Ashok, (2012), “Dynamics of Agricultural Growth in India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics, Vol. 67, No. 1, pp: 27-45

45

Sharma (2012)46

observed the India‟s agricultural development under the new

economic regime. He found that more than half of the workforce is still engaged in

agriculture for their livelihoods and employment, agriculture continues to be a predominant

sector of the Indian economy, even though its share in national gross domestic product has

declined in recent year. Rapid growth of the non-agricultural sectors, particularly services, in

post-reforms period has failed to accelerate agricultural growth or poverty reduction. During

the last two decades Indian agriculture has been facing major challenges like deceleration in

growth rate, degradation in growth rate, degradation of natural resources, inter-sect oral,

inter-regional equity, declining input efficiency, etc.

3.3 Studies Focused on Growth and Instability in Agriculture

Panda (1992)47

dealt with growth and instability in the agriculture of Orissa.

He found that the analysis revealed positive association between higher growth in yield and

higher fluctuations in case of oilseeds. Only in the Eastern Ghats a little deviation was

noticed where higher yield growth in oilseeds associated with lower degree if instability.

Kaushik (1993)48

points out the growth and instability of oilseeds production.

He revealed that the fluctuation in yield was the major cause for the fluctuation in the

output and hence the fluctuations in yield had to be controlled to bring kin stability in the

output. This would mean concerted research efforts in developing new varieties of

oilseeds whose yield potential was stable across different agro-climatic regions. These

new varieties of seeds had not only to be high-yielding even under adverse weather

conditions but will also have to be disease and pest resistant. The prime concern of farm

scientists should be to increase the competitiveness and profitability of oilseeds with that

of other field crops.

46

Sharma, Vijay Paul, (2012), “India‟s Agricultural Development under the New Economic Regime:

Policy Perspective and Strategy for the 12th

Five Year Plan”, Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics, Vol. 67, No. 1, pp: 46-77. 47

Panda, R. K. (1992), “Growth and Instability in the Agriculture of Orissa – An Inter-Regional

Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLVI, No.12, pp: 905-908. 48

Kaushik, Krishan Kanta, (1993), “Growth and Instability of Oilseeds Production”, Indian Journal of

Agricultural Economics, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp: 334-338.

46

Tripathy and Gowda (1993)49

observed that growth, instability and area response

of groundnut in Orissa. They identified that area was the dominant source of growth of

output during the post-green revolution period. The per hectare yield of groundnut was

almost stagnant in the state. Efforts should be directed to increase productivity through

development of suitable varieties for different agro-climatic zones by applying

recommended fertilizer and pesticides and bringing more area under irrigation during rabi

season. The results of the empirical findings of the study emphasis yield stabilizing

policies in Central, Eastern Ghat and Northern zones of the state. Concerted efforts

should be directed towards strengthening research and extension system and increasing

the irrigation facilities in the state to stabilize the productivity of groundnut.

Jha (1994)50

found that instability in gross return and yield largely declined over

yeas. The decline in yield instability in crop viz., paddy and wheat was brought about

with increased area under irrigation over years. Nevertheless, Government‟s consistent

price policy also helped in reduction of instability in farm harvest prices. Thus, it can be

inferred that with new technology, instability in agricultural income reduced with

adequate irrigation facilities and consistent price policy. However, the second hypothesis

of high instability in agriculture accompanied with high growth rate was established.

Singh and Mathur (1994)51

analyzed the growth and instability in the production

and price of potato in India. They found that the production of potato increased rapidly

mainly due to the significant high growth of area in the major growing states. Yield also

showed a rising trend but its growth was low in some of the states. Hence, there was a

need to raise the yield by the use of improved seeds and package of practices as

recommended by the extension organizations of the regions. For storing a semi-

perishable commodity like potato, cold storage capacity, particularly on the public and

cooperative sectors, should be expanded by the Government.

49

Tripathy, S. and M. V. Srinivasa Gowda (1993), “An Analysis of Growth, Instability and Area

Response of Groundnut in Orissa”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 48, No. 3,

pp: 345-350. 50

Jha, Prajesh Kumar, (1994), “Growth and Instability in Agriculture Associated with New Agricultural

Technology – District Level Evidence”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLIX, No.7, pp: 517-520. 51

Singh, Chhotan and V.C. Mathur, (1994), “Growth and Instability in the Production and Price of

Potato in India”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLIX, No.6, pp: 429-433.

47

Ali and Singh (1995)52

conducted a study on growth rates and variablities in area,

production and productivity of wheat crop in Chhattisgarh Region and its constituent

districts as well as the State of Madhya Pradesh as a whole using time-series data from

1970-71 to 1989-90. For the purpose of analysis, standard statistical techniques of

coefficient of variation and linear regression models were employed. Their analysis

reveals greater variability in area, production and productivity of wheat.

Jain et al., (1996)53

made an assessment of instability of oilseed production in

Bundelkhand agro-climatic zone of Madhya Pradesh. They concluded that the

contribution of area to production was more evident rather than the yield. Moreover, their

analysis revealed that mere extension of area under oilseed crops will not solve the problem

of increasing the production, but adequate attention had to be paid to increase the

productivity of the oilseed crops. Further, in view of major contribution of soyabean in Guna

and groundnut in Shivpuri districts towards total oilseeds of the zone, immediate necessary

measures were needed to increase the productivity levels of the crops in the districts.

Vani and Vyasulu (1996)54

analyzed the growth, variability and instability of

three cereal crops, viz., rice, ragi and jowar, Karnataka with reference to the following

questions: What had been the performance of different districts with respect to area,

production and yields of these three crops? Had the trend in their production decelerated

in 1980s? Had the green revolution brought variability and instability in their yields?

