REVIEW OF LITERATURE

------------------------------------------------------------The term ethnobotany was first given by Harshberger in

1895 to the studies dealing wit h plants used by the aborigines I

{Harshberger, 1896). Ethnobotany has been defined as the study

of the relationship between man and his ambient vegetation.

According to Schultes {1962), ethnobotany is "the study of ·the i

relationship which exists between people of primitive societies

and their plant environment". In other words, it is an'

anthropological approach to botany.

Much before the coining of the term "ethnobotany", usage

of plants by man for different purposes was mentioned in

classical Indian, Greek and Arabic traditions dating back from

ancient times to 9th Century AD. Rigveda and Atharva Veda,

which date back to 2000 B.C. to 1000 B.C. are the oldest Vedic

literature resources, of· India. They contain valuable

information at the latest regarding medicinal plants which were

in vogue during that period. Kirtikar and Basu {1935) have

stated "The ancient Hindus should be given the credit for I

cultivating What is now called Ethnobotany". Works of Kalidasa

(fourth century A.D.), Varahamihira (sixth century A.D.),

Amarasimha (sixth cen:tury AD), Banabhatta (seventh century I

A.D.) and Rajasekhara 1 (ninth century A.D.) provide a fair

glimpse into the botanical knowledge and medicinal wisdom of

the times (Raghunathan, K. 1987) .

18

WORLDWIDE WORKS ON ETHNOBOTANY

Much work in this science has been done in the last few

decades, in a number of countries like USA, England, France,

India and several Latin American and African countries. The

well known ethnobotanist of the world, Richard Evans Schultes

of Harvard University' reported the ethnobotanical aspects of

North West Amazon in detail, after 12 years of intensive study

(Schultes, 1956, 1962, 1963).

Faulks (1958) wrote An Introduction to Ethnobotany which

is the first book on etbnobotany. This book among other topics

deals with

i) The understanding of plants in material cultures like

food, fibre, medicine, ~helter and agricultural tools and in

rituals and rites.

ii) Physical and psychological problems caused by vegetation.

iii) Influence of man on vegetation by way of destruction,

conservation etc.

iv) Relationship of vegetation with human civilization i.e.,

selection of useful species, organized production etc.

Wasson (1969) conducted Ethnomycological study of .the

divine mushroom Amanita mucaria claimed to be the plant of

immortality, the Soma.

Barrau et al (1973) at National Museum of Natural History,

Paris, have done work on etbno-agriculture. This group has been

engaged in the study of origin of cultivated plants and·

19

linguistics in South East:Asia.

Ford (1978) edited a landmark volume: The Nature and

status of Ethnobotany that contains several interesting papers

on ethnobotany.

ETHNOBOTANY - INDIAN SCENARIO

Researches on ethnobotany were initiated in India by

Janaki Ammal in 1954 as part of an official programme in the

Economic Botany Section of Botanical Survey of India. She

studied subsistence food plants of certain tribals of South

India, particularly to ' explore the better prospects of

Dioscorias in India (Mudg~l, 1987).

From 1960, Jain started intensive field studies among the

tribals of Central India (Jain, 1963a-d, 1964a and 1965a, b).

His observations on plant resources and intimate relationship

of the tribals with their plant environment, encouraged him to

initiate similar work in Eastern India (Jain and Borthakur,

1980; Jain and Dam, 1979; Jain and De 1964).

The pioneering works of Jain thus streamlined the subject

of Ethnobotany and promoted similar works in other regions of

India. Hence, S.K. Jain ,may be rightly regarded as the Father

of Indian Ethnobotany.

Published Books

Books published in this field of ethnobotany are mentioned

below:

20

First book dealing with Indian Ethnobotany is Glimpses of

1ndian Ethnobotany (ed. Jain, 1981). It is a compilation. of

articles on field studies in different phytogeographical areas

of India. The subject has also been discussed in general

including historical perspectives of plants in folk life,

songs, proverbs and tales.

Bibliography of Ethhobotany (Jain et al, 1984) contains

about 2000 references covering almost all the major

publications on ethnobotany; Indian as well as foreign.

Selected poisonous plants from the tribal areas of India

(Thothathri et al, 1985) provides line drawings and

distribution maps along with botanical descriptions of selected

poisonous plants used by the tribals in different parts of

India.

World Directory of Ethnobotanists (Jain et al, 1986)

enlists nearly 500 worker~ with their addresses and areas of

interest.

A Manual of Ethnobotany (ed. Jain, 19~7) deals with scope,

methodology, details of field work procedure and applications

of ethnobotany.

Methods and Approaches in Ethnobotany (ed. Jain, 1989) is

very informative for students and young scientists of this

subject. Contents a~e clearly defined by the title itself.

Contributions to Ethnobotany of India (ed. Jain, 1990) is I

a revised and modified version of Glimpses of Indian

21

Ethnobotany.

Dictionary of .Indian Folk-Medicine and Ethnobotany (Jain,

1991) is a glossary of all important ethnobotanical work done

in India till that :date.

CATEGORIZATION OF ETHNOBOTANICAL WORK

Published works in the field of ethnobotany can be divided

into the following categories.

i) Ethnobotany of ethnically distinct human societies

like:

Mikir tribe of Assam (Jain and Borthakur, 1980); Bhil

tribe of Rajasthan (Joshi, 1982); Tharu tribe of Uttar Pradesh

(Maheshwari et al, 1981); Bhoxa tribe of Bijnor and Pauri

Garhwal (Maheshwari and Singh 1984).

ii) Ethnobotany of any specific geographical region;

viz.,

Central India (Jain, 1963d); Kumaon (Shah and Joshi,

1971); Lahul in Punjab (Koeltz, 1979); Araku Valley in Andhra

Pradesh (Banerjee, 1977); Santa! Paragana (Goel et al, 1984);

Mirzapur (Maheshwari et al, 1986); Balphakram Sanctuary,

Meghalaya (Kumar et al, 1980) ; Koraput, Orissa (Paul and

Mudga1, 1985).

