review of literature - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/90212/12/12... ·...

Review of Literature

29

he present endeavour was undertaken with an objective to find

the effect of Parasitism and Pollution on the native fish, which

made it mandatory to study the water quality of the selected

water bodies in order to find out the level of pollution and also to study

the parasitism in the fish under investigation. This would pave a way

for understanding the influence of the water quality and parasitism on

the fish. Thus the present study was multidimensional and accordingly

to have a clear understanding and background information about the

work done, the literature related to these different aspects was surveyed

and is reproduced briefly hereunder three subheadings covering three

different aspects. These include:

4.1. Physicochemical characteristics

4.2. Parasite Taxonomy in Kashmir

4.3. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution

T


30

4.1. Physicochemical characteristics

Studies on the water quality have been conducted since long

and the studies have revealed the effect of deteriorating water quality on

the aquatic life. Studies on Kashmir waters have similarly been carried out

and while going through the literature it becomes clear that with

urbanization and development of Industry, the natural systems had to bear

the brunt and Kashmir waters form no exception. The ensuing account

gives a brief resume on the important limnological work carried out on the

water bodies, since it is beyond the scope of the present work to cover all

the work done so far.

Edmonson and Hutchinson (1934) gave an account of Limnology of

Dal, Manasbal and Wular lakes during the course of north India

Expedition. Mortimer (1942) attributed remarkable rise in phosphates in

nutrient rich lakes to reduced oxygen concentration. Welch (1952) carried

out extensive studies on limnology and made an important contribution by

giving various limnological methods. Hutchinson (1957) classified lakes on

the basis of thermal stratification into Monomictic, Dimictic and Polymictic

lakes. The author (1967) studied the physical condition of the lake due to

human activity in the catchment area in New York.

Qasim and Siddiqui (1960) gave a preliminary observation on the

pollution of river Kali caused by the effluents of industrial wastes. Winner

et al. (1962) investigated some physical and chemical characteristics of

Acton lake, Ohio. Mackereth (1964) gave useful methods for water analysis

for limnologists. Ebel and Koski (1969) studied the physical and chemical

limnology of Brownlee reservoir. Tim (1970) carried out limnological

studies of 103 reservoirs and lakes of New South Wales and found that

waters of coastal plains were dominated by sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl)


31

ions while those in the high lands were dominated by HCO3, Na, Mg and

Ca.

Zutshi (1968) in his doctoral programme worked on the ecology of

some Kashmir lakes. Zutshi et al. (1972) categorized the lakes of the

Kashmir on the basis of their origin, altitudinal situation and nature of biota

they contain. He (1973) studied the comparison of water quality of some

lakes of Kashmir and in 1977 worked on the limnological aspects of two sub

tropical lakes i.e., Manasbal and Dal lakes. The researchers (1978 a, b)

studied the topology of the lakes and in the same year worked on the

chemical features of Dal lake and (1980 a, b) observed comparative

limnological features of nine lakes of Jammu and Kashmir and in the same

year studied Sarban, man made lake in the north east of Srinagar. He along

with his associates (1984) studied nutrient status and plankton dynamics of

perennial pond. In 1988, he established a trophic gradient between the

inshore and offshore areas of Dal lake. He with Gopal (2000) assessed the

lake diversity based on various limnological parameters and suggested

special efforts for protection, conservation and sustainable management.

Vass (1973) investigated the primary productivity and hydrobiology

of some lakes in Kashmir. He along with his associates (1977 a) initiated the

limnological studies on the river Jhelum of Kashmir valley. He with other

researchers (1977 b) gave an account of pollution indicators of Dal lake,

Kashmir. The author along with Zutshi (1979) recorded that the four basins

of Dal lake differ markedly in regard to their area, volume, maximum

depth, mean depth and index of shore development. He (1980) developed

eutrophic typology of the lakes by using various physicochemical and

biological parameters of the lakes and suggested certain methods of

conservation.


32

Frosyth et al. (1975) carried out limnological studies of lake

Naghawa. Young (1975) studied the seasonal and diurnal changes in the

water temperature of temperate pond (England) and a tropical pond

(Kenya). Jumppanen (1976) studied the effect of waste waters in two

oligotrophic lakes in Finland and found that the structure of bottom animal

community reflected the influence of waste waters even when

eutrophication and pollution were still slight. Larsen and Malueg (1976)

observed limnological parameters of lake Shagawa, that showed marked

differences from those observed in the less fertile system due to high

fertility and increased algal activity.

Kaul(1977) worked on the limnology of Kashmir lakes, with

reference to trophic status and conservation. Kaul et al. (1980) studied

physico-chemical characterization of Nilnag, a higher altitude forest lake of

Kashmir and its comparison with valley lake. In 1993, he along with

Handoo worked on the ecology and management of some typical wetlands

of Kashmir.

Davis and Zobrist (1978) by making an estimates of the relative

loading from natural and anthropogenic sources for various river systems

compared the results of three methods, linear correlations, factor analysis

and regression curve analysis based on a mathematical model. Goltterman

et al. (1978) described methods of physical and chemical analysis of fresh

water Blackwell.

Yousuf (1979) conducted studies on the limnology and fisheries of

lake Manasbal, Kashmir in his doctoral programme. Yousuf et al. (1992)

studied the various limnological features of lake Manasbal during 1976-

1978 and 1986-88 and made a comparison of the different characteristics

and concluded that the lake is gradually passing towards the eutrophic

state. Yousuf along with Shah (1988) gave comparative limnology of some


33

freshwater Habitats of Kashmir. Yousuf and Parveen (1992) studied the

ecology of different basins of Dal lake.

Pant et al. (1980) observed that the Nainital lake is showing signs of

accelerated eutrophication as a result of human activities in the catchment

area. Ajayi and Osibanjo (1981) sampled twenty-six Nigerian rivers during

the dry season periods. Seventeen of the rivers examined were found to be

more or less unpolluted, six of them being of high quality. The remaining

nine were found to be polluted naturally. Dissanayake et al. (1982)

monitored the water pollution levels of Kandy Lake in Sri Lanka to probe

the impacts and influences of urban environment in a developing country.

Thomas and Vonderen (1984) noticed an increase in algal blooms and

heavy aquatic growth due to high concentrations of nutrients in water

pumped from agricultural lands into the upper St. Johns River in Florida.

Woodward (1984) reported depletion of oxygen around Trent falls in the

Humber Estuary which in the United Kingdom receives industrial and

sewage discharges.

Trisal (1985) evaluated and compared trophic status of three types of

lake systems of kashmir. He (1987) studied the ecology and conservation of

Dal lake. He (1993) conducted studies on the anthropogenic pressures and

management of Dal lake, Kashmir. Somashekar (1985) studied the

physicochemical and biological parameters of water of river Cauvery,

Karnataka. The need for protecting Cauvery water from pollution has been

stressed.

Khan (1986) studied hydrobiology and organic production in Marl

lake of Kashmir. He (2004) discussed some features of environmental

appraisal of depleting fish diversity of Kashmir Valley.

Satya Mohan (1987) classified Osman Sagar as 'mesotrophic' and Mir

Alam as 'eutrophic' lakes. A two year study of their physiographic,


34

chemical and biological characteristics revealed deterioration of their water

quality. Henderson et al. (1987) investigated the origin and control of

cultural Eutrophication of the lakes. Osborne et al. (1987) studied the effect

of seasonal water level changes on the chemical and biological limnology of

lake Murray. Cowell et al. (1987) worked out the influence of whole lake

aeration on the limnology of a hyper eutrophic lake U.S.A. Usha and Unni

(1987) studied Bodri nallah an ephemeral stream receiving effluents from

the Chhindwara town. The Physico chemical parameters and distribution of

algae were investigated to understand the water quality. From their studies

it was clear that Bodri nallah receiving sewage was gradually getting

polluted.

Ouzounis et al. (1989) in Greece reported increase in the levels of

plant growth nutrients, PO43-, NO3- and K+ in the areas around the waste

ejection points of fertilizer plants. Samanidou et al. (1989) reported increases

in levels of NO3- and NH4+ near agricultural areas and sewage discharge

points in the Thermaikos Gulf in Greece. Nolen et al. (1989) studied the

limnology and trophic state of Tenkiller Ferry lake. Susanne et al. (1990)

reported that the southern Kattegat was susceptible to eutrophication due

to shallow mean depth and a strong halocline which reduces intrusion of

oxygen to bottom waters. Magdy (1990) studied the physical and chemical

environment of lake Manzala. The salinity and nutrients were observed to

be the important factors which affected the ecology of the lake. Taraby et al.

(1991) studied the limnological aspects of a high mountain lake in Mexico.

Sarwar et al. (1992) conducted limnological survey of Wular lake and

placed the lake in the moderate eutrophic category on the basis of specific

conductance values. Mathuthu et al. (1992) studied the influence of fertilizer

plant discharges on the quality of the receiving Mukuvisi River waters.

Kanth and Bhat (1993) while studying the environmental impact of tourism


35

on Dal lake found lake seriously affected in term of its water quality,

macrophytic growth, siltation and encroachment. Logaswamy et al. (1993)

studied the physico-chemical parameters of two reservoirs, upper Aliyar

and Kadampari in Tamil Nadu. The upper reservoir was found having

higher amount of nutrients than the lower Kadampari reservoir.

Michael (1995) investigated the impact of point (domestic and

industrial effluents) and non-point (agricultural land runoff) pollution

sources on the quality of the receiving waters of the Evarotas river (Laconia,

Greece) and suggested the measures for its control. Jain et al. (1996) found

seasonal variations in physico-chemical parameters of Halali reservoir of

Vidisha district and indicated that any amount in excess of 0.5 ppm

phosphate is an indicator of pollution and suggested that concentration of

phosphorus in water should be less than 0.05 to control the algal growth.

Mientki et al. (1997) worked on the physical and chemical properties of

water of the Ukiel lake.

Singh et al. (1998) studied the middle stretch of about 110 km from

Moradabad to Bareilly for evaluating the pollution status of river

Ramganga. Investigation revealed that water was highly polluted especially

at out fall of different discharged channel at different centres. Swaranlatha

and Narsing (1998) carried out ecological studies of a lake Banjara with

reference to physico-chemical characteristics and water pollution.

Shrivastava et al., (2001) worked on the river pollution in India and

suggested the remedial measures to control river pollution.

Shrivastava and Patil (2002 a, b) assessed pollution in river Tapti by

investigating the physicochemical properties of water samples. Statistics of

all the parameters have been evaluated and parametric ratio of different

parameters calculated.


36

Chinmoy and Raziuddin (2002) carried out limnological studies of a

degraded river, Nunia and calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) of the

river, to assess the impact of industries agriculture and human activities on

its water quality. Raghavendra and Hosmani (2002) assessed the water

quality of Mandakally lake polluted due to sewage. Sargaonkar and

Deshpande (2002) on the basis of scientific information developed a water

quality criteria about the effects of pollutants upon a specific use of water.

Shanthi et al. (2002) dealt with the ecological studies of lake Singanallur

with special reference to physico-chemical characteristics and water

pollution.

Gamze et al. (2003) carried out the analysis of water quality of

shallow lakes, Eymir and Mogan Lakes and interactions due to human

activities in and also discussed problems associated with human impacts in

protected areas. Guru Prasad (2003) calculated Water Quality Index (WQI)

of ground water in Adepalli mandal of Guntur and assessed the impact of

pollutants due to agriculture and human activities on its quality. Jayaraman

(2003) analyzed Physico-chemical characteristics of water of Karamana

river. Jyoti et al. (2003) studied two high altitude ponds (man made

Shalimar and Natural Sarkoot pond) for their physico-chemical conditions.

The probable chance of culture of this and some other fish in Sarkoot pond

under prevailing conditions (abiotic and biotic) has been discussed. Moti et

al. (2003) while monitoring the water quality of Hathali stream, revealed

that the water in the stream was heavily polluted. Sivakumar et al. (2003)

studied water quality of the river Ambarampalayam.

Koloanda and Oladimeji (2004) determined the physical and

chemical properties and nutrient levels of the surface water of Shiroro Lake

(Nigeria) and concluded from the nutrient levels, that Shiroro Lake was still

an oligotrophic lake. Kundangar and Adnan (2004) reviewed the ecological


37

works carried out during the last three decades on Dal lake. Marchetto and

Rogora (2004) presented results of long-term ecological research on

mountain lakes throughout Europe. Rosario et al. (2004) briefly considered

the main factors influencing the water chemistry of Lake Bolsena, the

variations observed from the analyses of the 60s, and the main sources of

risk to water quality. Shahid and Pandit (2004) investigated the impacts of

urbanization by monitoring the hydrochemistry in relation to the presence

of dominant periphytic organisms at five different sampling stations of

river Jhelum. Tartari et al. (2004) studied the chemistry of 31 lakes in the

Khumbu and Imja Kola valleys and considered it in relation to atmospheric

loads, geo-lithological and morphometric characteristics of the watershed

and surface waters.

Koteswari and Ramanibai (2005) focused on water quality of

permanent and temporary water bodies along the urban and suburban

gradients of Chennai City, South India. The results indicated that the

response of water quality variables was different when compared to urban -

suburban locations. Prince et al., (2006) dealt with the general water quality

of Dal lake with emphasis on the impact of sewage water from human

settlements on the lake waters. Anjum and Pandit (2006) recorded

physicochemical characteristics of Brarinambal, one of the basins of Dal

lake. They considered basin eutrophic.


38

4.2. Parasite Taxonomy in Kashmir

A lot of work has been done on the taxonomy of helminth parasites

from Kashmir valley as is evident from the review but very little work has

been done on the effect of parasites on their host, which makes the present

endeavor all the more important. The literature concerning helminth

taxonomy has been briefly reviewed to provide a background information

about the fish helminths.

The first report on fish parasites dates back to 1927 when Faust

recovered the metacercaria of Neodiplostomum kashmirensis and Strigea

annandales obtained by the survey party of Zoological survey of India from

Kashmir.