Barmon (1997)55

tried to find the production behaviour of pulses in Assam. He found

that the State of Assam is endowed with fertile soil, abundant rainfall and favourable

climate and as a result varieties of crops are grown in the State. But the production of

52

Ali, M. A., and A. K. Singh, (1995), “Growth and Fluctuations in Area, Production and Productivity of

Wheat in Chhattisgarh Region of Madhya Pradesh”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LII, No.9,

pp: 609-614. 53

Jain, R. K., J. S Raghu, L. N. Yadav, R. S. Raghuwanshi and R. S. Ghuraiya, (1996), “Instability of

Oilseed Production in Bundelkhand Agro-Climatic Zone of Madhya Pradesh – An Economic

Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LII, No.10, pp: 673-677. 54

Vani, B. P and Vinod Vyasulu, (1996), “Growth, Variability and Instability of Three Major Cereal

Crops in Karnataka: A District Level Analysis from 1955-56 to 1989-90”, Economic and Political

Weekly, Vol. 31, No. 26, pp: A74-A83. 55

Kandarpa Kumar Barmon, (1997), “The Production Behaviour of Pulses in Assam: Its Growth and

Instability”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIII, No. 10, pp: 697-701.

48

pulses in Assam has not been satisfactory. Against the total foodgrains production of

33.80 lakh tones in 1991-92, pulses accounted for only 3.54 lakh tones, which show that

the contribution of pulses in the total foodgrains production is quite insignificant.

Reddy (1997)56

estimated the inter-regional and temporal variations of costs,

productivity of growth of paddy in Andhra Pradesh. He analyzed the economics of paddy

cultivation in the 1980s in Andhra Pradesh, which revealed the following significant

findings: the relatively lower prices of modern inputs, viz., fertilizers and tractors in

relation to those of traditional inputs, namely manures and bullock labour, which were

partly due to subsidies given to modern inputs had enabled the farmers to substitute

modern inputs for traditional inputs and thereby to obtain higher yields at lower costs.

Sardana et al., (1997)57

enquired into the agricultural performance of different

districts (regions) of Haryana during the green revolution and post-green revolution

periods, its growth and variability and the important factors determining its performance.

This study concluded that there had been reduction in disparities among districts of

Haryana with regard to agricultural performance (value of agricultural produce per

hectare) during the last 25 years. The potential for growth in agricultural performance

with the existing technology lied in the backward districts.

Singh et al., (1997)58

tried to examine temporal and spatial performance of

important foodgrain and non-foodgrain crops in terms of area, production and yield and

the factors responsible for determining yield and acreage of important foodgrain crops

across the states and the country.

56

Reddy, P. Prudhvikar, (1997), “An Analysis of Inter-Regional and Temporal Variations of Costs,

Productivity and sources of Growth of Paddy in Andhra Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp: 406-416. 57

Sardana, Praveen K., Veena Manocha and A. C. Gangwar, (1997), “Growth and Variations in

Agricultural Performance in Haryana”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52, No. 3,

pp: 387-393. 58

Singh, I. J., K. N. Rai and J. C. Karwasra, (1997), “Regional Variations in Agricultural Performance in

India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 52, No. 3, pp: 353-372.

49

Shukla (1998)59

addressed the growth and instability of pulses production. It was

an inter-state analysis. He concluded that area and production of tur and other pulses was

increased marginally while area under gram was shrinking. However, the production of

gram was found constant because of slight increase in yield during last two decades.

The stagnation in yield of pulses was observed because of low input use and growing of

this crop under unirrigated conditions.

Radha and Prasad (1999)60

analyzed the variability and instability of area,

production and productivity of rice and maize in Northern Telangana Zone of Andhra

Pradesh. They found that in maize, the area was found to be decreased during ex-post

NARP over ex-ante, but the mean values of production and yield exhibited a positive

change. Though the coefficients of variation was found to be increasing in areas and

yield, the production variation decreased i.e., attaining stability of maize production was

observed during the second period.

Krishnamoorthy and Reddy (2002)61

examined the question of growth and instability

in exports and imports of India over a two-decade period ranging from 1980-81 to 2001-02.

Regression results relating to these two variables had been reported both in rupee and

dollar terms. They attempted a granger causality test between growth and instability of

exports and imports in India over a longer period namely 1949-50 to 2001-02. The results

however remained inconclusive.

Shiyani (2002)62

examined the growth and instability of inland fish production in

Gujarat. He used ratio percentage methods to estimate relative share of different species in total

production. In order to examine the period-wise trend of fish production linear and exponential

function was finally selected considering the higher value of coefficient of determination (R2).

59

Shukla, N. D. (1998), “Growth and Instability in Pulses Production – An Inter-State Analysis”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLV, No. 10, pp: 639-643. 60

Radha Y., and Y. Eswara Prasad (1999), “Variability and Instability Analysis of Area, Production and

Productivity of Rice and Maize in Northern Telangana Zone of Andhra Pradesh”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LV, No. 10, pp: 623-626. 61

Krishnamoorthy, D. and V. V. Subba Reddy, (2002), “Growth and Instability in India‟s Foreign Trade:

A Comparative Analysis of Pre and Post-Liberalization Periods”, Artha Vijnana, Vol. XLIV, No. 3-4,

pp: 349-366. 62

Shiyani, R. L., (2002), “Growth and Instability of Inland Fish Production in Gujarat – Spatio -

Temporal Analysis”, Artha Vijnana, Vol. XLIV, No. 2, pp: 189-198.

50

Singh and Srivastava (2003)63

addressed the growth and instability in sugarcane

production in Uttar Pradesh. This study made use of time-series data on area, production

and productivity of sugarcane for western, eastern and central (including Bundelkhand)

regions as well as for the state with reference to the period, 1980-81 to 1998-99 and was

based on the data available from secondary sources. Semi-log equations were fitted to estimate

compound growth rates in area, production and productivity of cane. Instability in area,

production and productivity was measured through coefficient of variation analysis using

de-trended data. The production instability was also decomposed to examine the magnitude of

various components of regional sugarcane production variability.

Job and Nandamohan (2004)64

estimated the rice production in Kerala. This analysis

was primarily based on secondary data. Time series data on area, production and

productivity were complied from the various issues of “Statistics for Planning” and

“Economic Review” published by the Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Government

of Kerala and Kerala State Planning Board, respectively. In this study an exponential

trend, which approximately beat uniform rate of growth, and log quadratic trend, which

was an extension of an exponential equation by adding a quadric term were used.

Kumar and Badal (2004)65

evaluated the State level time series data on area,

production and yield of various fruits and vegetables for the period 1991-92 to 1999-2000

were obtained from various issues of Horticulture Production Year Book, National

Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, New Delhi. Compound Growth Rate

of area and productivity was computed using this study.