iii) Ethnobotany of particular utility groups of plants:

Jain (1964a) and Aror~ (1981) worked on food yielding

22

plants; Tarafder (1983, 1984) on ethnogynaecology; Billore and

Adichya (1978) on contraceptive herbs, etc.

iv) Ethnobotany,of a particular species, genus or family

of plants:

Bauhinia Vahlii (Jain et al, 1973); captis teeta (Mudgal

and Jain, 1980); Selaginella bryopteris (Dixit, 1982); Genus

Coix (Jain and Banerjee, 1974).

v) Ethnobotanical aspects of diverse tools, appliances,

gadgets and articles of personal adornment:

There are reports of a variety of cattle traps among Bhils

(Joshi, 1982) ; a heat proof water bottle among Marias (Jain

1964c); a large variety of musical instruments (Parmar, 1978

and Jain, 1965a); articles of personal adornment (Mehra et al,

1975).

vi) Ethnobotany with respect to conservation and

management of plant resources:

Vartak and Gadgil ( 1981) studied the preservation of

primeval forests in the fOrm of sacred groves. Arora (1977) and

Arora and Nayar ( 1984) '.observed the preservation of plant

genetic diversity by means of conservational practices of

tribes. Pal and Mudgal ( 1985) studied the conservational

practices of tribals of Purulia, Calcutta. Ramakrishnan et al

(1981) worked on the ecological implications of traditional

agriculture.

23

vii) The study of mythological associations with plants

among the tribes:

Sen Gupta (1965) and Bhatla et al {1984) have studied the

tree worship. Jain {1963 c) noted the plants in offerings.

Gupta ( 1987) observed the plants depicted on carvings in

temples. Aulakh and Mukherjee ( 1984) studied the plants in,

witch craft.

viii) Miscellaneous subjects in Ethnobotany:

Jain {1963a) and Manila! {1980) worked on local names of

plants and their etymology. Vir Jee et al (1984) made some

taxo-ethnobotanical studies. Joshi (1985) studied the weather

forecast from behaviour of plants.

RECENT ETHNOBOTANICAL WORKS ON DIFFERENT STATES/ TRIBES OF INDIA

Over 9,500 plant species being used in material culture

and for magico-religious purposes by various tribals in

different states of India have been identified and documented

by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Some of the notable

works done in different states are enumerated below.

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

Bhargava (1983) has worked among the Onge tribes;

Yoganarasimhan et al (1983 & 1984) studied Medicobotany of the

A&N islands; Thothathri {1974 & 1980) has dealt with

interesting and useful plants of A&N islands. Some of the

24

plants mentioned are Borleria prionitis, Alstonia macrophylla,

Rauvolfia reflexa, Pathos scanden, etc.

ANOHRA PRADESH

Pal and Banerjee ( 1971) investigated less known food

plants. Jain S.K. et al (1973) studied ethnobotany of the

Chenchu, Reddi, Valmiki and Gond tribes of the state; Banerjee

( 1977) observed ethnobotany of Araku Valley, Visakhapatnam

district of A.P.; Hemadri et al (1980) studied the folk-lore

claims from A.P.

Hemadri et al ( 1987a, 1987b) enumerated the Medicinal

Plant Wealth of Andhra Pradesh. They have made extensive

medico-ethno-botanical explorations in the state and reported

a total number of 327 well known medicianl plants widely used

in Ayurveda, Siddha and other systems of medicine. Hemadri

(1990 and 1991) also contributed to Medicinal flora of

Karimnagar, Warangal and Srikakulam districts of A.P. Hemadri

(1992) studied knowledge of the tribals concerning nutritional

and medicinal herbs. He discussed some of the interesting

recipes offered by the tribals of Andhra Pradesh on Preventive,

Curative and Restorative Medicine.

Reddy, M.B. et al (1988, ~989 and 1991) surveyed medicinal

plants of Yanadi, Yerukala, Sugali and Chenchu tribes and also

studied the ethnobotany of Cuddapah and Ananthapur districts.

Raja Reddy et al (1989) enumerated about 125 plant crude drugs

25

from Chittoor district. V~davathy et al (1991) gathered folk-

lore information in relation to family planning and birth

control from Rayalaseema ~egion.

Imam et al (1994) enumerated important herbal medicines

from tribal pockets of the state. Nishteswar (1992) analysed -

the project profilds of h~rbal-medicine based integrated health

system in the tribal areas of the state.

However, comprehensive and organized research with

interdisciplinary approach has not been done so far on the

athnobotany of the Eastern Ghats region.

ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Dam and Hajra (1981) made some observations on ethnobotany

of the Mopa of Kameng district. The authors gathered data on

the use of local plants by these tribals for different purposes

such as food, medicine and construction of house. Some of the

plants mantioned are Hedyotis scandens, physalis angulata,

Ads toni a scholar is, Pousolzia viminea etc. Kohli ( 1992) has

studied the indigenous medicine system of Arunachal Pradesh.

ASSAM

Bhattacharjee et al (1980) investigated the folklore

medicines from the Kamrup district of Assam. Boissya -and

Majumdar (1980) dealt with the folklore claims from the

Brahmaputra valley. Jain and Borthakur (1980) studied

26

Ethnobotany of Mikir tribe .. Mikir depends on the surrounding

forests for their food, medicine and other material and

cultural needs. Baruah and Sharma (1984} worked among Boro

tribe. Borthakur (1993} investigated the native phytotherapy

for child and women diseases from Assam. Antidesma diandrum,

Begonia palmata, Buddlija asiatica, Canarium resiniferum,

Cleome viscosa, Gnetum montanum, Indogofera tinctoria, etc. are

some of the plants of ethnobotanical significance, reported

from this state.

BIHAR

Bedding (1927} conducted studies on Santhal medicine.