The contribution made by Kaw in the field of systematic study of

helminth fauna of Kashmir is unforgettable. He studied helminth fauna of

Kashmir in detail during 1941 to 1951. His work largely pertains to fish and

amphibian hosts. Kaw (1941) described new spp. of genus Pomphorhnchus

Monticelli, 1905 from the fish - Nemachilus kashmirensis and named it as P.

kashmiriensis and described some of its developmental stages. In 1943 the

author described two new trematodes of the family Pleurogenetinae Looss,

1896 with a review of the genus Pleurogenes. He reported a new papillose

allocreadiid, Crepidostomum indicum from Schizothorax niger from Dal lake,

Kashmir. In 1944, described a new Allocreadid Crepidistomum indicum from

Schizothorax niger from the Dal lake. In 1950, the author reported for the first

time infection of Diplozoon by describing D. kashmerensis from Schizothorax

spp. in Kashmir and also framed a key for identification of the four spp. of

Diplozoon reported till then viz., D. paradoxus, D. indicum, D nipponicum and

D. kashmirensis. In 1951 he reported a new species Echinorhynchus orientalis


39

(Echinorhynchidae) from Schizothorax species from Dal lake which

represented the first record of the genus Echinorhynchus from India. In the

same year encysted forms of Pomphorhynchus spp. was reported from the

intestinal wall of a small Cyprinid fish Botio birdi.

Thaper (1950) described Rhabdochona kashmirensis sp. nov. from the

intestine of Schizothorax niger from Kashmir.

After Kaw, Fotedar (1958-1987) did extensive work on the helminth

fauna of Kashmir. In 1958, proposed a new genus Adenoscolex to

accommodate a new species A. oreini (Cestoda) collected from the gut of

Oreinus sinuatus, fresh water fish in Kashmir. In 1959, he recovered a new

species of genus Ganeo and in 1968, he collected large number of

acanthocephalan worms belonging to the genus Neoechinorhynchus,

Hamann, 1892 from the intestine of Oreinus sinuatus. In 1969, gave

elaborated notes on some Gorgoderid Trematodes belonging to the genera

Gorgoderina and Phyllodistomum from Amphibians and fishes in Kashmir

and other parts of India. Fotedar et al. (1970) collected a new dactylogyrid

trematode Neodeidodiscus botiai from Botia birdi. Fotedar and Dhar (1970)

studied morphology of Filochona kashmerensis (Nematoda). Fotedar and

Dhar (1974) made an extensive helminthological survey of fishes of Jammu

and Kashmir state that revealed interesting records of the genus

Pomphorhynchus from Cyprinus, Oreinus and Tor in Kashmir. Fotedar and

Dhar (1974a) reported Gangesia jammuensis from fresh water fish in Jammu

and (1974b) described a Dactylogyrid trematode Neoallocreadium from

Schizothorax niger. They (1974c) described a new species of the trematode

genus Allocreadium from Schizothorax niger and (1977 a) recorded four

species of Neoechinorhynchus Hamann, 1892 from seven different fishes of

Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh areas of the State. Fotedar and Dhar (1977b)


40

described four new species of the genus Pomphorhynchus Monticelli, 1905

from the freshwater fishes of Jammu and Kashmir, these were

Pomphorhynchus oriental, Pomphorhynchus jammuensis, Pomphorhynchus

megacanthus and Pomphorhynchus tori. They (1977c) described 5 new species

of the genus Pomphorhynchus from the fresh water fishes of Jammu and

Kashmir and (1977d) described the infection of Rhabdochona in the fishes of

Jammu and Kashmir. He (1979) reported Procamallanus (Monospiculus)

kashmirensis sp. nov. from freshwater fish, Wallago attu from Jammu Two

new spp. of Diplozoon Nordman, 1832 were described by Fotedar and

Parveen from the fishes of Kashmir in 1987.

Dhar (1975 -1992) worked on helminthological fauna of fresh water

fishes. The author in (1975) reported a new spp. Astiotrema fotedari

(Trematoda) from the intestine or Lobeo dero (Hemilton) and redescribed it

in 1978. The author in 1978 redescribed metacercarial form of Clinostomum

shizothoraxi Kaw, 1950. In 1979 (a, b) the author along with Fotedar reported

Procamallanus (Monspiculus) kashmirensis sp. nov. from Wallago attu, a fresh

water fish of Jammu., and some Proteocephalid cestodes from fresh water

fishes of Jammu and Kashmir state. India, which include Gangesia (Vermaia)

jammuensis Fotedar and Dhar 1974, Gangesia (Gangesia) lucknowi Singh 1948;

Gangesia (Gangesia) kashmirensis (n.sp); Proleocephalus torolosus Batsch 1786.

Dhar (1980) gave the redescription of Proteocephalus torulosus Batch, 1786

from Cyprinid fish of Kashmir. Dhar and Kharoo (1981) described a

trematode Allocreadidae from the intestine of fresh water fish Schizothorax

niger. Dhar and Kharoo (1984a) recorded Allocreadium fotedari sp. novo

(Allocrcadiidae Stossich, 1903) from the intestine of Schizothorax niger. In

1984b they recorded Neoechinorhynchus glyptosternumi sp. nov.

(Acanthocephala) from the intestine of a fresh water fish Glyptosternum. In


41

1986, the authors studied the genus Clinostomum Leidy, 1956 and the

abundance of C. schizothoraxi, Kaw from some fresh water fishes of

Kashmir. Dhar and Anwari (1982) described Rhabdochona Railliet, 1916

(Nematoda) from a brown trout Salmo trutta fario which was a new host

record for this nematode. Dhar and Majidah (1983) described Gangesia

fotedari sp.nov. from a freshwater fish in Wular Lake. Dhar and Raina (1983)

obtained few specimens of Proteocephalus kashmerensis sp. nov. from the

intestine of a freshwater fish, Nemachilus kashmirensis (Hora) from Murran

(Pulwama) and Telbal streams. Dhar (1986) embodies a he1mintho1ogica1

report of Ptyohobarous rattanis, a freshwater fish recovered from various fast

moving mountainous rivers of Ladakh. Dhar and Kharoo (1986) studied

metacercarial forms of genus Clinostomum from gill, gill covers and body

surface of freshwater fishes of Kashmir and drafted an updated list of

species of Clinostomum described from Indian region. Dhar and Jayshree

(1986) investigated the entire course of the river Jhelum. Around 500 fish

hosts representing 3 families, three genera and six species were examined

and their parasites were described. Dhar and Majidah (1987) studied the

fish parasitization by helminths in Wular Lake. Dhar and Peerzada (1989)

studied the seasonal variations in helminth parasites infecting snow trout S.

niger. Dhar and Peerzada (1992) studied seasonal variation in the

occurrence and maturation of Adenoscolex oreini Fotedar, 1958 infecting

some Cyprinid fishes of Wular lake.

Chishti and Bakhshi (1989) reported a new spp. of genus

Pomphorhnchus Monticelli 1905; viz.; Pomphorhynchus fotedari from Cyprinus

carpio communis and in 1992 reported Rhabdochona gupti sp. nov. from the

intestine of fresh water fish Cyprinus carpio specularis of Kashmir. Chishti

and Peerzada (1995) worked out seasonal occurrence of Diplozoon spp. of


42

Wular fishes. Chishti and Peerzada (1998) studied the seasonal occurrence

of Acanthocephala in fishes of Wular lake; in which they studied the

prevalence, recruitment of infection and the distribution of parasites.

Chishti et al. (2003) worked out the pathology of Adenoscolex Fotedar, 1958

infecting Schizothorax spp. and an obvious damage was recorded.

Fayaz and Chishti (1994) studied the trematode parasites of fishes of

Kashmir. Both authors (1996, 1998) made histological studies on a

Caryophyllidean cestode belonging to the Genus Adenoscolex infecting fresh

water fishes of Kashmir. They (1997) studied the Caryophyllidean cestode

parasites of fishes in Kashmir. Both (1999) recorded three species of

trematode parasites belonging to Diplozoon Nordmann, 1832 from

Schizothorax niger, S. esocinus and Carassius carassius from Anchar and Dal

lakes in Kashmir. The same researchers (2000) reported two species of

Clinostomum Leidy, 1856 from Carassius carrassius and Schizothorax niger

from Anchar and Manasbal lakes in Kashmir, one of which namely C. shafii

was new to science. He with his coassociates (2003) carried out the

microbial studies of the fishes belonging to the gems Schizothorax in four

seasons. He along with other workers (2004) carried out a thorough

helminthological study of the fishes of two freshwater lakes - Manasbal and

Anchar.

Jahan et al. (2000) reported for the first time the Pseudophyllidean

cestode Bothriocephalus (Rudolphi; 1808) from fishes of Kashmir valley. She

along with other researchers (2003) studied the histology of a fish helminth

parasite Diplozoon.


43

4.3. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution

In view of the nature of the present study, it became imperative to

cover the aspects of the literature concerning fish, parasitism and pollution

and the interrelationships thereof. The stimulating work and investigations

on the problem of pollution and parasitism which forms the subject matter

of the present study is briefly reviewed. For keeping continuity of different

aspects the review is presented under four sub-headings viz.,

4.3.1. Fish Biology

4.3.2. Fish Parasitism

4.3.3. Fish and Pollution

4.3.4. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution

4.3.1. Fish Biology

This part of review incorporates the work done on the fish and its

biology. As Kashmir falls under temperate climatic zone, its fish fauna also

differs from the rest of the country, which necessitated reviewing the fish

biology.

Heckel (1838) identified 16 species of fishes from the Kashmir region

and found them entirely different from those in the plains of India. Day

(1878) listed 18 species from Kashmir.

Le Cren (1951) described mathematically the relationship between

length and weight, primarily as indicators of fatness, general wellbeing,

gonad development etc. Hora (1955) and Menon (1962) studied the

evolution of Schizothoracines and concluded that they appeared during the

first interglacial period, when turbulent streams formed in Central Asia,

necessitating the reduction of scales which is characteristic of

Schizothoracines. Menon (1971) gave taxonomy of fishes of the genus

Schizothorax Heckel with the description of a new species from Kumaon


44

Himalayas. Menon et al. (2000) Presented eco status of coldwater fish and

fisheries.

Das and Subla (1963) provided a list of 36 species found in lakes,

rivers, wetlands and snow fed streams of Kashmir. Das and Subla (1963),

Fotedar and Qadri (1974) and Sunder et al. (l979) reported that the

introduction of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) during mid- fifties in

Kashmir predominated over the indigenous fish population

(Schizothoracids).

Malhotra (l966) worked out the probable factors influencing the

spawning of Schizothorax niger in Dal lake, Kashmir and found temperature

followed by light having no dependence on rainfall or flood. Jan and Das

(1970) categorised species of Schizothorax and Oreinus as herbivorous fishes,

as most of their food (65-70%) consisted of phytoplankton. Henry (1970)

gave data on the population size, rates of growth, standing stock,

production and yield for three years of all year classes of salmon and trout

within three sections of a stream in Scotland. Subla and Das (1970) reported

the lower percentage of animal food in the diet of Schizothorax and Oreinus.

Subla and Sunder (1981) found exponential value for 'b' equal to value of

2.784 of mirror carp in river Jhelum. In case of Cyprinus carpio communis the

regression coefficient was found to be equal to 3.045.

Tesch (1971) described that the length–weight relationship in fishes

is affected by a number of factors including season, habitat, gonad

maturity, sex, diet and stomach fullness, health and preservation

techniques. Sehgal (1974) started experimentation with collection and

artificial fertilization of eggs from Schizothorax planifrons, S. curvifrons and S.

plagiostomus. In 1988, he considered eight species of fish to be of commercial

importance in the northwestern Himalayas. In l990, the author illustrated

experimental fishing during 1985-87 in the river Beas. The average size of


45

brown trout and S. richardsonii was 88.0 g and 256 g respectively.

Observations, however, did not confirm the suggested adverse impact of

brown trout on endemic species. Sehgal and Sar (1989) and Sehgal (1990)

while investigating the impact of the Beas-Sutlej Link on limnology and

fisheries of the river Beas, studied the food preferences of brown trout and

Schizothorax richardsonii.

Treasurer (1976) worked on age, growth and length weight of brown

trout Salmo trutta (L.). Ferro (1978) and Pradhan (1982) reported that some

high altitude lakes in Nepal are inhabited only by snow trout. Pradhan

(1982) analyzed that Schizothorax spp. is also present in lakes without a

connection to flowing rivers or streams. Pradhan and Swar (1988) found S.

richardsonii in Indrasarobar reservoir on the Kulekhani River in Central

Nepal. Jhingran and Sehgal (1978) gave an account of the spawning

grounds of various Schizothoracids which migrate from river Jhelum and

lakes Dal and Wular during May- July to various tributaries. Vass et al.

(1978) worked on the breeding behaviour of Schizothorax niger and gave a

brief account of the development and reported that S. niger does not show

any spawning migrations and breeds in the shallow areas of the lakes.

Sunder et al. (1979) believed that the endemic Schizothoracines are fast

losing their ground in Kashmir lakes due to the higher fecundity of

common carp and its habit of spawning in confined waters. Sunder and

Subla (1984) reported that in the Jhelum River in Kashmir, Schizothoracines

represented 78% of the total catch during 1980-82. They were of the opinion

that in the river Jhelum the presence of the common carp has had no impact

on Schizothoracines. Sunder (1992) gave review on the biological studies of

Schizothoracids in Jammu and Kashmir state and their cultural possibilities.

Shrestha (1981) reported Schizothorax spp. from rivers and lakes at an

altitude from 784 m to 3323 m in Nepal. Shrestha (1995) concluded that 34


46

fish species (about 18 % of the total reported fish species) are threatened

(endangered -1, rare - 24 and vulnerable - 9).

Fernando (1984) worked on Parakrama Lake, Sri Lanka where an

exotic species tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus was introduced that had

positive effect on the indigenous fish community.

Raina et al. (1985) made a comprehensive survey of various lakes and

streams of Kashmir valley to assess the potentials of Schizothoracids seed.

Various water quality parameters at the spawn collection centres were in

the following ranges; water temperature 9.0-18.0 oC; pH 6.6-7.4; Dissolved

oxygen 8.2-10.6 mg/1; total alkalinity 26 - 100mg/1 and silicates 0.18-0.57

mg/1. ; He along with his coassocites (1986) made a preliminary work for

the culture of Schizothoracids at Srinagar. Different species of Schizothorax

were bred artificially by stripping method. The rate of fertilization varied

between 70-90%. He and Narain (1992) gave the key to the various species

belonging to the genus Schizothorax.

Nath (1986) prepared a check-list of fishes of Jammu and Kashmir

state and for the first time included as many as 42 species from Kashmir.

Lubinski et al. (1986) found high number of common carp in upper

Mississippi river and worked out its adverse effect on the native fish.