Shaheen and Shiyani (2004)66

emphasized that growth and instability of Fruit

Crops in Jammu and Kashmir. The study was based on the secondary data collected from

63

Singh, Archana and R. S. L. Srivastava (2003), “Growth and Instability in Sugarcane Production in

Uttar Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp: 279-282. 64

Job, Elsamma and V. Nandamohan, (2004), “Rice Production in Kerala – Trend and Instability”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXI, No. 3, pp: 135-139. 65

Kumar, Pramod and P. S. Badal, (2004), “Growth and Instability of Horticulture Crops in North-

Eastern India”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXI, No. 7, pp: 499-504. 66

Shaheen and Shiyani (2004), “Growth and Instability in Area, Production and Yield of Fruit Crops in

Jammu and Kashmir – A Disaggregate Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LX, No. 10,

pp: 657-663.

51

published sources. The district-wise time series data pertaining to area, production and

yield of fruit crops were scanned from Directorate of Horticulture, Srinagar, Government

of Jammu and Kashmir (J & K). The study also gives the instability index (I.I) given by

Cuddy Della Valle (1978) which corrected the coefficient of variation.

Lakshmanan et al., (2005)67

studied the growth and instability of pulse economy

in India. They concluded that area and production of Arhar and other pulses was

increased marginally while that of Gram was shrinking. However, the production of

Gram was found constant because of slight increase in productivity during the last two

decades. A stagnation in yield of pulses was observed because of low input use and

growing this crop under unirrigated conditions.

Kumar and Sharma (2006)68

evaluated government price policy in controlling

food price variability using monthly indices of wholesale prices of wheat, rice and

coarse-grains. Annual price analysis showed that inter-year variability in annual nominal

prices declined for both wheat and rice in the nineties as compared to eighties.

The variability declined for the real price of rice also but the real price of wheat and

nominal and real prices of coarse grains displayed increased variability during the 1990s

in comparison to 1980s analysis of monthly prices revealed that intra-year variability shot

up for wheat while it came down for rice during the nineties in comparison to eighties.

Sadeesh et al., (2006)69

focused the growth and instability of major oilseeds in

India. The study was based on the time-series data of area, production and yield of the

major oilseeds in India for the period of 1971-72 to 2002-03. The statistical information

pertaining to the period under study was gathered from www.indiastat.com. This study

covered the period from 1971-72 to 2002-03 including the implementation of Technology

Mission on Oilseeds in 1986. For analyzing the data, they used compound growth rates

and co-efficient of variation.

67

Lakshmanan, P., A. Pouchepparajou and R. Sendhil, (2005), “Growth and Instability: A Study of Pulse

Economy of India”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXII, No.2, pp: 101-114. 68

Kumar, Parmod and Anil Sharma, (2006), “Price Variability and Its Determinants: An Analysis of

Major Foodgrains in India”, Indian Economic Review, Vol. XXXXI, No. 2, pp: 149-172. 69

Sadeesh, J., A. Pouchepparadjou and K. Thimmappa, (2006), “Growth and Instability Analysis of

Major Oilseeds in India”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXII, No. 3, pp: 179-189.

52

Swain and Bhakar (2006)70

analyzed the trends in the area, production and yield

of some common commercial crops, cereals and pulse crops growth in Rajasthan.

They also focused on the degree of fluctuations in the growth of area, production and

yield of commercial crops.

Swain (2007)71

studied the trends and variability in the growth of oilseeds

production in Rajasthan. The study concluded that production of most of the oilseeds

have increased mainly due to the area expansion. Thus he suggested that the level of

oilseeds production can be increased in future only by increasing the yield rather than the

area under oilseeds in Rajasthan. The study also concluded the existence of acutely high

degree of variability in the growth of area, production and yield of oilseeds in the state

which can be warranted through regular provision of irrigation facility, HYV seeds,

fertilizers and different other pre and post harvesting measures to the cultivators by the

Government under the kind patronage of technology mission on oilseeds (TMO).

Hasan et al., (2008)72

measured the change and instability in area, production, and

yield of two major cereal crops wheat and maize in Bangladesh based on secondary data

during 1980/81-2003/04 using different statistical techniques. They found that area and

production of wheat increased satisfactorily. But yield was not increased to meet the

demand of the country. In the case of maize, significant increment happened in yield

during the study period. Area and production of maize also increased to fulfill the

increasing demand of population. Presently production of maize increased more rapidly

than its area. They also found that the growth in area, production, and yield of wheat

slightly improved in period-II, whereas the growth rate in area, production, and yield of

maize improved rapidly. Though both of wheat and maize are unstable crops, maize

showed very instability in its area and production because of its increasing tendency in

the recent years.

70

Swain and Bhakar (2006), “Trends and Variability of Some Cereals, Pulses and Commercial Crops in

Rajasthan”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXII, No. 6, pp: 377-385. 71

Swain, H., (2007), “Growth and Variability of Oilseeds Production in Rajasthan”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LXIV, No.8, pp: 367-375. 72

Hasan M. N., M. A. Monayem Miah, M. S. Islam,

Q. M. Alam

and M. I. Hossain, (2008), “Change and

Instability in Area and Production of Wheat and Maize in Bangladesh”, Bangladesh Journal of

Agricultural Research, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp : 409-417, September 2008.

53

Jhagrawat and Varghese (2008)73

enquired into agricultural production growth

and instability during new economic regime in Rajasthan. This study concluded that the

crops maize, barley, arhar, groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, mango, papaya and guava

were found to have positive growth in production due to positive growth in yield in

Rajasthan during new economic regime. The crops wheat, maize, bajra, jowar, barley,

moth, groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, corriander, mango, papaya and guava were

found to have positive growth in yield with positive yield effect in the increased

production of these crops.

Roy (2008)74

examined state wise growth rates and fluctuations in terms of total

agricultural production on India during 1970-1971 to 2000-2001. the broad findings of

this study included (1) a tendency towards deceleration in the growth of total agricultural

production in India in recent years; (2) tolerable impact of green revolution on

crop-output fluctuation; (3) absence of definite pattern with regard to the association

between growth and fluctuation, and; (4) the major driving force behind the output

growth and fluctuation in productivity hence the technological improvement.