Jain and Tarafder (1970} revived Bedding's work on Medicinal

plant lore of Santhal 'tribe. Pal (1972} worked on magi.co­

religious beliefs about plants among the Adivasi tribe of

Bihar. Goel et al ( 1984) contributed to the ethnobotany of

San tal Paragana. Manojkumar ( 1992) has done the ethnobotanical

studies in the Chotanagpur plateau. Chotanagpur within the

state of Bihar is considered to be the centre of the tribal

belt in the heart of India. Thakur et al ( 1992) conducted

ethnobotanical studies of Madhubani district. Jain, S.P. et al

(1994} investigated the medicinal plants of Neterhat plateau.

27

GUJARAT

Bedi (1978} studied the ethnobotany of Ratan Mahal hills.

Joshi et al (1980} investigated the folk medicine of Dang. Shah

and Gopal (1985} recorded ethnobotanical notes from the tribals

of North Gujarat. Ti'1ey studied Bhil, Rabari, Gharasia and Dubla

tribes of the state. Joshi (1992} enumerated some folk

medicines of the tribals of Gujarat.

HIMACHAL PRADESH

Kapoor {1953} made a note on the minor forest products of

Chamba district, enumerating such plants as Artemisia vulgaris,

Cannabis sativa, Jt.iniperous recurva and Sapindus mukorossi.,

Gupta (1964, 1971} surveyed the medicinal and aromatic plants

of Chamba forest division. Koeltz {1979} compiled notes on the

ethnobotany of Lahul. Arora et al {1980) enumerated little

known aromatic plants like Adhatoda vasica, Bauhinia variegata,

Cassia occidentalis, ,cedrus deodara, Swertia purpuracea from

Lahul valley. Kapoor! ( 1993} studied ethno-medico-botany of

Kangra valley. Jain and Puri ( 1994} made an ethno--medico­

botanical survey of Parbati valley in H.P.

28

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Kashmir Himalayas which abound with rich herbaceous

medicinal flora such as Adjantum venustum, Iris kashmiriana,

Mymphaea alba, Cucumis melo etc. , offer a great scope for

ethnobotanical studies. Kapoor and Sarin (1977) studied tiseful

medicinal ferns -of Jammu and Kashmir. Dar et al ( 1984)

conducted detailed ethnobotanical studies in Sind river valley I

of the region., Virjee et al (1984) worked on taxo-ethnobotany

among the rurfil tribes of Rajouri district. Kapoor (1991)

'

studied traditionally important medicinal plants of Dudu

valley, Jammu. ,Ara et al (1992) worked on·medicinal herbs and

ethnobotany in Gurai~ valley.

KARNATAKA

Razi and 'Subrarnaniam (1978) studied· the collection,

cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants in the state.

Some of the medicinal plants reported by them are Asplenium

septentrionale, Pellaea gracilis, Acacia nilotica, Ci trulus

lanatus, Mycuna prurita and Tinospora cordifolia.

Yoganarasimhan et al (1982) worked on Medicobotany of Tumkur

district. Hosagoudar and Henry (1993) enumerated the plants

used in birth control and reproductive ailments by Soliga

tribe.

29

KERALA

Ramachandran and Nair (1981) made etbnobotanical studies

in cannanore distr'ict. Chingathen, Kadar, Karimpalan,.

Kattunayakan, Kudiya and Mulla are the important tribes of this

area. John (1984) studied the ethnobotany of Kani tribe.

Nagendra Prasad and Abraham (1984) studied the ethnobotany of

Nayadi tribe of North Kerala. Pushpangadan and Atal (1984) have

done Ethno-medico-botanical investigations in Western Ghat~ of

Kerala and reported the medicinal uses of plants like

Coriandrum sativum, Dioscorea bublifera, Solanum surathens.

MADHYA PRADESH

Madhya Pradesh has the richest and the largest area from

the forest point of view~ Forests of Madhya Pradesh constitute

20 percent of the total forest area of the country. Jain

(1963b, c, d; 1964a; and 1965a, b) conducted extensive ethno­

medico-botanical studies among the tribals of Bastar and also

observed musical instruments of Gond tribe. Sahu (1982)

enumerated the medicinal plants used by the tribal women in the

state. Rai and Ojha (198~) have made ethnobotanical studies of

Chhindwara district. Lal and Dube ( 1992) have made

ethnobotanical survey of Amarkantak plateau. Parveen Kumar

(1993) has done extensive ethnobotanical survey in the state

and reported 239 plant species for their use in ethnomedicine.

30

MAHARASHTRA

Kamble and Pradhan (1980) studied the ethnobotany of Korku

tribe. Vartak and Gadgil {1981) presented an inventory of the

sacred groves of, the state. Sharma and Lakshminarasimhan

{1986) gathered ethnobotanical information from Kotna, Bhil,

Worli, Thakur and Katkari tribes of NaSik district. Padhye et

al {1992) made ethnobotanical studies among the Korku tribe of

Amaravati district. Tiwari and Padhye {1993) studied the

ethnobotany of Gond tribe.

MAN I PUR

Mao {1993) published a preliminary report on the folklore

botany of Mao Naga tribe of Manipur. This is the first

ethnobotanical report on Mao.

MEGHALAYA

Meghalaya, ,dne of the hill states of India inhabited

aboriginal people, offers immense scope for ethnobotan~

studies as these people largely depend upon the surrour

plant wealth for. their existence. Rao ( 1981) reported

medicinal plants used by Khasi and Garo tribes of Meghal I

Maikhuri and Gangwar ( 1993) have also made ethnobotanical not~

on Khasi and Gar'o tribes.

31

NAG ALAND

Most of the state is inhabited by a large number of

aboriginal tribes and thus offers good scope for ethnobotanical

studies. There is a wealth of knowledge Of medicinal plants

among the aboriginal people~ Rao and Jamir (1982a, b) have

given an account of the areas of different sub-tribes of Naga

confined to different distr'icts in the state, their origin,

their way of life and a brief review of ethnobotanical studies.