Swar and Gurung (1988) evaluated a 42% reduction of the native fish

Mystus spp. and Puntius spp. after introduction of Bighead carp

(Aristichthys nobilis), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), and grass carp

(Ctenopharyngodon idella) in Lake Begnas in Pokhara Valley. Kumar (1988)

reported that common carp contributed 22-35% to the total catch between

1975 and 1984 Gobindsagar Reservoir but with the increase in silver carp

there was a decline in common carp.

Sharma (1989) found that Snow trout preferred rapids and pools of

large torrential streams fed by snow-melt with water temperature from 8oC


47

to 22oC. He reported 28 species of snow trout in the himalayan and sub-

himalayan regions including Tibet, China and Pakistan.

Rai (1990) while working Indrasarobar reservoir of the Kulekhani

river in central Nepal analyzed that Schizothorax richardsonii has declined in

catches from 2% to 0.98%. In 2002 with other workers presented the status

of snow trout in Nepal. Misra et al. (1990) presented a model weighted

procedure for analysing fish condition.

Christopher and David (1991) evaluated seasonal variation in catch

rate (catch per unit effort, CPUE) and body condition (relative weight, Wr)

for northern pike Esox lucius, black crappie Pomoxis nigromaculatus, yellow

perch Perca flavescens and walleye Stizostcdion vitreum sampled with trap

(modified fyke) nets in Lake Madison, South Dakota. Pandit (1991) reported

Cyprinus carpio communis to be the fair fish type in Nowgam, Haigam,

Mirgund and Hokarsar, while Cyprinus carpio specularis was found limited

to Mirgund and Hokarsar.

Yousuf and Pandit (1992) investigated breeding biology of

Schizothorax niger. Same researcher with his coassociates (1992) conducted

studies on the length-weight relationship in some cyprinid fish in Manasbal

lake, Kashmir. He (1995) worked on the nutritional regime and is impact on

the fishes of Anchar lake, Kashmir. He (1996) presented compiled

information on fishery resources of Kashmir. He along with Pandit (1996)

worked on the embryonic and post embryonic developmental process of

the Schizothorax niger in the laboratory. He in association with Firdous

(1997) studied food spectrum of crucian carp, Carassius carassius in Anchar

lake, Kashmir. He (2000) investigated the impact of man on fish diversity in

Kashmir.

Pandit et al. (1992) presented morphology and morphometry of the

Schizothorax niger and redescribed the species in the light of additional


48

information. Shrestha (1995) described 22 species as rare and 26 species as

pristine rare fish species. Shrestha and Khanna (1979) suggested that the

spawning season of Schizothorax richardsonii from Nepal waters depends

upon suitable extroceptive factors, e.g., photoperiod, temperature, pH flood

etc. In 1997 worked on population of snow trout and observed that snow

trouts are less affected by damming the rivers of nepal as they made a

small-scale migration to tributaries to breed in clear and cool water and

returned to the main stream during the low flow period.

Andrew (1995) reviewed selected software applications which are

either currently available, under development, or which may serve as

inspiration for future development of appropriate applications in the fields

of fish health. Deepak and Ramesh (1995) read scales from specimens of a

himalayan teleost Schizothorax richardsonii from the Alaknanda hillstream in

the Garhwal Himalayas for age determination and calculation of growth

parameters.

Martin (1996) described the length/weight relationships for 16

species of common freshwater fishes from the headwater streams of the

Segama river, East Malaysia. Common regression equations are given. Farr

et al. (1996) found that the Sunbleak which was deliberately introduced at

two lakes in southern England with other fish species from Europe, had

spread rapidly. This success they attributed partly to the result of Sunbleak

life history characteristics, including reproductive behaviour (batch

spawner, nest guarder), early sexual maturity and an unusually small adult

size for a cyprinid.

Rajbanshi (1996) endorses the general view of sharp depletion of fish

stocks in many water bodies around densely populated areas and

development projects in Nepal. Anderson and Neumann (1996) provided a

comprehensive review of body condition indices.


49

Langeland and Pederson (2000) analysed the population dynamics of

brown trout in Lake Songsjoen using cohort-analysis. Ulugbek (2000)

provided brief data on the distribution, morphology, biology and way of

life of the fishes inhabiting rivers located in Chatkal Biosphere Reserve.

Janica et al. (2000) presented a model to determine the effect of growth

conditions on the age and size-structure of fish populations. Tzeng et al.

(2000) studied the age and growth of Japanese eels collected during their

downstream spawning migration.

Harrison (2001) described and presented the length - weight

relationship of 83 fish species representing 31 families captured in South

African estuaries. Hoffmann and Fischer (2001) examined the seasonal

changes in the abundance and age structure of the stone loach and burbot

populations in the littoral of lake Constance, Germany. Same authors (2003)

studied impact of temperature on food intake and growth in juvenile

burbot.

Lizama and Ambrosio (2002) described the condition factor for nine

species of tropical freshwater fish of the Characidae family in the upper

Parana river floodplain. Moutopoulos and Stergiou (2002) presented the

relationships between total (TL), fork(FL) and standard (SL) length for 37

fish species and the relationships between TL and wet weight for 40 fish

species from the Aegean Sea (Cyclades; Greece). Lorenzo (2002) studied

age, growth, reproduction and mortality of Striped seabream, Lithognathus

mormyrus L. (n = 731) caught from the Canary Islands.

Gazala (2003) studied different biological aspects Schizothorax

curvifrons belonging to family Schizothoracidae and Cyprinus carpio

communis belonging to family Cyprinidae. The data regarding the catch

composition in the commercial catches, length -weight relationship,

condition factors, feeding biology and feeding competition of the two fish


50

species was presented. Godo (2003) discussed major causes of variation in

stock and abundance of north-east Arctic cod. Rodolphe et al. (2003)

examined the length-weight relationships and age of the non-indigenous

cyprinid, Sunbleak (Leucaspius delineatus) to highlight the potential threat to

native 0+ cyprinids. Valle et al. (2003) presented Weight–length

relationships for 24 species of the western Mediterranean Sea (Spain).

Koutrakis and Tsikliras (2003) gave length–weight relationship values for

43 freshwater, estuarine and marine fish species collected from three

northern Aegean estuarine systems.

Sinovcic (2004) examined growth and length- weight relationships of

juvenile specimens of anchovy, Engraulis encrasicolus (Linnaeus, 1758) in the

Zrmanja river estuary. Sinovcic et al. (2004) described Length–weight and

length–length relationships for 10 small, middle-size and large pelagic fish

species from the Adriatic Sea. Gonzalez (2004) estimated the relation

between length (L) and weight (W) for 33 species representing 14 families

of fishes from El Conchalito mangrove swamp, Gulf of California (Mexico).

Mendes et al. (2004) estimated Weight–length (W–L) relationships for 46

species of fish captured of the western Portuguese coast. Bartulovic (2004)

investigated the age, growth, mortality and morphometry of the sand

smelt, Atherina boyeri, in the Mala Neretva River estuary (mid-eastern

Adriatic Sea). Filiz and Bilge (2004) presented Length–weight relationship

parameters of the form W = a Lb for 24 fish species from the North Aegean

Sea. King and Etim (2004) studied the biology and fisheries of Tilapia mariae,

the only Tilapiine cichlid fish in the Iba Oku (Uyo, Nigeria) wetland stream.

Moata et al. (2005) analyzed the growth of young common carp

(Cyprinus carpio) in the Deroua fisheries station (Morocco). Craig et al. (2005)

determined the length–weight relationship of lake sturgeon caught from


51

the St Clair River (SCR) system. Analysis of covariance found no difference

in the length–weight relationship between sampling gear or sex.

Nilsson and Persson (2005) investigated the abundance of stone

loach (Barbatula barbatula, L.) and related it to the presence of brown trout

(Salmo trutta, L.) and in stream habitat variables. The results showed that

large trout tended to have negative effects on final stone loach biomass.

Oscoz et al. (2005) reported on weight–length relationships (WLR) for Salmo

trutta (Linnaeus, 1758), Phoxinus phoxinus (Linnaeus, 1758), Chondrostoma

Chondrostoma miegii (Steindachner, 1866), Barbus graellsii (Steindachner,

1866), Barbatula barbatula (Linnaeus, 1758) and Gobio gobio (Linnaeus, 1758).

Shaheena et al. (2005) reported on the catch composition of fishes of

Dal Lake. Eight species contributed to the catch out of which Cyprinus carpio

alone formed about 70% and Schizothoracine group formed about 14%.

Quist et al. (2005) approached hierarchical faunal filters and assessed effects

of habitat and non native species on native fishes, especially for those

species at the edge of their natural distribution. Wilde and Sawynok (2005)

studied growth and total mortality of Australian bass, Macquaria

novemaculeata Steindachner, in four freshwater impoundments using data

from a cooperative angler tagging programme.

Bhat et al. (2006) studied ecology of fish in Wanghat Nallah, a

tributary of Sindh stream. Water was found soft in the upstream of the

Wanghat barrage, while below it the water in the wanghat nallah as well as

the Sindh stream was hard. Nine fish species were recorded in the study

area. They reported that the distribution and dominance of the various fish

species varied from place to place in the stream.


52

4.3.1. Fish Parasitism

This part of the review deals with the investigations done by various

scientists and workers on the parasites and their effect on the health of fish

fauna.

Cross (1935) showed that a reduction occurred in the weight and

length of perch parasitized with species of adult tapeworms, when

compared to normal unparasitized fish.

Miller (1945) showed that plerocercoids of Triaenophorus crassus

affected the growth of both whitefish and tullibe Leucichthys sp. in lesser

Slave Lake, Canada.

Dombroski (1955) reported that the infected smolts were smaller

than the uninfected fish, sockeye smolts from Babine Lake, British

Columbia.

Pitt and Grundmann (1957) studied the effects of parasitism on the

normal growth of yellow perch by the plerocercoid larvae of Ligula

intestinalis. The incidence of infection appeared to increase with age as 1.4%

of the one year old fish, 7.0% of the two year, 18.5% of the three year, 25.4%

of the four year; and 24.0 % of the five year age group were found infected.

Comparison of parasitized and unparasitized fish of the same age groups

indicated a marked stunting effect on growth following infection.

Chauhan and Ramakrishna (1958) reported fish mortality by Cestode

cysts in stocking tank at Nagpur, India.

Dobson (1961) showed that the ecological factors like the diet, sex

and age of the hosts play a definite role on the susceptibility of nematode

infection.

Bauer and Nikolskaya (1961) studied the parasitic fauna of Coregonus

lavaretus (L.) from Lake Ladoga and percentage infection of Echinorhynchus


53

salmonis (Muller, 1780) in whitefish was noted. Fewer male E. clavula were

found than females.

Bullock (1963) studied the histopathology of Acanthocephalans and

Clinostomatic metacercaria infecting the fishes. He stated that

Acanthocephalus jacksoni can be highly pathogenic for brook trout and

rainbow trout in culture and found it responsible for causing necrotic

haemorrhagic ulcers.

Rai (1966) discussed the pathogenic significance of the

Proteocephalidan and Bothriocephalidan tapeworm parasites reported from

Siluroid freshwater fishes, representing four species viz, Proteocephalus

vitellaris, Vermaia pseudotropii, Gangesia bengalensis and Senga lucknawensis.

Williams and Richards (1968) observed cellular infiltration in Raja

radiata infected by Pseudanisakis rotundata. Williams et al. (1970) reviewed

the distribution of helminths in the digestive tracts of fishes inhabiting

different riverine and pond ecosystems.

Fischer and Freeman (1969) found that the pleurocercoids of

Proteocephalus ambloptis secrete a histolytic secretion which aids in

penetration, and change in shape and shifting of entrance of the nematode

and suggested that this was temporary and the adjacent cells would restore

their originality in due course.

Wilson (1971) showed a decline in the number of roach over a period

of study, and he linked this decline to a heavy infestation of Ligula

intestinalis (L.).

Pennycuick (1971a) observed poor body condition delayed ovarian

maturation in female three-spined stickleback due to parasitism. He (1971b)

quantified the effect of three species of parasites on a population of three-

spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus. He (1971c) observed seasonal


54

variation in the parasite infections in a population of three-spined

sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus (L.).

Mackiewiez et al. (1972) studied the relationship of pathology to

scolex morphology of Caryophyllid cestodes from a cyprinoid fish of North

America.

Bauer et al. (1973) found that the heavily infected fish with swollen

abdomen, become sluggish, emaciated and cease to feed. Bauer and

Karimov (1990) studied patterns of parasitic infections of Schizorhorax

intermedius in two water bodies of North Tadjikistan (Central Asia), one

with constant temperature during the whole year; the other with normal

annual seasonal range of temperature fluctuations. Bauer et al. (2002)

provided a brief overview of the status of knowledge on parasites and

diseases in sturgeons in Russia, their occurrence and distribution.

Hine and Kennedy (1974 a,b) studied the distribution, specificity and

pathogenicity of the Acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis (Muller) in the

River Avon, Hampshire.

Kalman et al. (1974) examined fish for parasites. 84 species of

parasites (22 of Protozoa, 24 of Monogenea, 17 of Digenea, 11 of Cestoda, 4

of Nematoda, 1 of Hirudinea, 1 of glochidia, and 4 of Crustacea) were

collected and are listed and discussed. Kalman (2002) redescribed and

carried out histopathology of Myxobolus cyprinicola Reuss, 1906, an

Intestinal Parasite of the Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).

Boyce (1974) studied the lifecycle of adult Eubothrium salvelini, a

parasite of juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) Babine Lake. He

along with Yamada (1977) carried laboratory experiments and found that

sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka, smolts with preexisting parasitization

by the intestinal pseudophyllidean cestode Eubothrium salvelini were more

susceptible to zinc poisoning than unparasitized siblings. He (1979) found


55

that the Parasitism had a deleterious effect on the growth, survival, and

swimming performance of the fish. He in association with Clarke (1983)

found impaired seawater adaptation of migrant sockeye salmon yearlings

(Oncorhynchus nerka) infected with Eubothrium salvelini from Babine Lake,

British Columbia.

Eure (1976) worked out the seasonal abundance of Neoechinorhynchus

cy1indratus. Incidence of infection for this parasite was generally greater

than 95% regardless of location.

Ahmad and Sona Ullah (1979) found pathological effects on the

intestines on Clarias batrachus induced by Caryophyllid cestodes causing

lesions in them.

Bell et al. (1980) illustrated the prevalence and intensity of Capillaria

catostomi (Nematoda; Trichuroidea) infecting white suckers.