Chand and Raju (2009)75

discussed about the instability in Indian agriculture

during different phases of technology and policy. They found that when a longer period

was taken into consideration, which witnessed spread of improved technology to large

area, the inference on increase in instability due to adoption of new technology gets

totally refuted at country level.

3.4 Studies Focused on Decomposition of Sources of Instability

Hazell (1982)76

employed variance decomposition model to investigate the

sources of instability in cereal production in India. He reported that the variance of total

73

Jhagrawat, Seema and K. A. Varghese, (2008), “Assessment of Agriculture Production Growth and

Instability during New Economic Regime in Rajasthan”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXV,

No. 5, pp: 631-636. 74

Roy, Soma, (2008), “A Study of Growth and Fluctuation in Crop Output in India during Post Green

Revolution Period”, Artha Vijnana, Vol. L, No. 1, pp: 61-78. 75

Chand, Ramesh and S. S. Raju, (2009), “Instability in Indian Agriculture during Different Phases of

Technology and Policy”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 64, No. 2, pp: 187-207. 76

Hazell, P. B. R., (1982), “Instability in Indian Foodgrain Production”, Research Report 30,

International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D. C., USA.

54

cereal production increased by 342 per cent between 1954-65 and 1967-78 and 82 per cent of

this variance was due to increase in co-variance of production between crops grown in

different states. He pointed out that as continued growth in food grain production is of

paramount importance to India, the most promising approach is to focus on maximizing

growth and to offset the resulting effects of increased production instability through

policies designed to stabilize consumption rather than production.

Jamal and Zaman (1992)77

analyzed the growth trend in agricultural value of

output. It tried to decompose the growth into several components which could build a

framework fork reflective speculation on some policy alternative. The main purpose of

the paper was to modify the existing methodology and to give a clear picture of all

components. This objective was achieved by dropping explicit „pooled-effect-term‟ from

the scheme through further decomposing the conventional „residual term‟ by introducing

some new indices of price, quantity and yield changes and by using logarithm to make

the analysis more convenient for interpretation.

Patel and Agarwal (1994)78

examined the extent of instability existing in the

production of groundnut in Gujarat. The study concluded that the production performance

of groundnut oilseed in the Gujarat state had not been an encouraging one. Growth rates

of its production in the state as well as in districts were negative during both the time

periods. This was mainly due to negative growth rate in productivity of the crop whereas

area under the crop has not shown any significant change overtime.

Nagaraj and Gowda (1997)79

made an attempt to know about the growth and

instability in the area, production and productivity of safflower in Karnataka. They used

district-wise time series data on area, production and yield of safflower and other related

agricultural statistics. They found that the production of safflower in the State was

destabilized due to interaction between changes in mean yield and area variances

implying that increase in mean yield results in greater variability of area.

77

Jamal, Haroon and Asad Zaman, (1992), “Decomposition of Growth Trend in Agriculture: Another

Approach”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 47, No. 4, pp: 644-652. 78

Patel, G. N. and N. L. Agarwal, (1994), “Growth and Instability in Production of Groundnut in

Saurashtra Region of Gujarat”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. XLIX, No.3, pp: 171-174. 79

Nagaraj, C. V. and M. V. Srinivasa Gowda, (1997), “Growth and Instability of Safflower Production in

Karnataka”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIV, No. 5, pp: 257-260.

55

Tripathy and Mishra (1997)80

found that growth and instability of Ragi production in

Orissa. They identified that during post-green revolution period, area was the dominant source

of output growth of ragi in the State as well as district level. As area expansion has limited

scope, effort to increase per hectare yield will be major thrust in increasing ragi production in

the State in future. The stagnation of per hectare yield of ragi calls for development of varieties

suitable to agro-climatic zone and application of higher dose of inputs.

Siju and Kombairaju (2001)81

estimated the rice production in Tamil Nadu.

They found that an increased trend of production and productivity had been observed.

In the pre-green revolution period, the growth in production was solely due to increase in

area under rice in the state. In the post-green revolution period area showed a decreased

trend even though the rate of decline was statistically not significant. In the post-green

revolution period productivity showed positive and significant growth. The decline in

area was more than compensated by increase in productivity and hence, production

registered positive growth during the post-green revolution period.

Kalamkar et al., (2002)82

dealt with coarse cereals and pulses production in India.

They concluded that the area under total coarse grains had significantly declined whereas

area under total pulses had been stagnanted over a period of time. The magnitude of

reduction in area under barley, small millets and jowar had been quite substantial where it

was only marginal in case of bajra and ragi. There had been marginal increase in

production and yield of coarse grains and pulses during period of time.

Salim and Ananthan (2003)83

made an attempt to find out the sources of growth

and variability in Indian marine products exports. They employed Hazell‟s

decomposition model and found that that the contribution of change in mean export

quantity was the highest among the other components of change. Their findings also

80

Tripathy, Sudhakar and S. N. Mishra, (1997), “Growth and Instability of Ragi Production in Orissa”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIV, No. 2, pp: 77-80. 81

Siju. T., and S. Kombairaju (2001), “Rice Production in Tamil Nadu: A Trend and Decomposition

Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVIII, No. 4, pp: 143-146. 82

Kalamkar, S. S., N. V. Shende and V. G. Atkare, (2002), “Coarse Cereals and Pulses Production in

India: Trends and Decomposition Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No. 2,

pp: 581-587. 83

Salim, Shyam and P. S. Ananthan (2003), “Decomposition Analysis of Export of Indian Marine

Products”, The Bihar Journal of Agricultural Marketing, Vol. XI, No. 1&2, pp: 8-14.

56

indicated that, the revenue had been generated primarily from the changes ill the export

quantiti.es and nteraction between the export quantity and export value with no sizeable

contribution and realization from the unit value.

Alemu (2005)84

conducted a study to measure the causes of instability in cereal

production in Ethiopia. In this study the extent of instability in cereal production was

analyzed by computing the following statistics, namely average production, coefficient of

variation (CV), and F-statistics. The CVs were computed based on results on the fitted

trend lines of polynomials of different order. He found that production instability was

caused more by increased yield instability than instability in an area. Yield instability

could be the result of changes in technology, changes in policy and changes in weather

conditions. It was concluded by this study that instability regarding yield was

predominantly the result of weather variability.