ORISSA

With the ideal combination of the vast forests, the rich

flora and the large tribal population comprising of as many as

60 different tribes, the state of Orissa provides the ideal

ground for the study of E~hnobotany. Saxena and Dutta (1975)

have reported ethnobotanical observations on 81 plant species.

Mudgal and Pal (19SO) inve~tigated the medicinal plants used by

the tribals of Mayurbhanj. Murthy et al (1986) reported the

tribal remedies for snake bite from orissa. Hemadri and Rao

(1990) reported the folklore claims of Koraput and Phulbani

districts. Aminuddin and' Girach (1993) made observations on

ethnobotany of Bhunjia tribe.

RAJASTHAN

Singh and Pandey ( 1982) were attracted to the magico­

religious beliefs of the tribals of Rajasthan and the plants

32

they used for this purpose. Some of the plants mentioned are

Heracleum candicans, Magnolia sphenocarpa, Michalia champaca, I

Bixa orellana etc. Joshi (1982, 1993) made intensive studies on i

the ethnobotanical aspects of Bhil tribe and also reported the

medicinal plants used by the tribes against snake bites and

scorpion stings. Mishra et al (1992) investigated the

ethnobotanical plants' lore from Ajmer forest division.

SIKKIM

Uniyal (1980) found Arisaema Wallichiaxum as a new source

of food used by the aboriginals of Sikkim. During the period of

drought when there is'food scarbity, the aboriginals eat bread,

prepared from the tubers of this plant. It is considered that

after eating this bread, one can be without food for two to

three days without any loss in physical strength. Bennet (1983)

conducted ethnobotani,cal studies among the native tribes of the

state.

UTTAR PRADESH

Dixit and Pandey ( 1984) worked on folk medicine in

Bundelkhand. Maheshwari and Singh (1991) made ethnobotanical

notes from Banda district. Singh and Maheshwari (1992) studied

the ethno-medico-botany among the Bhoxa tribe of Nainital

district. Singh and Maheshwari (1994) reported some medicinal

plants used by Tharu tribe of Nainital district.

33

WEST BENGAL

Jain and De (1964) observed some less known plant foods

among the tribals of Purulia district. Chaudhuri and Pal (1975)

made notes on magico-religious beliefs about plants among Lodha

tribe of Midanapur district. Pal and Mudgal (1985) studied .the

conservational practices of tribals of Purulia district.

34

AREA OF STUDY

------~--~~-------------------------------------------------'

The location of the area of study is illustrated in the

given maps both in relation to India as a whole and within the

state of Andra Pradesh. The state of Andhra Pradesh is situated

approximately between 12° 3a1 and 19° 551 North latitudes and. 76°

451 and 84° 451 East longitudes and is bounded by Maharastrta

Madhya Pradesh and Orissa in the north, Tamilnadu in south,

Karnataka in we$t and the Bay of Bengal in the east. The total

area of the state is 275068 sq.km. (Anonymous, 1988).

The total population of the state is about 66.51 millions.

out of the total 573 Scheduled Tribes that are identified in

India, 33 Scheduled Tribes are reported in Andhra Pradesh. In

the state the tribal population according to 1991 Census is

about 4. 2 millions conti'7ibuting nearly 6. 31% of the total

population of the state (Anonymous, 1992a).

In the north eastern region of the state there are a

series of detached hill ranges marked with hillocks, knolls and

rugged topography with significant coverage of forest. These

hill ranges constitute pa~t of the Eastern Ghats which border·

the peneplains over the 1

plateau in the interior. All along

these hill ranges there are settlements ~f different ethnic

societies where people still adhere to age old traditional

practices. This high altitude tribal areas zone in the north

35

" " I \

------~\ ~ ~ ;------:::J \ <C. '

\ -,..._ (.. ,~ \- - .... __ _

... _ --... ' \

)\ ~ ci ' ... , ' 3 ° I l ~ \

\ " ~---- ' • __ .,z_> I c ~-) I '

'~' " ) ,"' "

GEO(;.RA'PHIC LoCATIO\'\ or THE A~EA or STuDy-

\N RELA.IION To l~t>t~ ~ 'v-JITHIN THE STAT~ OF A~U\-\RA PR~t>cs.H

( ......... ) '\. .. ""'· l .. . > .

r ,J """ .. .· .,.,.., ·, ,. ~

.. rt .. • '- .. '\.. . . . ·. -. ·" ,. . ·. __ .}

--- ----

\~~'A

......... ""'" .... . ~ .. '-··~ ~

... .· -· : (., ·. • f _.;-" ..

----- - - ·------

--- -I

~ .... - r"' ''"'J \- - .... f ) \

' \ ' \ ' .,.. ' I

_J --"""""'' ....

coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh offer good scope to conduct

extensive ethnobotanical studies. I

Though some enumerations were done previously in this

region to record the medicinal plants, complete ethnobotanical

study with interdisciplinary approach has not been done so far.

Hence five north eastei:-n districts of Andhra Pradesh that

include this high altitude tribal areas zone were chosen for

our ethnobotanical studies. These districts are : Khammam, East

Godavari, Vishakhapatnam, Vizianaqaram and Srikakulum. Of .all I

the five districts only Khammam does not have a sea- coast. The

interior northern parts of these districts are dotted with the

outliers of the eastern ghats. Detailed information regarding

analysis that includes the study of general geography,

topography, forest, soils, climate, rainfall, temperature and

inhabiting tribal groups is given below for each district.

I

KHAMMAM DISTRICT

Khamrnam lies between 16° 451 and 18° 351 North latitudes

and between 79° 471 and 80° 471 East longitu~es. It is bounded

on the north by Madhya Pradesh and Orissa; on the south by I

Krishna district, on the east by East Godavari and West

Godavari districts and on west by Nalgonda and Warangal

districts. In respect of area it occupies sixth place in the

state with an area of 15,: 921 sq.krn. which accounts for 5.76%

of the total area of the state (Anonymous, 1977b).