Borowiec et al. (1981) investigated three fish families: Clupeidae,

Cyprinidae and Percidae. The parasites found belong to the groups

Monogenea, Trematoda, Cestoda, Nematoda, Acanthocephala and

Crustacea. The fishes investigated were slightly infected, but suitable for

consumption.

Thatcher (1983) presented the mode of attachment of

Linguadactyloides brinkmanni gen. et sp. novo from the gills of fresh water

fish Collossoma macropomum (Cuvier) (Characidae), from Janauaca lake in

Brazil and associated pathology of the parasite.

Lemly and Esch (1984) monitored prevalence, intensity and effect of

Uvulifer ambloplitis (Trematoda) on population of juvenile Blue gill sunfish,

Lepomis macrochirus enlarged Mouth bass Macropterus salmoides.

Raina and Koul (1984) worked on the histopathology of

Neoechinorhynchus hutchinsoni infection in Nemachilus kashmirensis.


56

Pool and Chubb (1985) presented Scanning Electron

Microphotographs of scolex of Bothriocephalus acheilognathi Yamaguti, 1934.

Zaman and Seng (1986) carried out studies on the histopathological

effects on the intestines of cat fish, Clarias batrachus and C. macrocephalus

infected by the Caryophyllid cestode Djombangia penetrans Bovien, 1926.

Smith and Cramer (1987) compared surface use and survival of

parasitized and nonparasitized ninespine sticklebacks (Pungitius pungitius)

at different levels of dissolved oxygen.

Szalai and Dick (1987) recorded intestinal pathology and site

specificity of Neocchinorhynchus carpiodi Dechtiar, 1968 in quillback,

Carpiodes Cyprinus (Lesuer).

Riggs and Esch (1987) studied the abundance, dispersion and

prevalence of Pseudophyllidean Cestode, Bothriocephalus acheilognathi in

mosquito fish.

Sinha (1987) studied the pathogenecity of Genarchopsis goppo (Ozaki)

(Trematode) on the stomach wall of fresh water fish Channa gachua (Ham.).

Kalantan et al. (1987) studied the seasonal incidence and

pathogenecity of metacercariae Clinostomum complanutum in Aphanuis

dispar.

Dobson (1988) reviewed the ability of parasites to change the

behavior of infected hosts.

Silan and Maillard (1989) classified several aspects of Serranicotyle

labracis, ectoparasite of Teleostei and observed the behaviour of the hosts,

maturity and sex as main factors determining the extent of infestation.

Rahkonen and Valtonen (1989) studied Crepidostomum spp. from

whitefish (Coregonus acronius Rapp, 1854), vendace (Coregonus albula L.) and

Brown trout (Salmo trutta m. lacustris (L.)) from Lake Yli-Kitka in

northeastern Finland during 1980-1983. 12.7% of the whitefish were


57

infected with Crepidostomum with a mean intensity of 4.6 worms per

infected fish.

Chakravorty and Tandon (1989) studied the extent of damage to the

intestine caused by Caryophillid cestode Lytocestus indicus, Djombangia

penetrans and by multipe infections containing several species of

Caryophillid in the cat fish Clarias batrachus L.

Karimov (1989) studied the peculiarities of the infection of

Schizothorax intermedius with Paradiplozoon schizothoraxi in connection with

sexual maturity and egg production.

Wanstall et al. (1990) investigated the distribution of Pomphorhynchus

zaevis in the alimentary canal of naturally infected stone roach. Younger

fishes were less often and less heavily infected in terms of number of

parasites with the parasites being larger in older fish.

Dezfuli et al. (1990) studied the histopathology developed in the sand

smelt Atherina boyeri Risso, 1810 from Northern Italy as the result of a

natural infection by Telosentis exiguus Von Linstow 1901 (Acanthocephala).

In 1991, he studied and described the histopathology in Leuciscus cephalus

Risso, 1826 from the River Po, naturally infected with the acanthocephalan

Pomphorhynchus laevis Muller, 1776. He along with Rossi(1991) studied

infections by the acanthocephalan Telosentis exiguus (Von Linstow, 1901)

and another unknown acanthocephalan in the sand smelt Atherina boyeri

(Risso, 1810) from the Tirso River mouth in Sardinia. Same researcher in

1992 examined the sheatfish, Silurus glanis (L.), from the terminal part of

River Po for the presence of helminth parasites. He (1996) found Cypria

reptans (Crustacea: Ostracoda) as an intermediate host of Neoechinorhynchus

rutili (Acanthocephala: Eoacanthocephala) in Italy. He and his associates

(1997) studied histopathology of the alimentary canal of Anguilla anguilla L.

associated with digenetic trematodes with the help of light and Electron


58

microscope. He and his coworkers (1998a) described rodlet cells from

alimentary canal of Anguilla anguilla and studied their relationship with

parasitic helminths. He along with his coassociates (2000) investigated

Immuno- histochemical detection of neuromodulators in the intestine of

Salmo trutta L. naturally infected with Cyathocephalus truncatus Pallas

(Cestoda). He along with his coresearchers (2001) studied species co-

occurrences and interspecific associations between intensity of infection in

helminth communities of three populations of brown trout, Salmo trutta,

from northern Italy. In 2002, carried out immunohistochemical and

pathological studies on the digestive tract of parasitized and uninfected

specimens of Salmo trutta (L.). The researchers (2004) conducted

immunohistochemical and histopathological studies on a population of 3-

spined sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus (L.) from Loch Airthrey (Stirling,

Scotland) naturally infected with the microsporean Glugea anomala.

Thoney and Hargis (1991) discussed different aspects of

monogenean infestation, associated pathology, and prevention or

treatments.

Albert and Curtis (1991) worked on prevalence and abundance of

helminth parasites in an intensive fish population of brook trout Salvelinus

fontinalis at a small subarctic lake. The seasonal population dynamics of

Paraquimperia tenerrina Linstow (Nematode) was studied.

Willer et al. (1991) worked on the histopathology of the swim

bladder of Cisco Coregoniia artedii, due to the presence of nematode

Cystidicola farionics.

Sharp et al. (1992) made analyses on the development of the

inflammatory response of rainbow trout to experimental infections with

Diphyllobothrium dendriticum plerocercoids using light and electron

microscopy.


59

Castro (1992) reported that the gut dwelling endoparasitic helminths

often induce changes in the morphology of host intestinal tissue and can

cause an internal stress that leads to modification of the structure and

function of local tissues.

Trejo (1992) studied some aspects of the host-parasite relationships

of Pomphorhynchus patagonicus (Acanthocephala) in 2 fish species from Lake

Rosario (Chubut, Argentina). Trejo (1994) analyzed the Prevalence,

intensity, size of the Acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus patagonicus in 3

species of fish in the Alicura Reservoir (Patagonia, Argentina). He

attributed relatively low prevalence and intensity to the low consumption

of the intermediate host, Hyalella patagonica.

Hartvigsen and Kennedy (1993) studied patterns in the composition

and richness of helminth communities in brown trout, Salmo trutta, in 10

resevoirs of broadly similar age and characteristics situated close to each

other in a well defined region of south west England.

Garcia et al. (1993) studied prevalence of parasitic trematode and

their pathology in fishes from the lakes of Mexico.

Roubal (1993) studied the comparative histopathology of Longicollum

(Acanthocepha1a: Pomphorhynchidae) infecting the alimentary tract and

spleen of Acanthoparus australis (Pisces: Sparidae). He (1995) described

microhabitat, attachment of eggs and histopathology of Allomurraytrema

robustum (Monogenea) on Acanthopagrus australis (Pisces). In 1998 observed

that Acanthopagrus australis showed higher abundance with

Prototransversotrema steeri in winter and nine in summer while

Transversotrema licinum showed large abundance in A. austrailis in summer

and winter and lowest abundance in spring.


60

Molnar et al. (1993) studied the histopathology of Nematode,

Anguillicola crassus (Nematoda) in the swim bladder of eels. The infected

bladder showed degeneration, inflammation and proliferation.

Ogawa et al. (1994) reported mortality among Amberjack Seriola

dumerili imported to Japan caused by a blood fluke Paradeontacylie.

Parasitological examination revealed the accumulation of parasitic eggs in

the afferent arteries of the gills of dead fish resulting in suffocation.

Belghyti et al. (1994) studied the effect of host age, size, sex,

reproduction, feeding upon the parasite population biology, focusing upon

the host diet. The relationships of length to weight (relative growth) in

unparasitized and parasitized (B. andersi) fish were compared by analysis of

covariance.

Hoole and Misan (1994) studied the pathology of B. acheilognathi

Yamaguti 1934 on the gut of an experimentally infected carp, C. campro.

There had been a loss of gut microvilli and separation and shedding of

enterocysts occurred against the sight of attachment when seen under light

and electron microscope.

Honma (1995) analyzed profileration of fibrous connective tissues

and concentration of melanocytes, acidophilic granulocytes and

macrophages in the infected portion of the intestine mucosa and the

intestinal epithelium was also destroyed in Stickleback pungitius pungitius

which was infected by Echigoensis Fajita 1920 (Acanthocephala).

Dorucu et al. (1995) examined Brown trout (Salmo trutta) and

rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), obtained from 21 locations in Central

Scotland found different endoparasitic helminth infections. The prevalences

and intensities of each helminth infection were recorded. Fish with the

highest worm burdens (e.g. 339 Plerocercoids of Diphyllobothrium spp.)

evidenced no morbidity. He (2000) investigated the relationship between


61

helminth infections, nutrient reserves and gonadal status in Powan,

Coregonus lavaretus in relation to infection with Diphyllobothrium spp from

Loch Lomond, Scotland, UK. Powan infected with the Cestode has less

protein and lipids in the gonads, showing that infection has a deleterious

effect on reproduction. It was concluded that fish in good condition had

high protein content in their gonads.

Konovalov (1995) reviewed the applicability of parasites as

indicators of host biology, with special reference to Oncorhynchus nerka

under the headings: fish parasites as ecological indicators at the

subpopulation level; parasite indicators and extinct ichthyofauna; parasites

and their population dynamics in host populations.

Tierney et al. (1996) reported that S. solidus had a differential,

deleterious effect on the body condition of three-spined stickleback.

Barber (1997) described a morphometric technique used to predict

the infection status and parasite index of the fish, The technique is non-

invasive and employs photograph. He along with Ruxton (1998) studied

the foraging success of three-spined sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus,

infected with plerocercoids of a cestode, Schistocephalus solidus, in

competition with uninfected conspecifics. He (2001) identified the temporal

changes in the behaviour of experimentally infected sticklebacks, compared

with uninfected control fish, and related this to the developmental stage

and growth of the parasite. Researcher along with Svensson (2003) in one

laboratory experiment found that female three-spined stickleback infected

by Schistocephalus solidus had significantly lower perivisceral lipid stores

and significantly larger ovaries than the controls at the end of the

experiment.

Poulin (1997) examined the relationship between the host specificity

of parasite and the richness of the assemblages in which they occur among


62

the parasite faunas of Canadian freshwater fishes. He (1999) studied the

biological and statistical causes of variation in the intra specific relationship

between fish length and intensity of parasitic infection. He (2000) provided

a clearer overall picture of size-dependent (or age-dependent) patterns of

parasitic infections in fish. Poulin and Valtonen (2001) investigated the pair

wise associations among larval helminth species in eight different fish

populations. He along with Valtonen (2002) tested the repeatability of

parasite community structure in space, and to a lesser extent time, with

data on helminth parasites of two fish species, perch Perca fluviatilis and

roach Rutilus rutilus, collected in different seasons from four adjacent lakes

in Central Finland. He and his associates (2003) investigated the effect of

four helminth species commonly found in trout, Salmo trutta, in northern

Italy. Results illustrated the importance of considering helminth

interactions and helminth growth in a natural setting.

Kedra (1997) provided a description of fish condition indices

together with the formula for calculating them, and examples of their

application in parasitological studies.

Janovy et al. (1997) reported population and community descriptor

values (parasites per host, prevalence per parasite species, variance/mean

ratios, species density, and diversity indices) for the 7-species parasite

community of 61 relatively homogeneous samples of Fundulus zebrinus

(Pisces: Cyprinodontidae) in the South Platte river of Nebraska, U.S.A.

Aloo and Dezfuli (1997) sampled and examined fish for helminth

parasites. The prevalence of infection due to cystacanths of an

Acanthocephalan, Polyacanthorhynchus kenyensis Schmidt et Canaris, 1967

among parasitized O. leucostictus ranged from 30.4 to 86.9%; among T. zillii

from 4.1 to 77.7%; in M. salmoides from 20 to 50%; and in B. amphigrama from

5.8 to 100%.


63

Fairweather (1997) studied the anatomical changes induced by

enteric parasites and related them with biochemical and physiological

changes.

Robinson et al. (1998) assessed the relationship among fish health,

eukaryotic parasites, bacterial and viral infections of the reintroduced

endangered Xyrauchen Texanus and Ptychocheilus lucius into river Vedre,

Arizona, USA.

Zelmar and Aria (1998) examined the independent effects of host age

and size on parasite abundance in yellow perch. The abundance of

Diplostomum adamsi and Bothriocephaus spp.were both found to increase

with the host age. Their transmission was not found to be affected by host

size.

Nasira et al. (1998) studied the histopathological changes in the

stomach of fish Murainisox cinereus Forsk, 1775 infected with a trematode

Stomachicola muraenesocis Yamaguti, 1934. The investigations confirmed the

destruction or damage of mucosal layer and serosa of the stomach.

Krik and Lewis (1998) studied the histopathological response of the

Carp Cyprinus carpio to Sanguinicola inermis. It was seen that the juvenile

flukes and adult caused mechanical damage to tissue during invasion and

migration. Epithelial tissues also showed necrosis, hyperplasia,

haemorrhage and eosinophilia.

Dove (1998) studied the impact of exotic fresh water fishes on the

native fishes of Australia with reference to parasitism and particularly to B.

acheilognathi.

Barus et al. (1999) analysed muscle samples from European eel,

Anguilla anguilla infected or not infected with Anguillicola crassus

(Nematoda) for 5 macroelements and 5 microelements and concluded that


64

mean values of these elements were significantly lower in infected eels than

in uninfected eels.

Radchenko (1999) reported Diphyllobothriasis disease of fishes,

infected with Diphylobothrium latum in the basins large lakes in the

European north of Russia.