Manjumdar and Basu (2005)85

conducted a study of growth composition of

foodgrains output in West Bengal. The main sources of data for this study were from the

various issues of Economic Review and Statistical Abstract published by Government of

West Bengal. The data used for this study were the state and district level output, yields,

area and harvest prices of the different foodgrains. Aus rice, aman rece, boro rice, wheat,

barley, gram and other pulses are considered in the foodgrain items. The average farm

harvest price of the three normal years (1987, 1988, 1989) had been taken as constant

price weight. As the harvest price for the other pulses were directly available, an estimate

on the basis of price ratio to similar crops had been made for the analysis.

Reddy (2005)86

examined growth and instability of chickpea production at state

and national level. The study pertained to major chickpea growing states and the country

as a whole. Time series data on chickpea production area and yield for these states for

33 years was collected from Directorate of Economics and Statistics of the Ministry of

84

Alemu, Z. G., (2005), “Causes of Instability in Cereal Production in Ethiopia”, Working Paper,

Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences at the University

of the Free State, Ethiopia. 85

Manjumdar and Basu (2005), “Growth Decomposition of Foodgrains Output in West Bengal:

A District Level Study”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp: 220-233. 86

Reddy, A. Amarender, (2005), “Growth and Instability in Chickpea Production in India: A State Level

Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXII, No. 9, pp: 621-628.

57

Agriculture, Government of India. For calculation of Compound Growth Rate (CGR),

Coppocks Instability Index (CII) and decomposition of change production and variability,

whole period was divided into two sub periods.

Meenakshi and Gayathri (2006)87

measured instability in cereals production.

They identified that change in the interaction between change in mean area and yield variance

had been an important contributor to the cereals production instability in Tamil Nadu state.

Therefore, efforts should be made to stabilize cereals production in the state.

Sharma et al., (2006)88

carried out a study on the extent and source of instability

in foodgrains production in India. They found that an increase in average production of

major food grain crops, namely, rice, maize, bajra and pulses and total food grains in the

nineties over eighties. The decomposition of change in average production further

revealed that increase in mean yield was the most important source of increase in the

average production of individual crops and total foodgrains. The notable exceptions were

jowar, small millets and ragi where increase in area was an important source of increase

in average production.

Mahir and Abdelaziz (2011)89 conducted a study to measure the extent of

instability and contribution of different components to change in mean production of the

main crops grown in the Gezira scheme. They used time series data covering the period

before the adoption of liberalization policy (1970/71 to 1991/92) and the period after the

adoption of liberalization policy (1992/93 to 2007/08). The main crops included in the

study were sorghum, wheat, cotton and groundnuts. They found that changes in mean

yield accounted for large shares of the change in mean production of wheat and sorghum

but change in mean area contributed largely in cotton and groundnuts. Furthermore, their

analysis showed that changes in the variance of yield accounted for large share of

87

Meenakshi, R. and J. Gayathri, (2006), “Instability in Cereals Production: An Analysis of Tamil

Nadu”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXIII, No. 7, pp: 431-434. 88

Sharma, H. R., Kamlesh Singh and Shanta Kumari, (2006), “Extent and Source of Instability in Food

Grains Production in India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 61, No. 4, pp: 647-666. 89

Mahir, Mohamed Elamin Abd Ellatif and Hag Hamad Abdelaziz, (2011), “Analysis of Agricultural

Production Instability in the Gezira Scheme”, Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Science,

Vol. 10,pp: 53–58.

58

changes in the variance of production for sorghum, while for wheat the large share was

due to variance of area. The changes in the residual term were important in explaining the

changes in the variance of production in the case of groundnuts.

3.5 Other Related Studies

Sharma (1992)90

examined the Indian cereals economy was net subsidized by

estimating Producer Subsidy Equivalent (PSE) of rice, wheat, sorghum and maize at

region-specific level. First he examined an overview of the government intervention in

cereals economy. Then he presented the methodology for estimating PSEs and the results

were presented. Policy implications followed finally.

Bhalla (1995)91

examined the implications of globalization of Indian agriculture,

keeping in view the dimensions of domestic demand and supply of foodgrains and some

other important agricultural commodities in India. Therefore globalization of Indian

agriculture offered both opportunities and challenges to the policy makers. There do exist

opportunities for deriving large benefits through massive increase in agricultural exports

specially exports of high value labour intensive allied agricultural products.

Arya and Maheshwari (1996)92

analyzed the agriculture production and

productivity trends in the region comprising Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Union

territories of Daman & Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In view of the agricultural

problems being faced by these states and union territories they suggested a national

research agenda for these regions.

Gopalappa (1996)93

emphasized the crop diversification and income levels in

Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. He found that there was a significant change in

90

Sharma, Pradeep K., (1992), “Producer Subsidies in Cereals Economy: Implications for Policy”,

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp: 343-347. 91

Bhalla, G. S., (1995), “Globalization and Agricultural Policy in India”, Indian Journal of

Agricultural Economics, Vol. 50, No. 1, pp: 7-25. 92

Arya, S. R. S., and R. C. Maheshwari, (1996), “Agricultural Productivity Trends and Research Agenda

for Region No. VI”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LII, No.12, pp: 793-799. 93

Gopalappa, D. V., (1996), “Crop Diversification and Income Levels in Karimnagar District of Andhra

Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp: 381-387.

59

the income levels and standard of living of the marginal and small farmers due to

diversification of the farm activities. To achieve these, the farmers had to be supported by

means of financial assistance and extension service.

Kumar and Mathur (1996)94

examined the changes in the consumption pattern and

decomposed the changes in consumption due to price, income and non-price (structural

shifts) factors. They concluded increase in the demand for non-cereals and non-crop

commodities vis-à-vis cereals would provide incentives to the producers to diversify their

production. The extent of diversification due to structural changes in consumption would

be compounded by increased demand for the export market, especially for fruits,

vegetables, and marine products as a result of new economic policies and globalization.

Pandey and Sharma (1996)95

attempted to make the evaluation with a view to

examine the conflict, between crop diversification and self-sufficiency in foodgrains.