36

The high altitude tribal areas zone in this district

includes Venkatapuram, Cherla, Dummagudem,

Chinturu and Kunavaram sub-taluks.

Bhadrachalam,

Khammam occupies first place among ail the districts in

the state in regard to the area under forest cover. This

district has highest percentage of forest area in the state

i.e. 47.5%.

Flora: The flora 6f this district is broadly classified as

follows: timber, soft wood, fuel wood, bamboo, shrubs,

climbers, grasses and several other minor forest produce

yielding species.

Timber species:

Tectona grandis, Harwickia binata,

Terminalia tomantosa, Pterocarpus marsupium.

Soft wood species:

Boswellia serrata, Sterculia urens, Bombax malabaricum

Fuel species:

Acacia leucocephala, Aegle marmelos, Erythroxylon monogynum,

Mimusops hexandra and Zizyphus oenoplia.

Bamboo species:

Bambusa arundinacea anq Dendrocalamus strictus

Climbers :

Acacia intsia, Cryptole'pis buchanani,

Minor forest produce:

Terminalia chebula, Stz:ychnos potatorum, Tamarindus indica,

37

Cassia fistula, Feronia elephantum, Bauhinia vahlii and

Phyllanthus embilica.

Soil: The soil of the district is mainly red and black and I

these are further classified as clayey, loamy and sandy. The

red soils, particularly sandy loams, cover the largest part of I

the district. They are generally non- saline, non- alkaline and

well drained. The red soils a:re suitable for cultivation of

paddy and sugarcane under wet and for dry crops under rainfed

conditions.

Climate: Climate of this district is characterized by hot

summer and good seasonal rain fall. The summer season lasts

from the middle of February to about first week of June. This

is followed by south- west monsoon season lasting upto about'

the end of September. October and November constitute the

retreating monsoon season. December to mid-February records

generally fine weather.

Tribes: Tribals constitute 25.2% of the total population

of district. In Andthra Pradesh, khammam district has recorded

the highest proportion of schduled tribes population to the

total population of the dis'trict (Anonymous, 1992b). The

largest tribe of this district' is Koya {Anonymous, 1997b). The

Koya live in close proximity to the Konda Reddi in the hilly

and riverine tracts of the district. Of the immigrant tribes of I

this district, the Lambada is ·important.

38

EAST GODAVARI DISTRICT

This district is closely associated with the rfver

Godavari occupying a major portion of the delta area. This

district is located between the northern latitudes of 16° 301

and 18° and between the eas,tern longitudes of 81° 301 and 82°

301 • This district is bounded on the north by Vishkapatnam

district and the States of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh on east

and the south by Bay of Bengal, and on the west by Khammam and

West Godavari districts. In respect of area, it takes 14th

place among the districts of the state with an extent of 10,821

sq-. km. which accounts 3. 94 % of the total area of the state

(Anonymous, 1979a).

Topography: The general elevation of the district varies

from a few meters near the sea to about 300 meters in the

hills. The district is broadly divided into three distinct

zones namely; the Agency or hilly tracts, the delta and the

uplands. The Eastern Ghats rise by gradation from the level of

the coast and spread throughout the Agency sub-Taluks of

Rampachodavaram and Yellavarum. Nearly half the district is

covered by the Eastern Ghats.

Forests: The forest area is mostly confined to the hills

which are outliers of the Eastern Ghats and flank the main

range. The highest point is 1. 3 km in Dummukonda R~serve

39

Forest. The elevation declines from north to south. The mean

elevation of the ridges is over 300m. Good Miscellaneous Dry

Deciduous and Semi-evergreen forest is found in ·the Eastern

Ghats. There are good forests with plant average height ranging

from 10 to 25m. Three-fourths of the forest area of the

district is hilly.

In the uplands of the district the forest is of Southern

Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest type. Patches of good forests

occur on better soils and are locally known as Lankalu. The

term Lanka is used to denote the thick good forest patch which

is found in midst of the ordinary forests in the plains. The

Lanka is generally found close to foot hills where good soil

accumulates. Top canopy of forest consists of Tectona grandis,

Pterocarpus marsupium, Annogeissus latifoila, Terminalia

tomentosa, Bursera serrata etc.

On the hill slopes having an elevation of 30 to 900m in

Rampachodavaram and Yellavaram taluks, we find Southern

Tropical Secondary Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest. This type

consists of forest of medium to good height including a number

of dominant species intimately mixed and many second storey

trees including some evergreens. Climbers are many and

undergrowth is shrubby.

Major species: Terminalia tomentosa, Pterocarpus

marsupium, Salmalia malabaricum, Adina cordifolia, Bauhinia

retusa, Madhuca indica, Terminalia arjuna, Mangifera indica,

40

syzygium cumini.

According to present records it can be stated that th'

species of economic values such as teak and rosewood that wer'

in high demand in past, have by now, become rare due to ove:

exploitation of the species in recent times. Similarly due t1

high demand for bamboo the percentage of bamboo to the tota:

vegetation has also gone down. In order to compensate this, an<

to improve the percentage of valuable timbers, the Fores1

Department has taken up plantations of teak and bamboo ove1

extensive areas.

Soils: The soils of the district are broadly divided intc

red; deltaic alluviums; coastal sands; and lateretic soils. ThE

red soil occurs over a large area in the northern parts

particularly in the taluks of Agency area like Rampachodavaren

and Yellavaram.

Climate: The climate is characterized by high humidities

almost throughout the year; oppressive summer· seasons; and good

seasonal rainfall. The summer season is from the middle of

February to about first week of June.

south- west monsoon season lasting upto

This is followed by

the end of September.

October and November constitute the retreating monsoon season.

December to mid February is

weather.

the season of generally fine

Tribes: Tribals constitute 3. 9% of the total population of

district (Anonymous, 1992b). In the Agency tract by far the

41

largest tribe is Konda Reddi who are a caste of jungle men

having some characteristics common to Koya (Anonymous, 1979a).