Shankar and Ramesh (1999) reported the mortalities of common

Carp fry in Mangalore, which were infected with larval trematode.

Histopathological examination of moribund fish revealed the presence of

encysted metacercaria of Centrocestus spp. in the skin and gills.

Brouder (1999) studied relationship between length of roundtail

chub (Gila robusta) and infection intensity of Asian fish tapeworm

Bothriocepahalus achelognathi and concluded that infection of the parasite

may slow growth, increase sucesptibility to infestation and increase

predation on the host.

Afifi et al. (2000) carried out a histopathological assessement of

different parasites affecting thirty Oreochromis niloticus from fish farms in

Saudi Arabia.

Taraschewski (2000) found pathogenicity of Acanthocephalans due

to density of worms and depth of parasite penetration into the host tissues.

Emere (2000) examined Nile perch, Lates niloticus (L.) from the river

Kadona, Nigeria, for ecto and endoparasites. The prevalance and intensity

of infection were higher for Acanthocephalans and Cestodes in larger fish.

Perez (2000) studied helminth communities of native and introduced fishes

in lake Patzcuaro, Michoacan, Mexico. Lee and Khan (2000) studied the

length weight /age relationship, food and parasites of Atlantic cod (Gadus

morhus). The prevalence and abundance did not differed greatly between

locations either spatially or temporally. Okaka and Koura (2000) studied

the prevalence of helminth parasites infection in six fish species (Salmo


65

gairdneri, Salmo trutta, Thymallus thymallus, Anguila anguila, Gasterosteus

aculeatus, and Cottus gobio) and showed a maximum 100% infection rate in

the salmon fishes and a minimum 25% infection rate in Gasterosteus

aculeatus.

Philip et al. (2001) examined experimentally the effect of an exotic

fluke from guppies on the endangered Gila Topminnow.

Mustafa and Yspir (2001) investigated seasonal variation and

intensity of Diplostomum sp. infection in Acanthobrama marmid Heckel, 1843

caught from Keban Dam Lake. There was a weak correlation between age

and parasite intensity (r=0.227) as well as weight and parasite intensity

(r=0.152).

Saksvik et al. (2001) kept Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar L.,

experimentally infected with marine Eubothrium sp. together with

uninfected salmon in the laboratory for 11 months in two tanks. The

infected fish had a reduced growth rate compared with the uninfected fish.

Tammy and Beth (2001) reviewed the occurrence of Cymothoid

isopod parasitism in aquaculture, and reported the first case of infection by

a cymothoid isopod (Ceratothoa oestroides) in Turkish aquaculture, and

analysed its effects on sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax. Analyses revealed that

C. oestroides negatively affected the weights and lengths of sea bass hosts.

Martins et al. (2001) studied the prevalence and histopathology of

Neoechinorhynchus curemai Noronha, 1973 (Acanthocephala:

Neoechinorhynchidae) from curimbatá, Prochilodus lineatus Valenciennes,

1836.

Yakubu (2002) carried a comparative study of the gut helminths of

Tilapia zilli and Clarias gariepinus from river Uke in Plateau State, Nigeria.


66

Rubio-Godoy and Tinsley (2002) conducted experimental infection of

rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum) with the monogenean

Discocotyle sagittata (Leuckart, 1842) that allowed comparison between

trickle and single exposure, two infection modes demonstrated to occur in

the wild. The results reproduce phenomena observed in the field, indicated

that the experimental infection system could be employed to study

infection dynamics and host-parasite interactions under controlled

conditions. Same authors (2004) experimentally infected Rainbow trout

(Oncorhynchus mykiss) by continuous or single exposure with the

monogenean Discocotyle sagittata to determine whether immunity follows

primary infection.

Barker et al. (2002) conducted study on Winter flounder,

Pseudopleuronectes americanus, in Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick,

Canada and when held in captive under crowded conditions, developed

mixed infections of Trichodina murmanica, Polyanski, 1955 (Ciliophora) and

Gyrodactylus pleuronecti Cone, 1981 (Monogenea). The abundance of both

parasites correlated negatively with condition factor of the flounder

(rà¡0.354, P < 0.001 for Trichodina; rà= -0.205, P < 0.05 for Gyrodactylus). After

a significant decline in parasite infrapopulations (3 weeks postinfection),

infected fish resumed normal growth, indicating the observed effects were

somewhat reversible.

Opara and Okon (2002) determined the parasitic infection rates of

cultured Oreochromis niloticus in earthened pond in South Eastern Nigeria.

Most of the parasites were recovered from the intestine, body, gills, viscera

and skin of the fish.

Ward et al. (2002) investigated the influence of body length and

parasitism on the positioning behaviour of individuals in wild fish shoals


67

by novel means of capturing entire shoals. Differences in the shoaling

behaviour of parasitized and unparasitized fish was discussed in the

context of the adaptive manipulation hypothesis.

Loot (2002) worked on the differential effect of the Pseudophyllidean

cestode, Ligula intestinalis on the growth rates of three fish populations of

the roach, Rutilus rutilus, under field conditions.

Bianca et al. (2003) described a new species of Myxosporea,

Henneguya chydadea, parasitizing the gills of Astyanax altiparanae collected

from a lake on Rio das Pedras farm near Campinas, state of Sao Paulo,

Brazil. Of the fish examined, 88.3% had gills parasitized by myxosporeans

and its histopathology was also worked out.

Vincent and Font (2003) examined population structure and host

specificity of Camallanus cotti and Bothriocephalus acheilognathi in exotic

poeciliids in terms of their potential disease threat to native stream fishes in

Hawaiian freshwaters.

Manera and Dezfuli (2003) examined twenty sea bass Dicentrarchus

labrax L. from a fish farm (floating cage) in Greece for the presence of

parasites. Parasitism by Lernanthropus kroyeri affected the host’s condition

factor (mean ± SE in uninfected vs parasitized; 1.88 ± 0.04 vs 1.66 ± 0.12; p <

0.05).

Al-Bassel (2003) investigated and examined fishes belonging to

seven genera and seven species for helminth parasites. Of these 48% fishes

were found to harbour Acanthocephala (14%), cestodes (16.22%), Digenea

(10.66%), Monogenea (1.77%), or nematodes (6.22%). The species richness

and intensity of infections are given.

Kadlec et al. (2003) investigated the parasite communities of the

freshwater fish species roach (Rutilus rutilus), bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus

amarus) and perch (Perca fluviatilis) during a major flood.


68

Yasutake and Elliott (2003) studied epizootiology and

histopathology of the myxosporean Parvicapsula sp. during monthly health

surveys of 4 groups of coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch.

Leonardos and Trilles (2003) studied parasite-host relationship

between Mothocya epimerica, Costa 1851 (Isopoda: Flabellifera:

Cymothoidae) and sand smelt Atherina boyeri (Osteichthyes: Atherinidae)

fish populations in the Mesolongi and Etolikon Lagoons (W. Greece).

Infections showed no significant effect on the host's body condition, such as

length-weight relationship, gonadosomatic index, hepatosomatic index and

relative condition factor.

Ahangar et al. (2003) studied the histopathological aspect of

Pomphorhynchus species infecting Schizothorax species.

Bakshi et al. (2003) while working on the population dynamics of the

parasites in different seasons, reported that the parasite showed a seasonal

occurrence in prevalence and mean intensity of infection.

Whitfield and Guillen (2004) analysed and compared intestinal

helminth communities in flounder Platichthys flesus from two sites on the

River Thames.

Bagamian et al. (2004) analysed the effect of sex, season and parasite

index on the body condition of adult male and female three-spined

stickleback.

Holland et al. (2004) described the population biology of the fish

Acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus clavula from wild brown trout, and

discussed the possible explanations of very high abundance of A. clavula in

trout.

McCormick and Nickol (2004) determined the relationship of fish

age class to parasitism by Paulisentis missouriensis by sampling creek chubs,


69

Semotilus atromaculatus, from Easly Creek, Richardson County, Nebraska. In

general, mean abundance and prevalence of the Acanthocephalans

increased with the age or length of chubs.

Oniye et al. (2004) studied Clarias gariepinus (Teugels) from Zaria.

The study highlighted the importance of changing feeding habit of C.

gariepinus with age on the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal

parasites, and parasitised male fish have lower condition factor than

unparasitised ones.

Michael and Craig (2004) used field and experimental data to find

the effect of white grub parasites (Diplostomatidae) to White Sands pupfish

(Cyprinodon tularosa), a threatened species.

Cisse and Belghyti (2005) reported the helminth parasites of Chub

Mackerel Scomber japonicus (Houttuyn 1782) from the harbour of Mehdia in

Morocco. Nematodes were the majority of the parasites specimens collected

(53.40%), Anisakis sp. was the dominant species with highest prevalence

(86.67%) and abundance (10.57%).

Silva-Souza and Ludwig (2005) studied the infection, known as

yellow spot disease, produced by metacercariae of Clinostomum spp. in

fishes of the Taquari river, Brazil. Using relative condition factor (Kn)

analysis, it was determined that both infected and non-infected specimens

had a total weight equal to the theoretically expected value for each total

length (Kn = 1.0).

Borucinska and Caira (2006) described lesions associated with two

species of tapeworms within the digestive tract of wild-caught specimens of

the bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, and the sicklefin weasel shark,

Hemigaleus microstoma, from Malaysian Borneo. The severity and character

of pathology was linked to the intensity of infection, the attachment mode


70

of the parasites, and to the anatomophysiological relationships within the

gut of the host shark.

Santos and Brasil-Sato (2006) investigated parasite fauna of one

hundred and thirteen specimens of Franciscodoras marmoratus (Reinhardt,

1874) collected in the upper Sao Francisco River. From this total, 45

(339.88%) were afflicted by at least one parasite species.

Mladineo (2006) revealed high numbers of different Digenean

trematodes, belonging to family Didymozoidae in the first parasitological

examinations of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus thynnus) reared in

the Adriatic Sea Five species were the most frequently isolated:

Coeliodidymocystis, abdominalis, Didymocystis wedli, Koellikerioides in-

ternogastricus, K. intestinalis and K. apicalis. The most notable changes were

observed in the intestine under provocation by K. intestinalis, while the

most potentially pathogenic didymozoid under fish rearing conditions was

D. wedli, which when present in high abundance was found to induce

secondary bacterial infections.

4.3.3. Fish and Pollution

Increasing pollution of rivers and other water bodies has become a

matter of great concern in recent years. This part of the review deals with

the several aspects of water pollution including rapidly increasing use of

fertilizers, pesticides and chemicals that pose a serious threat to aquatic life,

particularly fish.

Alm (1946) discussed in detail the reasons for the stunted growth of

perch in some Swedish waters. Deelder (1951) investigated the stunted

growth of perch in some waters in the Netherlands. Jones and Sujansingani

(1954) estimated the biology of the fishes their distribution in the different

zones of the Chilka lake and the production capacity of the lake as a whole


71

in terms of yield per acre. They listed the fish fauna of the lake, described

its important fisheries and gave an account of the fishing industry of the

lake.

Motwani et al. (1956) found changes in water quality and bottom

condition of the river Sone due to pollution in which the Rohtas Industries,

comprising a number of factories all discharged their that adversely affect

the environmental condition of both the fish and fish food organisms.

Distribution of fish fauna, bottom biota and plankton organisms in these

zones, in relation to physico-chemical condition, has been discussed. Le

Cren (1958) found differences in the growth of year-classes of perch, and

attributed it to the temperature differences. George et al. (1966) made

studies on limnological survey of the river Kali with special reference to

fish mortality.

Screenivasan et al. (1967) studied the effect of certain wastes on the

water quality and fisheries of river Cauvery and Bhavani. Fry (1969)

reviewed the physiological stress on fishes caused by eutrophication and

concluded that reduction of the oxygen content of water is the most

pressing source of stress for fishes in eutrophic lake and that almost all

other stresses are incidental or aggravated by that primary one.

Sehgal (1970) reported trout kill due to the sharp rise of temperature

in the Vishav River, a tributary of the Jhelum during drought conditions in

Kashmir. He along with Sar (1989) studied the interaction between brown

trout and Schizothoracines in the Beas River. They did not find any

evidence of the negative impact of the trout on the endemic. Same

researcher (1992) carried out investigations on the limnology and fisheries

of river Beas consequent to the completion of Beas-Sutlej Link Project.


72

Banerjee and Roychoudhry (1971) described certain physico-

chemical features of the Chilka Lake. An attempt to correlate salinity with

annual fish production has been made. Jensen and Snekvik (1972) noted

declines of salmon and trout populations in southernmost Norway and

related it to the acidification. Svardson and Molin (1973) worked on six

Swedish lakes and found pikeperch yield highest in lakes with highest total

phosphorus content and lowest in lakes with highest water transparency.

The growth of pikeperch was better in turbid and eutrophic waters.

Richard (1976) reported fallout of sulfur oxides to be responsible for

damage to vegetation, lakes and fishes in the Sudbury region or Ontario,

Canada. A high concentration of acid was considered to be the principal

factor stressing the fish populations. Schofield (1976) while working on the

acid precipitation and its effect on fish, reported fish extinction to the

failure of recruitment of new age classes into the population. Egg and fry

mortality was considered the major cause of declining fish population. He

along with Driscoll (1987) related fish species distribution to water quality

gradients in the north branch of the Moose basin.

Davis (1977) worked on the age, length, weight and condition factor

of freshwater catfish, Tandanus tandanus Mitchell. No differences in growth

rates were detected between males and females. The variation in growth

from season to season was not great. The von Bertalanffy and Gompertz

growth equations were used to describe growth in length and weight

respectively.

Solbe (1978) described the formation of the United Kingdoms water

research centre and the role of the centre’s fish section work on the effect of

pollution on freshwater. They have utilized field studies to identify

problems and assessed the relevance of the laboratory derived data. Bhagat


73

et al. (1978) reported fish mortality due to high water temperature, free CO2,

alkalinity and low DO. The author with Sunder (1984) found feeding

activity of the Schizothorax spp. a seasonal phenomena, with maximum

feeding activity in the pre and post spawning period.

Malhotra et al. (1979) attributed size and sex restricted kill of Puntius

conchonius fish mortality to rise in free CO2 in a subtropical lake in Jammu.

He along with his coassociates (1987) embodied the results of the abiotic

parameters of a snowfed torrential stream(Neeru nullah, Bhadarwah).

From the overall study they found water suitable for coldwater fish culture.