The timeframe for the analysis related to the post-green revolution period in which the

role of technological changes had been prominent and also holded the promise future.

Radhakrishna (1996)96

conducted a study of food trends, public distribution

system and food security concerns. He found that there was a significant change in the

foodgrain scenario from a scarcity to a surplus situation because of the acceleration in the

production of foodgrains in the 1980s. More significant, foodgrains stocks held by the

government have increased beyond the requirements. The predictions were that the

surplus situation would sustain, that agriculture would be diversified and that the exports

of rice, wheat and agro-products would increase.

Satyasai and Viswanathan (1996)97

explained the diversification of Indian

agriculture and food security. The study suggested that Indian agriculture had witnessed

94

Kumar, Praduman and V. C. Mathur, (1996), “Structural Changes in the Demand for Food in India”,

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp: 664-673. 95

Pandey, V. K. and K. C. Sharma, (1996), “Crop Diversification and Self-Sufficiency in Foodgrains”,

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp: 644-651. 96

Radhakrishna, R., (1996), “Food Trends, Public Distribution System and Food Security Concerns”,

Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 1&2, pp: 168-182. 97

Satyasai, K. J. S. and K. U. Viswanathan, (1996), “Diversification of Indian Agriculture and Food

Security”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp: 674-679.

60

diversification with impressive improvements in the shares of livestock and fishery

sectors in the total income from agriculture. Within the crop sector, the pattern of

diversification was characterized by growth in the share of non-foodgrain crops as a group.

Singh and Grewal (1996)98

highlighted the economic profile of rice production in India

with a focus on identifying the factors, having bearing differential levels of productivity.

The major factors associated with wider ranging level of productivity of rice across states were

assured irrigation and associated expenditure on fertilizers, manures, machinery. Besides, the

institutional problems of consolidation of holdings and tenurial arrangements.

Vyas (1996)99

discussed the concept of diversification which was relevant to the

Indian situation. Then, they looked into the rationale for diversification between

agriculture and non-farm sector as well as within agriculture and, examined the

determinants of such changes at the enterprise level. They concluded by referring to the

desired public policies to sub-serve the objectives of diversification.

Shah (1997)100

assessed the foodgrain production in India. He concluded that

India had witnessed an upward trend in the foodgrain output due to introduction of

seed-fertilizer-water technology in the post-green revolution period. However, this

technology revolution could gain momentum only in some select regions of the country

and that too; in terms of some cereal crops like rice and wheat. By and large, the impact of

new technology, popularly known as HYV, was tardy and dismal in the case of pulses and

coarse cereals. This gave reflection that the growth in the production of superior cereals had

been achieved at the cost of coarse cereals and pulses through reallocation of land.

Shah (1997)101

focused some of the more recent trends in production and

demonstrated that the yield based growth in food production had taken place in most

98

Singh, Balwinder and S. S. Grewal, (1996), “Economic Profile of Rice Production in India”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIII, No.1, pp: 11-15. 99

Vyas, V. S., (1996), “Diversification in Agriculture: Concept, Rationale and Approaches”, Indian

Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp: 636-643. 100

Shah, Deepak, (1997), “Foodgrain Production in India: A Drive towards Self-Sufficiency”, Artha

Vijnana, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp: 219-239. 101

Shah, Amita (1997), “Food Security and Access to Natural Resources: A Review of Recent Trends”,

Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 32, No. 26, pp: A46-A54.

61

states including dry land regions; that the diversification was a large process that had

already set in before liberalization; and that the shift from oilseeds to food grain

production was essential for economic sustainability of dry land farming.

Nagaraj et al., (1998)102

focused to evaluate the resource use efficiency in

cultivation of various crops under different cropping systems. The results of the study

indicated that the regression coefficients for manures and fertilizers were negative in

paddy production. He also found that land and human labour were the two factors

significantly influenced the sunflower and jowar cultivation and in the case of groundnut

manures, fertilizers and human labour had a significant influence on the gross returns.

Ranjan and Singh (1998)103

dealt with the cropping pattern in North Bihar during

post-green revolution period. The analysis of crop-mix indicated cereal dominated cropping

pattern in north Bihar. Rice and wheat jointly constituted more than 60 per cent of gross

cropped area in the project area during period under study. There was no marked increase in

rice area but wheat area showed an increasing trend. Oilseeds are, no doubt, unimportant

crops with respect to area but gained in area during post-green revolution period.

Gangwar (1999)104

expressed his evidence which revealed that the crop

productivity could increased from 40 to 162 per cent by providing irrigation facilities

using Bamboo boring. As against traditionally monocropped systems, the crop sequence

like greengram-potato-rice in Assam, maize-fallow-potato in Ganga Diara of Bihar and

maize-potato-wheat in Saryu Diara of the Uttar Pradesh had been identified to be most

potential using improved crop varieties in Diara areas.

102

Nagaraj, T., H. S. S. Khan and N. N. Karnool, (1998), “Resource Use Efficiency in Various Crops

under Different Cropping Systems in Tungabhadra Command Area (Karnataka)”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LV, No. 3, pp: 135-139. 103

Ranjan, Kumar Priya and R. K. P. Singh, (1998), “Cropping Pattern in Backward Agriculture – A Case

of North Bihar”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIV, No. 2, pp: 69-72. 104

Gangwar, B., (1999), “Technical Advances for Increasing Crop Productivity in Diara Areas”,

Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LV, No. 10, pp: 615-620.

62

Poddar et al., (1999)105

estimated the cropping sequences which were of paramount

importance to the farmer from the point of view of his farm incomes. Farmer selected

crop mix based on the net returns from different cropping sequences over a period of

time. But at times net returns serve as poor indicators for selecting a sustainable

sequence. To overcome this lacuna, the sustainable value index, index of variability and

benefit cost ratios were worked out to find out the profitable cropping sequences.

Ram (1999)106

pointed out the cropping pattern diversification in Orissa. He discussed

on the trend of diversification of cropping pattern in Orissa from 1980-81 to 1993-94

revealed an overall departure from cereals towards oilseeds, pulses and vegetables.

Although, area under winter and autumn rice during kharif and summer rice during rabi

had increased, the rate of increase was significant for the latter only.