They are found in the Agency area of Rampachodavaram and

Yellavaram. The Koya is another jungle tribe found on either

side of Godavari. The remaining tribes of this district include

Konda Kapu, Kammara, Konda Dora, Yerukala, Valmiki, Manne Dora

and Yanadi.

VISHAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT

This district is part of the northern Andhra coastal

plain. Being located between the co-ordinates of 17° 151-18° 321

North latitudes and 81° 501 -83° 32/ East ~ongitudes, the

district is bounded by the state of Orissa on the north and

.northwest, Vizianagaram district on north-east, the Bay of

Bengal on the south-east and the East Godavari district on

south-west. The district accounts for the total area of 11,161

sq.km (Anonymous, 1988).

This district consists of two natural divisions namely the

Agency area and the Plains; and it is for the most part hilly

and picturesque especially in the north. Agency tract mostly

consists of the hilly regions covered by the Eastern Ghats;

they run parallel to the coast from the north-east to· the

south~west. This tract comprises Chintapalle, Paderu, Araku

and Narsipatnam taluks of this district. It has the most rugged

surface with hills and knobs having varying slopes and is

42

covered with forests. Its geology belongs to Lower Pre­

cambarian period. The average height of the hills in the

district is over 914m with several peaks of over 1219m in

height. Ranges of lower foothills, among which there are

secluded valleys, intervene between the main hills and low

country.

Forest: The forest in thick Agency tracts is that of

Southern Tropical Moist Deciduous forest type. This type occurs

in the regions with a rainfall of 1016mm and above and at an

altitude of above GlOm. The height of vegetative growth,

recorded here is between 12.2 and 21.3m with trees of fairly

tall and straight boles. The soils are deep and rich with

humus. Dominant species of these forests are Anogeissus

lati:tolia, Terminalia tomantosa, Pterocarpus marsupium,

Chloroxylom swietenia, Salmalia malabaricum, Terminalia chebula

and Cedrela toona. Bamboos are present in middle storey. This

type of forest occurs in Narsipatnam and Paderu Ranges and

Borra Block of Araku Range.

Climate: The climate of this district is characterized by

high humidity all through the year, besides oppressive summer

and good seasonal rainfall. The hilly regions record heavier

rainfall than plain areas and are cooler than the plains. The

summer season lasts from about middle of February to about the

first week of June; and is followed by the south west monsoon

which continues till the end of Semptember. october and

43

November constitute retreating monsoon season; December to

February is the season of generally fine weather.

Tribes: Tribals constitute 14.3% of the total population

of district (Anonymous, 1992b). In Agency tract, by far, the

largest tribe is Khond. Jatapu and Gadaba are other important

tribes in the district.

VIZIANAGARAM DISTRICT

This district was formed on 1st June 1979 by taking some

areas of Srikakulum and Vishakhapatnem district which presently

surround the district from eastern and western sides

respectively. This district lies between 17° 15' "and 19° 15'

North latitudes and 83° and 83° 45/ East longitudes. A very

small portion of the district touches the Bay of Bengal on the

south. In terms of area this district occupies 6539 sq.km. The

district shows a varied topography including coastal plains

upland and hilly areas. The areas, transferred from

vishakhapatnam district are mostly hilly and picturesque

especially in the north. This hilly part and sand areas on the

Forests: There are two forest regions in the district viz.

Kurupam Forested Upland and Western Forested Tract. The kurupam

forested upland spreads over the northern part of district

occupying larger parts of kurupam taluk and some areas of

Parvatipuram taluk. This upland is marked with hillocks, knolls.

and rugged topography with significant coverage of forest. This

hilly part is an extension of the Eastern Ghats mainly

consisting of Lower Precambrian rocks.

The western forested tract lies in the western part of

district in a strip of hills extending over parts of Saluru,

Parvatipuram and Gajapatinaqaram taluks. The region is

characterized with rugged topography marked with a few

hillocks, steep slopes and a few rocky )cnobs. There are

significant areas of reserved forests and der1se shrubs located

all over the region.

The forest in the district is of Southern Tropical Moist

Mixed Deciduous Forest type and Southern Tropical Dry Mixed

Deciduous Forest type. The prominent species of the forest are

Dendrocalamus strictus, Pterocarpus marsupium, Dalbergia

latifolia, Mangifera indica and Shorea robusta. Climate: The

climate of the district is characterized by high humidity,

oppressive summer and good seasonal rainfall.

Tribes: Settlements are located along cultivated patches.

Bhagata, Savara and Samanta are prominent tribal groups in this

district. Tribals constitute 9% of the total population of

45

district (Anonymous,1992b).

SRIKAKULUM DISTRICT

This district lies in the north-east~rn corner of the

state, approximately between North latitudes of 18° 201 and 19°

101 and between the Eeast longitudes of 83° 251 and 84° 501 • It

is bound on north by Orissa; on east and south-east by Bay of

Bengal and on west side by Vizianagram district. This district

comprises an area of 5837 sq.km. {Anonymous, 1988).

Major part of the district is a plain with characteristics

of coastal plains of the Bay of Bengal. In the northern part of

the district the elevation is higher and the surface is rugged

on account of the presence of the offshoots of the Eastern

Ghats. The height of the hillocks is above so om at some places.

The rugged topographic area in north and west· consists of Lower

Precambrian rocks.

Settlements are located along the cultivated ,patches

scattered over relatively flat area of the region. Barnakonda­

Kadagandi forested region which covers the parts of Palakonda

and Hiramandalam taluks is least populated in 2the district.

Two forested regions viz. Barnakonda-Kadagandi forested region·

and Pathapatnam-Banapuram-Mandasa Forested Region show typical

rugged topography marked with hillocks and knolls with an

average height between 100 and SOOm and a slope towards .the

south-east. This region is almost entirely clad with forests.