Ghosh et al. (1979) reported depletion of the fish in the Hoogly

estuary of West Bengal due to environmental degradation. Coad (1980)

described factors affecting the distribution and abundance of freshwater

fishes in Iran. Conservation schemes are outlined and commented on and a

list of threatened fishes is given. Sculion and Edwards (1980) studied the

effect of pollutants from the coal industry on the fish fauna of a small river

in the South Wales coalfield. Stream was found to receive spatially

separated pollution by acid drainage from coal stock-piles, suspended

solids from a drift mine and ferruginous drainage at neutral pH from an

abandoned mine.

Rosseland et al. (1980). estimated the effect of acidification on

reproduction, population structure, growth and food selection on fresh

water Fish Populations. He and Henriksen (1990) reported a serious decline

or extinction of natural fish populations in the past decades in the northern

temperate regions (Canada, Scandinavian countries, and elsewhere) as a

major consequence of atmospheric acid deposition.

Jana and Das (1980a) found non significant correlation of plankton

and temperature of water with the growth of Clarias batrachus in


74

experimental tanks. Both authors(1980b) found non significant correlation

of phosphate concentration with the fish growth although an inverse

relationship was observed in treated and untreated waters.

Colt et al. (1981) found metabolites of nitrogen fertilizers such as

ammonia, nitrite and nitrate toxic to fish and suppressed its growth.

Turnpenny and Williams (1981) investigated the river Ebbw Fawr, an

industrial river of south-east Wales, over a three-year period to follow the

re-establishment of fish populations as a result of pollution control

measures at coal washeries and a steelworks on the river. Brown (1982)

considered the combined effects of pH and major ions, in particular Ca, on

fish and fisheries for both laboratory and field studies. They have seen that

at concentrations less than 100 μeql-1, calcium can exert a significant

influence on survival times of fish, and similarly in the field, the number of

fishless lakes and the number of fish species found in lakes are less

dependent on H+ concentrations of Ca than at high Ca levels. Scott (1982)

related water temperature, salinity, bottom type and depth to the

distribution of many species of commercial fish and also different age

groups of the same species that was found to respond differently to

environmental conditions.

Petr (1983) suggested that increased velocity of water current

affected the fish due to transportation and scouring of a larger proportion

of the substratum, dislodged a large number of fish eggs and benthic

organisms. Same researcher in the year (1999) analyzed the distribution of

the indigenous Asla (Schizothorax progastus) and the circumstantial evidence

about its decline in catches. He also concluded that the deterioration of the

Asla and trout stocks in the river Thimphu could have resulted from a

combination of overfishing and an increase in pollution. Same author along


75

with his coworkers (2003) examined fish species distribution relative to

abiotic variables in seven vegetation strata on Marchantaria Island,

Solimoes river. Both environmental variables and species distributions

were influenced by a river channel to floodplain- interior gradient. Fish

assemblages were related to water chemistry, but species richness was not.

Lehtonen et al. (1984) assessed the natural occurrence of pike-perch

(Stizostedion lucioperca (L.)) and success of introductions in relation to water

quality and lake area in Finland. They found Pikeperch introductions most

successful in lakes with small area than in large ones with high phosphorus

concentrations. The author with his co researchers in 1996 studied biology

and exploitation of pikeperch, Stizostedion lucioperca (L.), in the Baltic Sea

area. Khalaf et al. (1984) determined the age, growth and condition of

Barbus grypus in a polluted river. The length and weight of the fish in each

age group was much lower in comparison with length and weight of the

species for the similar age groups in other Iraqi waters. They attributed

poor growth of fishes to the water pollution. Krohe (1984) revealed water

quality, not agricultural productivity, suffers most from soil elusion. He

found Bhagirathi river with an unprecedented silt load during the year

1978, as a result of blockade formation in the river Bhagirathi. As a result of

this ecodisaster a sharp decline in fish population of Bhagirathi river was

observed.

Muniz et al. (1984) studied the change in fish status due to change in

water chemistry. Fish status in terms of 'good', 'sparse', 'lost', 'never had

fish', has been used for several thousands of lakes in southern most

Norway. The data has been used to establish a relationship between pH

and fish status (brown trout). Sridhar and Bammeke (1985) made an

investigation of the sources and degree of pollution of Ogunpa lake,


76

situated in Ibadan, Nigeria. It was shown that the lake receives a variety of

waste effluents from domestic and industrial sources. These waste effluents

have caused an odour nuisance in the lake with little or no dissolved

oxygen present. The discharge of nutrients (N and P) to the lake has

resulted in excessive growth of aquatic weeds. All these impacts on the lake

have resulted in a reduced fish production. They also presented some

suggestions for the prevention of pollution and the recovery of the lake.

Tremblay and Sinclair (1985) studied the age specific distributions of

Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during Autumn,

and noted that older fish occurred at increasing depth and salinity and

decreasing temperature. They were unable to identify any single dominant

parameter controlling the distribution, in part due to the strong correlation

between depth, temperature and salinity. Mukhopadhyay et al. (1987)

assessed clinical condition of Rita rita, a Siluroid fresh water residential fish

available in Calcutta in context of pollution in the Hooghly estuary. They

observed clinical condition of Rita rita much better in unpolluted upper

zone as compared to industrial zone of the Hooghly estuary. Good health of

the species was attributed to the cleanliness and congenial environment

providing better ecological conditions for normal growth.

Somalingam et al. (1987) attributed fish mortality to oxygen

depletion in Shivpur Talab (Madhya Pradesh). Harriman et al. (1987)

documented a long term changes in fish populations in Galloway and

discussed the possible causal factors. The available evidence for long-term

acidification of Galloway lochs and streams was discussed and concluded

that acid depositions caused a major changes in the status of fisheries in this

region.


77

Davies et al. (1988) while working on the North Esk-St Patricks river

system, northern Tasmania, worked out the effects of changes in river

hydrology on the trout population. He (1989) described habitat

relationships for Salmo trutta L. and Gadopsis marmoratus rich in Tasmanian

streams. Interrelationships between habitat attributes were described in

relation to hydrological variability and bank erosion.

Gilles lacroix (1989) evaluated ecological and toxicological data from

field studies on acidic rivers of Nova Scotia and reviewed the effects of low

pH on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) populations in waters rich in organic

acids where non exchangeable forms of Aluminium dominated at all times.

Same researcher (1992) evaluated the application of crushed limestone in a

short section of an acidified brook used to mitigate low pH effects and the

potential benefits for Salmonids.

Suns and Hitchin (1990) associated water quality and Mercury (Hg)

accumulations to fish condition in yearling yellow perch from sixteen

Muskoka-Haliburton lakes in Ontario, in addition to temporal changes of

Hg residues in fish over a 9 yr interval (1978-1987). Rao et al. (1990)

attributed fish kill in Hussain Sagar lake to acute temperature, oxygen

depletion, cumulative effect of sewage and industrial effluents containing

various toxic substances which were choking of gills through fine

deposition of pollutants.

Sture and Lars (1990) studied several indications about the

eutrophication of the Baltic Sea and outlined the effect of this

eutrophication on fish community. Sarkar (1991) determined the

relationship between fish growth and aquatic ecosystem treated with

ammonium sulphate. The growth of Tilapia mossambica exhibited significant

positive correlation with plankton and alkalinity and inverse correlation


78

with ammonia of water (P < 0.05). Fish growth exhibited non significant

correlation with bottom fauna (p < 0.05). Fish growth was found dependent

upon the daily feeding rather than bottom fauna.

Gipson and Hubert (1991) while assessing for 13 small (< 170 surface

hectares) reservoirs in Wyoming studied the possible relations between the

body condition of rainbow trout (Qnchorynchus mykiss) and the density of

salmonid fishes, the abundance of non-salmonid fishes, and two measures

of biological productivity-total dissolved solids and elevation above mean

sea level. The mean condition of rainbow trout was positively related to

total dissolved solids and negatively related to the abundance of non-

salmonid fishes. Carline (1992) documented the response of fish

communities to magnitude, duration and frequency of episodic chemical

changes that occured during runoff events in Pennsylvania.

Sharma (1992) encompasses an in-depth impact assessment of fast

ecological changes caused by technological expansion, excessive

deforestation and occurrence of frequent natural eco-disasters, on the

coldwater fisheries of the upland Ganga basin in the ecologically sensitive

and fragile ecosystem of Garhwal Himalaya. Szegletes and Nemcsok (1992)

studied the mass death of eels in lake Balaton and attributed it to ecological

factors.

Wanganeo et al. (1992) worked out various reasons of the catchment

deterioration of the fishery resources in various water bodies of Jammu and

Kashmir. He along with his coassociates (2003) revealed that lotic systems

under temperate climatic conditions support less fish diversity in

comparison to tropical conditions. Trembly and Richard (1993) conducted

surveys of fish population on 74 lakes of the Outaouais hydrographic

region to assess the potential impact of acidity on ichthyologic fauna.


79

Results showed that species diversity declined with the increasing acidity.

They estimated that the anthropogenic acidification was responsible for the

loss of more than 10000 fish populations in the Outaouais area.

Zivkov and Petrova (1993) found great diversity in the correlation

between absolute fecundity (F) and the length (L) and age (t) of pikeperch,

Stizosledion lucioperca (L.) in 10 water bodies that differed in their

geography, morphology, and ecology. Norrgren and Degerman (1993)

investigated early developmental stages of Atlantic salmon and Brown

trout that were exposed in situ to different water quality in a river affected

by acidification and wetland liming. Mortality, hatching frequency,

histopathology and whole-body electrolytes were studied in detail.

Leino et al. (1993) studied the effect of different pH and aluminum

levels on gill morphology, electrolyte balance, scale calcium, liver glycogen,

and depot fat of juvenile largemouth bass. They showed that only a

moderate elevation of the irritant can be critical for fish in cold water. Elvira

(1995) related extinction of Lebias ibera, a brackish water cyprinodontid

endemic to the Iberian Peninsula, Spain to the destruction of its habitats by

man, and the introduction of exotic species such as Gambusia holbrooki and

Fundulus heteroclitus.

Carlson (1995, 2000) reported dramatic decline of lake sturgeon,

Acipenser fulvescens, that was once common in the Great Lakes-St Lawrence

drainage basin of New York State, and attributed this decline to over

harvesting and habitat degradation during the early 1900s. Chambertain

and Hubert (1996) assessed the effect of environmental and fish

community features on population statistics of brook trout Salvelinus

fontinalis in lakes and reservoirs in the central Rocky Mountains. They


80

found mean length positively related to chemical indices of biological

productivity and size of the water body.

Jeney et al. (1996) compared the physiological and biochemical

changes in roach caused by bleached kraft pulp and paper mill effluent by

exposing the fish in raw effluent for 72 h and caging them in the polluted

and unpolluted lakes for three weeks. Witters (1996) performed detailed

analyses of the chemical speciation of aluminium (Al) in relation to the

biological response of brown trout and identified the mechanism of

unexpected high fish mortality in the mixing zones with pH levels above

6.0.

Anitha and kumari (1997) assessed the histological damage caused to

the fish Channa punctatus by various aquatic pollutants present in polluted

waters of Hussainsagar. The significance of results was discussed in

relation to physiological stress leading to the development of anaerobic

conditions at the tissue level in pollutant stressed fish. Same authors(2003)

studied the effect of water pollution on Channa punctatus (Bloch) from

Hussian sagar lake. Chitra and Ramkumar (1997) dealt with the effect of

water pollution on peroxidase activity of various tissues, especially the

kidney in Channa gachua inhabiting the lake Hussain sagar.

Dutta et al. (1997) reported an incidence of a large scale fish kill

observed on 29th October, 1993, in Behlol Nullah, a tributary of river Tawi

Jammu. The study of water quality during the time of episode indicated

that the fish mortality occurred due to sudden discharge of deoxygenated

industrial effluents showing hydrogen sulphide and very high free CO2 and

BOD. Dockray et al. (1997) revealed the effect of elevated summer

temperature and reduced pH on metabolism and growth of juvenile

rainbow trout (Onchorhyncus mykiss) on unlimited ration.


81

Hesthagen and Jonsson (1998) assessed the influence of the water

quality of tributary streams on the relative abundance in benthic gillnet

catches of Allopatric brown trout Salmo trutta in associated acidic and soft

water lakes. Raitaniemi et al. (1999) clarified factors that affected whitefish

growth by examining growth in environments with different water

characteristics and fish species composition.

Duke et al. (1999) reported Kootenai river stock of white sturgeon

(Acipenser transmontanus) federally listed as an endangered species. They

described factors that contributed to low recruitment and a declining

population. Eklov (1999) studied the influence of water quality, physical

habitat and species richness on the occurrence, density and size of brown

trout at 216 stream sites in southern Sweden. Leach and Houde (1999)

tested the combined effects of temperature, prey levels, and pH on survival

and growth of American shad larvae in laboratory experiments.

Erkinaro et al. (1999) used radio-telemetric methods to assess the

effects of environmental conditions: tide, river flow and temperature, on

river entry and upstream migration of multi-sea-winter (MSW) Atlantic

salmon Salmo salar L. in the large subarctic river Tana. Biswas and Boruah

(2000) highlighted the hydrobiological features and the Ichthyofauna of

certain selected water bodies of the northeastern himalayas with special

reference to the Brahmaputra river.

Quist and Guy (2001) determined age structure, growth rates and

mortality (i.e., total annual mortality and age specific mortality) of central

stonerollers Campostoma anomalum, creek chubs Semotilus atromaculatus, red

shiners Cyprinella lutrensis and green sunfish Lepomis cyanellus from 13

streams on Fort Riley Military reservation, Kansas, using incremental

growth analysis. They (2002) studied the seasonal variation in condition,


82

growth and feeding habits of Walleys in a great plains reservoir. The results

of this study indicated lower condition, reduced consumption and slow

growth as a generalized response of Walleye to extreme temperatures.

Sinha and Khan (2001) discussed the impact of environmental

aberrations on the fisheries of the Ganga river. Pegg and Pierce (2001)

estimated growth rate coefficients for different species of fishes from nine

river sections of the Missouri and lower Yellowstone rivers. The results

indicate that growth rates of fishes along the Missouri river system were

complex and could be of significance in the management and conservation

of fish communities in this altered system.

Sinha et al. (2002) analyzed gills, liver, kidney, intestine and muscle

of some of the common edible fishes captured from Kharkai river for their

iron, zinc, nickel, lead, copper, manganese, chromium and cobalt contents.