Badal and Singh (2000)107

reviewed the resource productivity and allocative

efficiency in Maize production in Bihar. They concluded that resource use efficiency for

different inputs varied widely across the crops and there was scope to reallocate the resources

in order to achieve optimal allocation of inputs. High yielding varieties (HYVs) of rabi maize

offered a greater scope for input-use for an enhanced productivity compared to any other crop

of the season. Human labour which was available in abundance could be increased on HYVs

maize farms in both rabi and kharif as well as on wheat farms.

Basavaraja (2000)108

conducted a study in the northern dry zone of Karnataka,

was an attempt to estimate the yield gaps (difference between the potential and actual

yield) in crop production and identify the factors responsible for such gaps. In general,

the difference between the potential farm yield and actual yield (Gap-II) was larger than

the difference between the potential yield and potential farm yield (Gap-I) and gaps

varied from crop to crop. The yield gaps were attributable to the inability of the farmers

105

Poddar, Rajendra, Venkataramanappa, R. A. Shetty and H. Basavaraja, (1999), “Economic Evaluation

of Cropping Sequences under Tungabhadra Project Command Area in Northern Dry Zone of

Karnataka”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LV, No. 10, pp: 621-622. 106

Ram, Salik, (1999), “Cropping Pattern Diversification in Orissa”, Agricultural Situation in India,

Vol. LVI, No. 1, pp: 15-18. 107

Badal, P. S. and R. P. Singh (2000), “Resource Productivity and Allocative Efficiency in Maize

Production in Bihar”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVI, No. 10, pp: 593-596. 108

Basavaraja, H., (2000), “Crop Yield Potentials and Constraints in the Production of Major Crops in

Northern Dry Zone of Karnataka”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVI, No. 12, pp: 743-753.

63

to apply critical inputs to the recommended level. Major portion of yield gaps

and variation there-in were explained by the variation in the constraint variables included

in the model.

Kumar De (2000)109

points out agricultural diversification particularly the

changing cropping pattern had been contributing significantly to the rural development in

West Bengal, which was an important agricultural state of India over a long period of

time. The paper examined the spatio-temporal nature of crop diversification in the state in

terms of some crop diversification indices.

Venkatram and Subramanian (2000)110

assessed the supply of major food crops in

Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The estimation on cropping pattern index showed a

change in cropping pattern. There was a gradual decline either in area under the food

crops (or) their share in gross cropped area.

Hazra (2001)111

tried to find the rice production scenario in India and central

intervention. He classified his study of rice development programmes and made strategies

to step-up rice productivity.

Sekhar (2002)112

examined the agriculture and rural development. In his study, he

discussed the context of deceleration in agricultural growth, rural employment and a

slowdown in the decline in rural poverty over the last decade, comprehensive policy

reforms were required to generate long-term sustainable growth in agriculture. This was

also crucial from the standpoint of overall economic growth and equity. The broad

reforms suggested above pertain to policies on subsidies, trade and land reforms.

109

Kumar De, Utpal, (2000), “Diversification of Crop in West Bengal: A Spatio – Temporal Analysis”,

Artha Vijnana, Vol. XLII, No. 2, pp: 170-182. 110

Venkatram, R., and P. Subramanian, (2000), “Supply Response of Major Food Crops in Southern

Districts of Tamil Nadu”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LVI, No. 12, pp: 759-763. 111

Hazra, C. R., (2001), “Rice Production Scenario in India and Central Intervention”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LVIII, No. 1, pp: 3-8. 112

Sekhar, C. S. C., (2002), “Agriculture and Rural Development: Need and Reforms”, Artha Vijnana,

Vol. XLIV, No. 1, pp: 47-61.

64

Shenoi (2002)113

points out the agricultural policy during the tenth plan. He concluded

that the satisfactory performance of the agricultural sector during the last ten years,

despite increased outlays, which had been wasted on subsidy oriented stem to blame, not

the India farmer. Our scientists and farmers were amongst the best in the world, but we

had given them a system which defeated them all. The Indian farmer did not seek out

hand-outs, but only a fair support system with reasonable supply of technology, inputs

and market incentives. What was needed was the shedding of the subsidy syndrome, the

promotion of liberal input and output markets, and dynamic extension and research

systems in the course of the Tenth Plan.

Gupta and Athavale (2003)114

evaluated thirteen States of the country were

covered in this study. It was proposed that in the State, sample districts/blocks should be

so selected so as to cover all the agro-climatic zones/regions. The district selected for

field work among the districts of respective zones was representing the highest area under

pulse crop. From each of the selected districts 5 blocks were selected and from each

block one village was selected. A sample of 10 pulse growers from each village was

randomly selected by adjusting the available size classes. In this way, 50 farmers from

each of the districts were selected for their study. The study was based on both primary as

well as secondary data. Primary data was collected from sample farmers, mandis and dal

processors (mill). The reference year of the study was agricultural year 1998-99.

Kalamkar (2003)115

measured the economics of pulse production in Maharashtra.

He observed that the problems of increasing production of pulses in the state were

confronted with various economic constraints in the form of low yield, income, rainfed

condition under high risk situation and low level of technology with poor management.

In order to increase the production of pulses, particularly yield per hectare, it would be

113

Shenoi, P. V., (2002), “Agricultural Policy during the Tenth Plan”, Agricultural Situation in India,

Vol. LIX, No. 5, pp: 217-222. 114

Gupta, S. K. and M. C. Athavale, (2003), “Pulses Production: Constraints and Strategies – A State-

wise Analysis”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No. 11, pp: 685-692. 115

Kalamkar, Shrikant S., (2003), “Economics of Pulses Production and Identification of Constraints in

Raising their Production in Maharashtra”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LX, No. 2, pp: 81-91.

65

essential to develop some new high yield varieties suitable to agro-climatic regions.

Efforts would also had to be made to improve the efficiency of the marketing so that

producer could get their due share in the prices paid by the ultimate consumer.

Bhushan (2005)116

applied the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) approach to

estimate the Malmquist productivity index for the wheat producing states in India. With

the DEA approach, the Malmquist index could be decomposed into technical change and

efficiency change. The technical change component captured shifts in the production

frontier, provided a measure of innovation.