46

Forests: The forests in the district are of varying types

and greatly differ in nature. Broadly these forests may be

classified as South Indian Moist Deciduous type, which mainly

includes Sal forest and hilly Savanah and Dry Deciduous type

which includes Mixed forest and Thorn forest. Srikakulum

district strikingly differs from all other districts in the

state in vegetation on account of the presence of sal forests.

These forests lie in the northern most part of district in

between and along the sides of the Nagavali and Vamsadhara

rivers. Sal forest extends to these areas from Koraput district

of Orissa.

Soil: Soils of the distr~ct are broadly divided into red

ferruginous, black cotton, alluvial and sandy loams. The red

ferruginous soil spreads over all the taluks in the district

and is particularly predominant near the hills. The alluvial

soil is found predominantly in Kotturu,

Sithampeta,Veeraghattam, and Palakonda taluks.

Climate: Characterized by high humidity nearly all year

round, oppressive summer and good seasonal rainfall. The summer

season is from about the middle of February to the middle of

June. This is followed by southwest monsoon season which lasts

upto the second week of October. The period from mid-october to

the end of November constitutes the retreating monsoon season.

The period from December to mid-February is the season of

moderate winter weather.

47

Tribes: Tribals constitute 5. 8% of the total population of

district (Anonymous, 1992b) . In the Agency Tracts of the

district, Savara constitute by far the largest tribe. Jatapu,

Konda Dora (also known as Konda Kapu), Oja, Gadaba and Khond

are the other important tribes in the district. All these

tribes practice shifting cultivation on hill slopes. Manne

Dora, Mukha Dora, Yearukala and Bhagata also have

concentrations in this district.

Table I

Districtwise Distribution of Tribal Polulation in the Area Under Study

(as per 1991 Census in Andhra Pradesh)

Name of the district

Khammam

East Godavari

Vishakapatnam

Vizainagaram

Srikakulam

Inhab1.t1.ng Tribes

Koya, Konda Reddi, Lambada

Konda Reddi, Koya, Konda Kapu, Kammara, Konda Dora, Yerukala, Valmiki, Manne Dora and Yariadi.

Khond, Jatapu and Gadaba.

Bhagata, Savara and Samanta

Savara, Jatapu, Konda Dora, Oja, Gadaba and Khond

48

Proport1.on of population : tribal's to total of the district (in %)

25.2

3.9

14.3

9.0

5.8

their

1. A Land Scape of Hilly Terrain in the Eastern Ghats

ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY

The term tribe represents culturally homogeneous, distinct

ethnic group usually confined to a defnite geographical area;

speaking a common dialect and it is a unifying social

organisation. Out of the total 573 Scheduled Tribes, identified

by the government of India, 33 Scheduled Tribes are present in

Andhra Pradesh. In Andhra Pradesh, the tribal population,

according to 1991 Census was about 4.2 million, constituting

nearly 6.31% of the total population of the state(Anonymous,

1992a) .

Several ethnic societies have made their settlements all

along the Agency Tract of the north-eastern districts of Andhra

Pradesh and these aboriginal groups are still adhered to age

old traditional practices. Though all these ethnic societies

are distinctly unique and different from one another, their

mode of life is more or less similar at the fundamental level.

One common point of all these tribes is that they all

traditionally adhere to shifting cultivation.

Prominent aboriginal sects inhabiting the Agency area of

the five north-eastern districts of Andhra Pradesh Viz.

Khamam, East Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and

Srikakulam are Koya, Konda Reddi, Konda Dora, Khond, Gadaba,

Jatapu and Savara.

49

2 . A Tribal Settlement in the Hilly Terrain

3 . A typical Village with Two Parallel rows of Huts

4 . A Tribal Man with Household Appliances

5 . A Medicine Man with Some Medicinal leaves in his bDS

GADABA: A tribe of agricultural labourers and hunters in

Visakapatnam district. Hunting is said to be gradually

decreasing, as many of the forests are now preserved. Men

sometimes engage themselves in felling trees, catching birds

and hares. It is said that the Gadaba w.ill not touch a horse

probably because they are palanquin bearers, and have the same

objection to ~he rival animal that a cab man has for a motor

car. Like many other tribes, they also resort to shifting

cultivation in the hilly tracts.

There is a tradition that the tribe owes it's name to the

fact that its ancestors emigrated from the banks of Godavari

river. Among the Gadaba, there is a section which has settled

on the plain and adopted Kapu as its name.

The Gadaba women themselves manufacture clothes from

cotton thread and the fibre of Holarrhena antidysenterica (V:

Ankudi chettu) and Ficus glomerata (V: Bodda Chettu). The

fibre is carefully dried and dyed blue or reddish brown. At the

time of marriage, it is an absolute must that Gadaba maiden

should wear this fibre made cloth; else misfortune will ruin

the family. A Gadaba maiden must learn to weave her clothes

before she becomes eligible for marriage. Bride Price system,

in which the bride groom has to pay some money to the

prospective Father-in-law, is in practice.

Religious functions are simple and consist of feasts at

stated intervals. Chief festival is hunting feast in March and

50

April. As a rule, there is no temple and the site of worship is

marked by a sacred grove surrounded with a circle of stones and

trees. Cows, buffalos, cocks, goats, pigs and pigebns are

offered to deities as sacrifice. After death males, as a rule,

are cremated while women and children are buried. Death

pollution is observed for three days, during which the caste

occupation must not be engaged in. Stone slabs are erected to

the memory of the dead and sacrifices are offered to them.

Gadaba will not injure or kill a Cobra.

JATAPU: Thg Jatapu are defined as a civilised section of the

Khond who speak Khond language on the hills and Telugu on the

plains, and are now practically a distinct caste. They

consider themselves superior to those Khond sections who eat

beaf and snakes, and have taken to some of the ways of castes

of the plains. The bride-price called Voli is in practice

Jatapu are divided into totemic divisions such as:

Thorika: who revere the thorika kodi, a species of wild fowl.