The data generated underline the extent of this pollution and call for

immediate redressal. Krzysztof (2002) assessed the adverse impact on the

ichthyofauna of small impoundment on the Wisloka river and changes in

stream beds caused by gravel exploitation, regulation and forestry

management works.

Haxton (2002) conducted studies on lake sturgeons and reported its

decline in the Ottawa river due to anthropogenic stresses and exploitation.

He concluded that water quality, commercial harvest and waterpower

management as the main stressors on lake sturgeon populations and gave

suggestions for further assessment. Tilak et al. (2002) determined the acute

toxicity of unionized ammonia, nitrite and nitrate to the Indian major carp

Catla catla (Hamilton) using static and continuous flow through systems for

24 hours.


83

Karma Gyeltshen (2002) evaluated the impact of human intervention

on aquatic ecosystems of Bhutan and eventually on the native cold water

fish community. He found over-fishing and introduction of exotic fish

species having direct impact on indigenous fish. Olin and Rask (2002)

evaluated thirty six South Finnish lakes, and found number of species, as

well as the Cyprinids percids ratio, dependent, not only on total

phosphorus (TP), but also on lake size.

Barbara and Sarnowski (2002) measured the oxygen consumption of

common carp and rainbow trout larvae exposed to mercury, cadmium and

copper. The results showed that copper was most toxic to both fish species.

The mixtures were more toxic than single metals and caused a greater

reduction in oxygen consumption. Rai et al. (2002) presented the status of

snow trout in Nepal and reported the decline in fish populations due to

heavy fishing pressure, natural calamities, as well as human disturbances

such as construction of dams and roads.

Dhital and Jha (2002) reported the decline of fish fauna in the

Narayani river due to unregulated fishing and use of destructive methods

such as dynamiting, poisoning and fishing for brood stock during the

spawning season and deforestation, resulting in erosion and silting of

streams and rivers and also water pollution due to the discharges of

industrial waste and the illegal use of insecticides, pesticides and piscicides.

Gubhaju (2002) reported the decline of once abundant indigenous fish

stocks in cold water fish of Nepal due to over fishing, harmful fishing

practices (electro-fishing, dynamiting, use of chemicals), pollution and

developmental works of number of hydropower projects.

Arndt (2002) revealed a significant decline in the endemic European

Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio Linnaeus, 1758) in German, Polish and Dutch


84

coastal waters and tributaries. A drastic increase in total catches of non-

indigenous sturgeon species was also noted. Kruse and Scarnecchia (2002)

studied potential physiological effects of bioaccumulated metal and

organochlorine compounds on juvenile and adult white sturgeon (Acipenser

transmontanus) of Kootenai river.

Kaur and Saxena (2002) studied the impact of grossly polluted

waters of Budha Nallah (BN) brook on the ovarian maturation of some

fresh water teleosts (Crossocheilus latius, Heteropneustes fossilis and Mystus

cavasius) dwelling in river Satluj. Ranjit (2002) surveyed the capture fishery

status of the upper Sunkoshi river from Tatopani to Dollal ghat. In the

region hill stream fish were common and Schizothorax was the dominant

fish.

Copp (2003) found no correlations between fish condition (K) and

water conductivity in 14 species of a 0+ year fishes in the river Great Ouse,

U.K. catchment. Keskinen and Marjomaki (2003) studied the growth of

pikeperch in 41 lakes in central Finland. The back calculated average total

length of 3 year-old pikeperch was used as an indicator of growth. The

growth was positively correlated with total phosphorus and water colour

and negatively with lake area and depth.

Aguigwo (2003) tested fingerlings of Clarias gariepinus for growth

and survival in acute concentration of ammonia. Results showed that

mortality was 10% at 1.5 mg l-1, 20% at 2 mg l-1, 30% at 3 mg l-1, 50% at 4 mg

l-1 and 60% at 6 mg l-1. The fish fed vigorously at the initial introduction of

food but the anxiety to feed declined as concentration and exposure time

increased. Kallio (2004) examined the survival of Atlantic salmon Salmo

salar in the Baltic Sea in relation to smolt traits (length and origin) and


85

annual environmental factors [sea surface temperature (SST) and seasonal

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index], and prey fish abundance (Herring

Clupea harengus and sprat Sprattus sprattus). The results demonstrated a

combined influence of smolt traits and environmental factors on survival.

Penczak et al. (2004) investigated differences in fish assemblages between

habitats in Oxbow lakes. Only velocity, water temperature and

conductivity showed significant correlation with canonical correspondence

analysis (CCA) axes. Species previously subdominant were found to

become rare.

Mohammed and Omoregie (2004) investigated the fisheries

potentials of Doma lake in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Values of physico-

chemical parameters did not vary significantly (P > 0.05) between the

sampling months. A total of 8 families made up of 11 genera and 16 species

of fish were recorded in the lake. The condition factor (K) showed that the

smaller sized fishes thrived better in the lake. Marchetto et al. (2004)

monitored two small high mountain lakes in the Alps and followed their

response to changes in human impact, such as deposition of atmospheric

pollutants, fish stocking and climatic change.

Chouinard et al. (2004) related the decline of southern Gulf of St.

Lawrence cod stock to high exploitation rates in the early nineties. Graham

and Katherine (2004) studied the effects of contaminants on fish behaviour

and assessed the effect of aquatic pollutants on fish.

Dawn et al. (2005) described laboratory and field physiological

measurements together with radio-tracking and investigated the potential

impacts of alkaline pH on the physiology and behaviour of fish from

Slapton Ley (freshwater hyper-eutrophic lake). Sahoo et al. (2005) worked


86

on the non-specific immune parameters to determine the health status of

fish and evaluated the immuno modulatory substances for fish farming as

markers of pollution and disease resistance.

Casatti et al. (2006) conducted a fish survey in 35 stream reaches with

physicochemical and habitat assessment in the Sao Jose dos Dourados

system, southeastern Brazil. They considered 10 stream reaches fair, 22

poor, and 3 very poor. Fifty species were collected and their abundances

showed strong correlation with habitat descriptors. Lindah et al. (2006)

examined possible causes of death of Oreochromis niloticus in lake Chivero

in relation to changes in limnological conditions monitored over a 25-

month period. The fish deaths coincided with the collapse of an algal

bloom. Murat et al. (2006) worked on the Karakaya Dam Lake (KDL), one

of the most important water sources, both for irrigation and fishery, located

in eastern part of Turkey. This study was concerned with the pollution of

the lake contributed by urban, industrial and agricultural activities. The

parameters selected for this aim were the enzymes commonly used as

biomarkers of environmental pollution. Chemical analysis showed that

Karakaya Dam Lake was polluted by various heavy metals as it was

apparent from water, sediment and gill tissue. The activity of brain AChE

was significantly lower in all localities than Tecimli area where there was

no agricultural and industrial activities in the immediate periphery.

4.3.4. Fish, Parasitism and Pollution

This part of the review gives brief resume on the surroundings of the

fish i.e., water quality and the parasites and incorporates the overall view of

the study conducted on several of the bio ecological factors including the

host-parasite relationship.


87

Chub (1963-2004) did extensive and unforgettable work on different

aspects of helminth fauna of fishes. He (1963) characterized the parasite

fauna of the fish of Llyn Tegid (Bala lake). In 1964 examined the grayling

Thymallus thymallus, Pike Esox lucius, Roach Rutilus rutilus, and Eel Anguilla

anguilla of Llyn Tegid for the occurrence of Echinorhynchus clavula; the total

infection of these species of fish was 46.0%, 11.5%, 16.1%, and 27.7%,

respectively. Temperature was found to play a significant role in the

seasonal periodicity of some Acanthocephala of fishes. He (1965)reported

mass occurrence of Pomphorhynchus laevis (Muller, 1776) Monticelli, 1905

(Acanthocephala) in the chub Squalius cephalus from the river Avon. He

(1967 a) reviewed seasonal occurrence and maturation of tapeworms in

British freshwater fish. He (1967b) analyzed host specificity of some

Acanthocephala of freshwater fishes. In 1970, performed a detailed

investigation on the parasite fauna of British freshwater fish. In 1973

assessed the influence of parasites on freshwater fishes in Britain and stated

that the assessment of the effects of parasites on individual fish from a

natural environment is extremely difficult, and extrapolating from the

individual to the population provides even greater problems. He (1977,

1979) worked on the seasonal occurrence of helminths in fresh water fishes

dealing with trematodes. In 1980, he dealt with the seasonal occurrence of

larval cestoda and nematode helminths in freshwater fishes. He (1981)

woked on the chinese tapeworm Bothriocephalus acheilognathi Yamaguti,

1934 (Synonym Bothriocephalus gowkongensis Yeh,1955). In (1982) followed

the seasonal occurrence of adult Cestoda, Nematoda and Acanthocephala

in freshwater fishes. He along with other workers (1987) illustrated a key to

the species of Cestodes (tapeworms) parasitic in British and Irish freshwater

fishes. He (1988) made a comparison of the seasonal biology of the life cycle

of helminths of freshwater fishes from mid latitude and tropical conditions.

Chubb and his associates (1995) examined and characterised the external


88

features of Schistocephalus solidus (Muller, 1776) (cestoda) from different

geographical regions. He (1997a) focused on Fish parasites as indicator of

environmental quality. Chubb et al. (1997) examined eight species of fishes

from rivers of Northern Portugal for cestodes but only one, Barbus barbus

bocagei (Steindachner), was infected. Chubb (2004) reidentified the museum

specimens of Echinorhynchus salmonis from Britain and Ireland deposited in

the Natural History Museum, London.

Awachie (1965) found greater abundance of of Eubothrum truttae

upstream in North Wales due to the greater number of Gamarus pulex and

the related the narrowness of the stream promoting greater contact between

intermediate and definitive hosts.

Kennedy (1969) studied the seasonal incidence and development of

the Cestode Caryophyllaeus laticeps (Pallas) in the river Avon. Kennedy et al.

(1969) worked on the evidence for an immune response by dace Leuciscus

leuciscus, to infection by the cestode Caryophyllaeus laticeps. The author and

Hine (1969) evaluated the population biology of the cestode Proteocephalus

torulosus (Batsch) in dace Leuciscus leuciscus (L.) of the River Avon. He

(1969) noted seasonal incidence and development of the Cestode

Caryophyllaeus laticeps (Pallas) in the river Avon. The author (1971 and

1972a,b) analysed the effect of temperature upon the establishment and

survival of the cestode Caryophyllaeus laticeps in Orfe, Leuciscs idus and

Pomphorhynchus laevis (Acanthocephala) in gold fish Carassius suratus. He

with his coworkers (1976) analysed the distribution of the Acanthocephalan

Pomphorhynchus laevis along the alimentary tract of several species of

freshwaster fish in both natural and experimental infections. The Author

with his associates (1986) examined the parasite faunas of 12 species of

freshwater fish from 17 localities on the island of Jersey. He and with his

coworkers (1989) described and showed the current distributions of the

freshwater fish acanthocephalans Pomphorhynchus laevis and


89

Acanthocephalus anguillae to be discontinuous and mutually exclusive, both

regionally and locally, in the British Isles. He (1993) studied the dynamics

of intestinal helminth communities in eels Anguilla anguilla in a small

stream. In 1996, He studied population dynamics, site selection, growth and

maturation of the Cestode Eubothrium crassum in a natural population of

Salmo trutta. The author with Pojmanska (1996) found Bothriocephalus

acheilognathi and Khawia sinensis in helminth communities of carp in a fish

farm in China, whilst the vast majority of fish harboured one species or no

helminth at all. He (1997) gave an overview on freshwater fish parasites

and environmental quality.

Collins (1970) investigated the effect of eutrophication on the type,

incidence of bacterial disease, in the organs of healthy and diseased fishes.

In an oligotrophic lake the number of bacteria were smaller and their

distribution was more uniform than in an eutrophic one.

Lowe et al. (1971) in addition to field observations demonstrated

some experimental evidence for a causal relationship between specific

pollutant chemicals and fungus parasitization of fish and shellfish. Esch

(1971) worked out the impact of ecological succession on the parasite fauna

in Centrarchids from oligotrophic and eutrophic ecosystems. He with

Huffines (1973) evaluated histopathological changes in the small mouth

bass Micropterus dolomieui induced by endoparasitic helminths.

Colby et al. (1972) found link between Cultural eutrophication and

increased parasitism of Alpine lake fishes. Snieszko (1973) dealt with some

recent advances of scientific knowledge and developments related to

disease of fishes and (1974) reviewed literature on the coincidence of

infectious diseases with stress caused by temperature, eutrophication,

sewage, metabolic products of fishes, industrial pollution, and pesticides.

She suggested that infectious diseases of fishes occur when susceptible


90

fishes are exposed to virulent pathogens under certain environmental stress

conditions.

Eure and Esch (1974) examined the effects of thermal effluents on

parasitism of large mouth bass, Micropterus salmonids by the

Acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus. Parasite densities were

significantly higher in fish from heated water during the winter months, a

possible reflection of greater densities of larval parasites and intermediate

host populations in the effluent. Perevozchenko and Davydov (1974) found

that juvenile carp parasitized by the intestinal cestode Bothriocephalus

gowkongensis were more susceptible to DDT poisoning than non parasitized

individuals. Dabrowska (1974) related river pollution from domestic and

industrial sources to increased parasitic burdens found in fish from areas of

heaviest pollution in Poland.

Amin (1975) analyzed ecological data pertaining to host and seasonal

association of Acanthocephalus parksidei Amin, 1974 and discussed factors

influencing the parasitic load in its various fish hosts as well as its

distributional pattern in the gut of the host. Parasitic load was found to be

related to host species, size (age), sex, concurrent infection, collection site

and seasons. He along with Janet (1977) worked on the host and seasonal

association of Echinorhynchus sa1monis in lake Michigan fishes. In 1981, He

studied the seasonal distribution of Echinorynchus salmonis, among rainbow

smelt Osmeros mordax, Mitchell, in lake Michigan. In 1985, observed varying

results in the parasite abundance in different length groups of fish, which

he attributed to the changes in the feeding habits at different ages of the

host. The author in 1986 reported Isoglaridacris multivitellaria sp. n.

(Caryophyllidea: Cestoda) from the same host and studied host and

seasonal distribution of Neoechinorhynchus spp. He (1987) worked on

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli Linkins and found it more common in fishes of

the river-connected Tichigan Lake than of the landlocked Silver Lake,


91

southeastern Wisconsin. Infection patterns were influenced by fish species,

feeding behavior, temperature, availability of intermediate host, type of

water body, fish movement, and changes in fish host community.