Kaur and Sekhon (2005)117

enquired into input growth, total factor productivity in

Punjab agriculture. They identified that total factor productivity had shown dismal

performance in Punjab agriculture, since the eighties. It was negative in two districts

during the eighties and in six districts during the nineties. The found the output growth in

all the districts and both in 1980s and 1990s had been quite significantly due to

technological change had been adopted by the farmers but the contribution of technical

efficiency was much lower and even negative in five districts during the 1980s and as

many as 10 districts in the 1990s suggested that the resource adjustments required for the

adoption of technological changes had not been forthcoming.

Singh et al., (2005)118

pointed out the rice economy of India. They noted that

India‟s rice economy had undergone tremendous changes since the launch of green

revolution technology during the late 1960s. The profound impact had been aptly

witnessed in the rice whose production had shown spectacular increase and enabled the

country to move from chronic food shortage to an era of food surplus. Besides,

technology and increased use of inputs, government interventions and support in terms of

minimum guaranteed prices of output and large scale procurements from producers at

remunerative prices had played a key role in the growth of rice economy.

116

Bhushan, Surya, (2005), “Total Factor Productivity Growth of Wheat in India: A Malmquist

Approach”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 60, No. 1, pp: 32-47. 117

Kaur, Manjeet and M. K. Sekhon, (2005), “Input Growth, Total Factor Productivity and Its

Components in Punjab Agriculture: District-wise Analysis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural

Economics, Vol. 60, No. 3, pp: 473-481. 118

Singh, N. P., Ranjit Kumar, R. P. Singh and P. K. Jain, (2005), “Rice Economy in India: Development

and Trade Prospects”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXII, No. 6, pp: 427-435.

66

Bathla (2006)119

noted that regional dimensions of inter-crop diversification in

India. The overall analysis carried out at the national and state levels reveals intercrop area

shifts in favour of high yielding crops viz. wheat, paddy, oilseeds, cotton and sugarcane up to

the eighties and towards paddy, sugarcane, fruits-vegetables, fibres, plantations, condiments

and spices during the nineties and early 2000 while area under wheat and paddy (rice) had

expanded solely at the cost of low yield growth crops viz. Coarse cereals and pulses due to

price support and HYV programme, high value commercial crops had benefited both from

area shifts as well as fresh land brought under cultivation.

Lekshmi et al., (2006)120

dealt with the yield gap among rice growers in

Kancheepuram District of North Eastern Zone, with the aims to study the profile

characteristics of farmers cultivating rice in specific agro-climatic zones and assess the

yield gap prevailing in popular rice varieties. They also studied the factors influencing

yield gap as perceived by the farmers.

Bhende and Kalirajan (2007)121

estimated farm-specific technical efficiency for

rice, sorghum, groundnut and cotton using Stochastic Frontier Production Function

approach. Further, they attempted to identify the determinants of technical efficiency.

They had used the farm level cross section data collected by the University of

Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore under the scheme of cost of cultivation of crops.

The analysis of technical efficiency indicated that there was a considerable scope to

improve the productivity levels of both food as well as cash crops with the existing level

of input use and the available technology.

Marothia et al., (2007)122

analyzed the crop diversification in Chhattisgarh state.

This study clearly indicated that there was no evidence of crop diversification in the

119

Bathla, Seema, (2007), “Regional Dimensions of Inter Crop Diversification in India: Implications for

Production and Productivity Growth”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXIII, No. 9, pp: 511-530. 120

Lekshmi, P. S. Swathi, K. Chandrakandan and N. Balasubramani, (2006), “Yield Gap Analysis Among

Rice Growers in North Eastern Zone of Tamil Nadu”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXII, No.

11, pp: 729-733. 121

Bhende M. J. and K. P. Kalirajan, (2007), “Technical Efficiency of Major Food and Cash Crops in

Karnataka (India)”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 62, No. 2, pp: 176-189. 122

Marothia, Dinesh K, R. K. Singh and A. K. Koshta, (2007), “Crop Diversification: Post Reform

Lessons from Chhattisgarh”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXIV, No.6, pp: 215-226.

67

agro-climatic zones as well as in the state even after a massive emphasis placed on

agriculture diversification, particularly after the formation of the state.

Verma et al., (2007)123

made an attempt on production and consumption pattern of

major food items in North Eastern Region of India. They found that rural people had

started spending more on pulses, milk and milk products, edible oils, meat, egg, fish,

vegetables and fruits. With the increase in level of income the urban as well as rural

people had started expending more on superior food items. With the change in

consumption pattern per capita per month demand for cereals and cereal substitutes had

decreased and expected to decrease further in near future. So there was a great need to

develop the strategies for increased the production of superior items keeping in view the

globalization of agricultural trade.

Sekhon et al., (2008)124

conducted a study of long term demand for foodgrains in

Punjab. They examined the present production and consumption level of foodgrains.

They also made an attempt to calculate demand for major foodgrains i.e. rice and wheat,

up to the year 2030 under different scenarios of growth in income.

Tuteja (2008)125

addressed long run vision for food management in India.

The author noted that the recent worldwide gallop in food prices had refocused attention

on food management that had been relegated to the sidelines. India was also experiencing

around 12 per cent inflation which was hurting the poor. Prices of food items were

skyrocketing despite fall in per capita consumption in rural and urban areas between

1999-2000 and 2004-05. This was due to shrinkage in the supply of food items in the

market. But in the long run, it was a problem of population pressure, productivity and

food management. These factors could be handled by vision and commitment.

The forgoing chapter provides the review of studies related to growth and instability

in agriculture, which would be helpful to formulate objectives given in the next chapter.

123

Verma, M. R. K. K. Datta, Subhasis Mandal and A. K. Tripathi, (2007), “Production and Consumption

Pattern of Major Food Items in North Eastern Region of India”, Agricultural Situation in India,

Vol. LXIV, No.3, pp: 89-95. 124

Sekhon, M. K., P. S. Rangi and Tejinder Dhaliwal, (2008), “Long Term Demand for Foodgrains in

Punjab: Projections Upto 2030”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LXV, No. 8, pp: 523-528. 125

Tuteja, Usha, (2008), “Needed Long Run Vision for Food Management in India”, Agricultural

Situation in India, Vol. LXV, No. 5, pp: 317-324.