Mamdangi: who revere the bull or cow.

Addaku: who revere the Bauhinia racemosa (Addaku) which is

used by low-country people for eating platters.

Konda Gorre: who revere a certain breed of sheep

Navalipitta: who revere the peacock.

Arica: who revere Paspalum scrobiculatum (Arika).

from

The dead among them are usually buried while those who die

snake-bite are reported to be burnt. Death pollution

51

lasts for three days, during which the caste occupation of

cultivating is not carried on. An annual ceremany is performed

in hanour of the dead by each family. They offer sacrifices of

pigs, sheep and buffeloes to the caste Godess. (Ja Kara Devata).

When the Crop is gathered in, the first fruits are offered to

the deity and then part taken off.

KHOND: The Khond as a race are the owners and cultivators of

the soil. They are also good hunters. They inhabit villages

which are either scattered or closely grouped according to the

facility available for tillage. A Khond vil.lage consists of two

streets, each with two rows of huts, one is occupied by the

Khond and the other by paidi, Domb or Pano, who.are weavers and

musicians by profession. The latter supply the Khond with

coarse cloth for payment in grain. They also officiate as

musicians at the festivals. The Khond are divided into two

groups, namely, the Dongria Khond and Desya Khond. They are

widly known in this region as Kodulu or Samanthulu. Honey ·and

wax are said to be collected by the Khond who are expert

climbers of preciptious rocks and lofty trees. Hairpins made

from bones of Sambur (Cervus Unicolor) are considered as an

inestimable treasure by the male Khond.

Turmeric is perhaps the most valuable crop which the Khond

cultivate. Tobacco is generally grown in backyards, as

elsewhere and a good deal of care is devoted to its

cultivation, as the Khond are inveterate smokers. Wet paddy is

52

of course, grown in the valleys and low .lying bottoms where

water is available. Much ingenuity is exercised in the

formation of bunds (embankments) to retain the natural supply

of moisture.

In the ancent past, the Khond used to perform human

sacrifices to ensure good crops. The sacrific~s were offered to

the earth goddess, Tarai Pennu or Bera Pennu, and were believed

to ensure good crops and immunity from all disease ·and

accidents. This practice has been by now substituted by the

sacrifice of a buffalo (Thurston, E. 1909).

SAVARA: The origin of Savara is traced to the ancient

Sabara who had migrated from the lower reaches of the Ganges

(Anonymous, 1979b). The savara consist of two classes namely,

(i) the Hill Savara or Jati Savara who live on the hills and

(ii) the Kapu Savara who dwell on the plains. The.Jati Savara

regard themselves as superior to their counterparts on the

plains and they eat flesh 6f the buffalo, but not of the cow.

The Savara live on cultivation and hunting, besides

col.lecting minor forest produce. Their headmen are known by ·the

name Gomango. Among the savara there are certain occupationaal

subdivisions such as Arisi (cloth weavers), Kindala (Basket

makers) and Cohara (Blaksmiths). These groups, however, earn

their bread by weaving cloth and making baskets and small iron

implements such as arrow heads (or the men of their community.

Bride-price in the form of rice and liquor is in practice.

53

cremating the dead and buying their ashes is the prevailing

custom among the Savara.

KONDA DORA: The Konda Dora are a caste .of hill cultivators

found chiefly in Srikakulam and Visakapatnam districts

practicing shifting form of cul ti vat ion on hil slopes. The

agricultural produce is insufficient and therefore, they

supplement it with the minor forest produce. They are also

known as Konda Kapu and oja. There are .two well defined

divisions among the Konda Dora, namely, the Pedda Kandalu and.

the Chinna Kondalu. The Pedda Kondalu have adopted totemic

divisions as exogamous septs whereas the Chinna Kondalu

retained the Telugu system of family name.

The dead among them are usuallay burnt. They kill pig on

the third- day cermony and hold a feast at which liquor is

invariably disposed of.

KONDA REDDI: The Konda Reddi are hill tribe: found chiefly in

Khammam and East Godavari districts who are a cast~ of Jungle

men having some characteristics common to the Koya people. As

a class they are more gentle and less excitable than the Koya.

They call themselves by various high sounding titles such as

Pandava Reddi, Raja Reddi and Reddi of the Solar Race and· do

not like the plain name of Konda Reddi.

They will not eat in the house of a Koya. They do not

touch beef, but they will eat pork. They live by shifting

cultivation. They worship the Pandava, the spirits of the

54

hills, their ancestors and other deities. Reddi like Koya alsc

observe harvest festivals. They are very superstitious

believing firmly in sorcery and calling in wizards in time of

illness. Marriages are either by proposal or by force which

includes elopment and capture. There is a custom of paying the

bride price.

KOYA: The Koya is the prominant tribe found in Khmmam and East

Godavari districts. They claim that they descended from Bhima,

one of the Pancha Pandavas. They usually choose the foot of the

hills and the plains adjaGent to it as their.places of living.

The Koya live in close proximty to the konda Reddi and they

have some characteristics common to the Konda Reddi. The Koya

are considered as more progressive than the other tribal

groups. Their settlements consists of groups of hamlets

scattered over the village land.

Thougr; the Koya raise the same food crops as the Konda

Reddi, they exchange certain house hold articles and

agricultural implements on barter basis; for instance, the Koya

provide the Konda Reddi with raw implements while the Konda

Reddi weave baskets and supply them to the Koyas. The Koya have

a Kula Panchayat which exercises control over the community.

They observe harvest festivals.

Polygamy is not uncommon but polyandry is never

recognised. Marriages are either by proposal or by force which

includes elopment and capture. The bride-price system is in

55

practice. The Koya generally burn their adult dead but bury the . .

infants. Tattooing is common.

56

6.

7 . Paddy

A Medicine Man Preparing some Herbal Drug

A Tribal Man Ploughing the Land for the Cultivation o1