Continuing his studies, the author in 1990 studied the ecology and

pathology of Proteocepha1us amb1op1itis and Hap1obothrium globu1iforms in

base and bow fin from lake Wisconsin. The same author in 1992 studied the

ecology and intraspecific relationships of Bothriocephalid cestodes in

Walleys Stizostedion vitereum lake fishes in Wisconsin. He and

Heckmann(1992) described Neoechinorhynchus idahoensis n. sp.

(Acanthocephala: Neoechinorhynchidae) in Catostomus columbianus from

Idaho and and its pathological implications.

Aho et al. (1976) examined the relationship between thermal loading

and parasitism in mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis. There was higher infection

percentages of brain parasites in fish from thermally altered areas of Par

Pond than in those from other parts of the Par Pond system. Grundmann et

al. (1976) found that helminth populations in a natural environment are

well regulated to a point of host comfort. Alvarez (1976) while studying the

infestation of trout by trematodes, considered the ecological factors as well

and temperature was found most important ecological factor influencing

maturation directly or indirectly affecting the life cycle through its effect on

host diet and host ecology.

Pascoe and Cram (1977) found that survival times of the three spine

stickleback, Gasteruteus aculeatus exposed to various concentrations of

cadmium, were much shortened when fish was found to be parasitized by

the larval cestode Schistocephalus solidus. Pascoe and Mattey (1977) reported

that among three spined stickle back, Gasterosteus aculeatus, placed on

restricted diets, those infected with the cestode Schistocephalus solidus died

earlier than did the nonparasitized individuals.


92

Overstreet and Howse (1977) in search for finding the association of

parasites with environmental pollution examined several parasites of

estuarine fishes from the Gulf of Mexico. Large variations in prevalence of

helminth parasites occurred, but clear associations with pollutants and

changes in pollutant levels was not established. Same researchers (1991)

worked out the influence of pollution and parasites on aquatic animals. In

1993, he investigated the relationship between parasitic disease of fishes

with toxicants and other environmental factors. Same author (1997) gave an

overview of the usefulness of fish parasites as monitors of environmental

quality and contamination.

Moller (1977) made an extensive survey of external parasites and

disease conditions in North Sea fish but did not disclose clear-cut

relationships between parasitism and Pollution, although the higher

prevalence of vibriosis and lymphocystis in southern sectors which were

most polluted indicated a possible influence of pollution. Ashurova (1978)

conducted investigations on the ecology of parasitic fauna of Schizothorax

intermedius, Schizopygopsis stoliczkai and Nemachilus stoliczkai and the factors

affecting its distribution in different parts of the basin and in different

species of hosts were established. The data were obtained on the

peculiarities of parasitological processes in water bodies investigated.

Hanek and Fernando (1978) made studies on the role of season,

habitat, host age and sex on the gill parasites of Urocleidus ferox (Muller,

1934), Cleidodiscus Stentor (Muller, 1937) and Ergasilus centrerchidarum

(Wright, 1882) Lepomis gibbosus (L.) and Ambloplites lepestris respectively.

Muzzall and Wilbur (1978) made studies on the seasonal occurence,

population dynamics and host parasite relationships of Neo echinorhynchus

saginatus infecting fall fish. The same authors (1980 a) studied the ecology

and seasonal abundance of three Acanthocephalan species infecting white

suckers. They (1980 b) studied the population biology and host parasite


93

relationship of Trigonodistomum attenuatum (Trematoda; Lissorchiidae)

infecting white suckers. In (1980 c) the authors studied the seasonal

distribution and ecology of three Caryophyllid cestode species infecting

white suckers. Muzzall (1984) examined fishes of 30 species collected from

the St. Mary river, Michigan for helminthes. 32 species (8 Digenea, 11

Cestoda, 8 Nematoda, 5 acanthocephala) were recovered from the digestive

tracts. The prevalence and host distribution of these helminthes and

information on larval helminthes was presented. Muzzall (1989) collected

and examined adult Salmonids for helminths. Echinorhynchus salmonis and

Eubothrium salvelini were the most common helminths found. The intensity

of E. salmonis significantly increased as Chinook salmon became older and

longer. He with his coassocites(1992) evaluated the host-parasite

relationships of longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae, from the Ford River,

Michigan. He and Whelan (1995) examined mottled sculpins, Cottus bairdi

Girard (Cottidae), for Rhabdochona cotti from 3 localities (up-river, middle,

down-river) in the Ford River in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. The

prevalence and mean intensity of R. cotti were highest in sculpins from the

middle (37%) and up-river localities (2.0), respectively. Muzzall and Bowen

(2000) examined stocked lake trout Salvelinus namaycush for parasites.

Echinorhynchus salmonis infected all lake trout with a mean intensity of

163.9. He and Gillilland (2004) evaluated the occurrence of

acanthocephalans in largemouth bass and smallmouth bass (Centrarchidae)

from Gull Lake, Michigan.

Sindermann (1979) while making review evaluated existing

information about associations of diseases and marine environmental

degradation. He placed Emphasis on: diseases caused by contaminant

stress and related facultative pathogens; stress-provoked latent infections;

environmentally induced abnormalities; genetic abnormalities associated


94

with mutagenic and other properties of contaminants; experimentally

induced lesions; contaminant effects on resistance and immune responses;

and pollutant-parasite interactions. Sindermann (1987) illustrated effects of

parasites on fish populations.

Malhotra and Chauhan (1980) carried out statistical analysis of

cestode and nematode infection in relation to some ecological aspects of hill

stream fishes in Garhwal, Himalayas, India. Malhotra (1985) investigated

the systems approach to identify the changes in the rate of flow of parasites

through a host-parasite system and the specific points where the various

influencing factors act. Same researcher and Banerjee (1990) brought to light

an important aspect of the depletion in Total Eryhthrocyte Count and

Haemoglobin percent and augmentation in Total Leucoctyte Count levels

of snow trout which possibly co-occurred under the influence of pollutants

besides the effect of single and poly parasitic infections.

Miller (1980) evaluated the survival of the Digenean fish trematode

T. versotrema that was found reduced by any deviation from an optimum

temperature of approximately 23oC and with increasing temperature the

rate of egg production was found to rise progressively faster to a higher

peak up to 29°C but falls to zero by 35oC. Skinner (1982) found that the

pollutants in the water acted as an irritant stressing the fish and producing

physical and physiological changes which reduced resistance to infestation

by Monogenea.

Font (1983) studied a seasonal population dynamics of five species of

intestinal helminths of brook stickleback Culaea inconstans in Wisconsin.

Granath et al. (1983) while working on the seasonal dynamics based on

thermally altered and ambient temperature locations on the mosquito fish

Gambusia by Bothriocephalus spp. revealed that the cestodes were observed


95

during summer months. Densities rose sharply in the fall peaked by early

winter.

Chopra et al. (1984) dealt with the seasonal variation in the incidence

of Spirurid nematode infection in coldwater fishes like Schizothorax

richardsonii, Scizothorax plagiostomus, Garra gotylu and Crossocheilus latius

from Garhwal Himalaya. The correlation coefficient (r) was calculated to

find out the relationship of nematode infection to the ecological parameters.

They concluded that the ecological parameters like water. He with same

researchers (1985) investigated the influence of abiotic variables on the

seasonal incidence of Black spot disease in Schizothorax spp. of Garhwal

region.

Pojmanska (1984) analyzed seasonality of incidence and maturation

of some fish parasites with regard to thermal factors. Pojmanaka (1995)

described seasonal dynamics of two cestode species, Khawia senensis and

Bothriocephalus acheilognathi with regard to larval recruitment, maturation

and subsequent elimination. Narsimhamurti (1984) while working on the

seasonal variation of the Myxosporidean parasite in the gills of fresh water

fish Channa punctatus observed that the fishes collected from the polluted

tanks had no infection due to the presence of high alkalinity, low oxygen

and increased turbidity. On the other hand the fishes collected from the

unpolluted tank possessed the infection.

Rand and Michael (1985) described seasonal occurrence, recruitment

and maturation of Allocreadium lobatum Wallin, 1909 in the fallfish, Semotilus

corporalis Mitchell in Canada lake system. Khan (1987) did not find any

decrease in haematocrit or haemoglobin in oil treated and parasitised cods.

He and Kiceniuk (1988) studied the effect of petroleum aromatic

hydrocarbons on monogeneids parasitizing Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua (L.).

He (1990) determined parasitism in marine fish after chronic exposure to


96

petroleum hydrocarbons in the laboratory and to the Exxon Valdez oil spill.

He and Thulin (1991) while working on the influence of pollution on

parasites of aquatic animals found that the pollutants promote parasitism

by impairing the host's immune response or favouring survival and

reproduction of intermediate hosts. The author suggested that the future

research on the interaction of pollution on parasites of animals should focus

on a combination of field and laboratory studies, especially exposing fish in

cages to polluted water. In 1999, he studied the effect of polychlorinated

biphenyls on the health of winter flounder, using length weight

relationship, haematological values, histopathology and parasitism as

bioindicators of stress. Anomalies were more prevalent in samples collected

nearest to the contaminated sites than in those collected from the source of

contamination.

Valtonen et al. (1987) investigated the relationship between parasites

of fishes and environmental stress in central Finland. Valtonen and

Koskivaara (1997) studied the effect of pollution, eutrophication and

isolation of habitat on the parasite communities of roach and perch in four

lakes in central Finland, which suffered from these conditions to varying

degrees. Valtonen et al. (2003) evaluated the usefulness of data on parasite

communities in fresh water fishs as a cheaper, but informative monitoring

system. They compared parasite communities in fish taken from a polluted

lake (L. Vatia) and two control lakes before (1986) and after (1995) nine

years of markedly reduced chemical and nutrient loading from a pulpmill

in central Finland.

Forbes et al. (1989) described briefly the seasonal maturation of four

species of helminths, Acanthocephalus clavula, A. lucii, Camallanus lacustris

and Bunodera luciopercae, from the perch Perca fluviatilis. Sanmartin et al.


97

(1989) illustrated the prevalence on Nematode parasites of commercially

important fishes in northwest Spain.

Sanmartin et al. (2000) characterize helminth parasites of the conger

eel Conger conger from the estuaries of Muros and Arousa. The results

indicated species composition and abundance of the nematode, cestode and

acanthocephalan fauna of Conger conger on the north-west Spanish coast

depend more on population isolation and variations in trophic chains

between the sites studied than on the particular environmental conditions

of the sites.

Lasee (1989) investigated seasonal population dynamics and

maturation of the Acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus pungitius from brook

stickleback (Culae inconstans). Fontaine and Labelle (1989) observed the

effect of temperature on the larval development of swim bladder nematode

of eels.

Dhar and Peerzada (1989) recorded positive correlation between

Cestode infection and temperature in fishes of kashmir valley. Jellyman

(1989) studied the occurrence of nematode infection in freshwater eels and

correlated the infection with eel size, occurrence of amphipod host and

dietary change. The decline in incidence of infection with increasing eel size

was said due to similar decline in occurrence of amphipod host in the diet.

Camp and Joseph (1989) studied the population biology of

Allocreadium lobatium (Trematoda) in Semotilus atromaculatus and observed

the peak levels of prevalence and mean Intensity during winter and

summer. Saoud et al. (1990) compared the helminth parasites of fishes from

two inland lakes with contrasting hydrobiological features in Egypt.

Oleinik and Ieshko (1990) elucidated the dependence of

immunological reactions of fishes infected with Ichthyophthirius multifiliis

infusoria on temperature. Changes of the immunological values were most


98

dynamic at high temperature (>20 0C) and they were slower at < 10 0C.

Khidr (1990) studied the population dynamics of Enterogyrus cichzidarium

(Monogenea) and observed the highest prevalence and Mean Intensity in

spring. He also observed that the prevalence and intensity of the infection

rose significantly with increasing size of the host.

Marcogliese and cone (1991) assessed the importance of lake

characteristics in structuring parasite communities of salmonids from

insular Newfoundland. Same authors (1996) studied metazoan

macroparasite communities in American eels with relation to effect of

fluctuations in pH on parasite distribution. The result supported the

hypothesis that parasite communities are good indicators of environmental

stress and biodiversity. Same authors (1997) conducted studies on parasite

communities as indicators of ecosystem stress.

Koskwaara et al. (1991) found positive correlation of monogenean

parasites of gills (Dactylogyrids) of Rutilus rutilus with eutrophication.

Same researcher in collaboration with Valtonen (1992) found that the

abundance and prevalence of monogenean species on roach were increased

due to impaired immunological response of the roach in a polluted lake.

Khan et al. (1991) worked on the seasonality of Pallisentis ophiocephali

(Thapar, 1930) and Acanthosentis betwai (Tripathis 1959) in Channa striatus

and Labeo rohita respectively C. striatus showed higher infection with P.

ophiocephali in March-May while L. rohita showed higher infection with A.

betwai in June and July. Muzzal et al. (1992) evaluated the host-parasite

relationships of longnose dace, Rhinichthys cataractae, from the Ford River,

Michigan. He found environmental factors as the major factors that

influenced parasite intensity, that occurred when and where a fish began its

life, the sequence of events that occurred in each habitat the fish

encountered during its life, and the length of exposure. Muzzal (1993)


99

correlated the changes in parasitic fauna with the age at different times and

localities from the Pere Marquette river and lake Michigam (USA). They

found a correlation between helminth fauna and diet while the diet itself

showed a correlation with the depth of host habitat.

Kuperman (1992) studied the effect of wastes of the Cherepovets

iron-and-steel works containing phenol, naphthaline and oil products on

fish parasites of the Sheksna part of the Rybinsk water reservoir (the Volga

river system). It has been shown that the number of highly sensitive

ectoparasites of Abramis brama (Protozoa, Dactylogyrus monogeneans,

Ergasilus sieboldi crustaceans and Caspiobdella fadejewi leeches)

considerably decreases in the zone of pollution. Same researcher with

Matey (2000) made detailed investigation of the damage caused by the

parasites on the fish present in water bodies with poor environmental

conditions and found that parasites exerted a strong regulatory effect on

populations.

Nie and Kennedy (1993) analyzed infection dynamics of larval

Bothriocephalus claviceps in Cyclops vicinus. Nie (1996) observed poor

helminth communities in carp and related it to the poor fauna of these

highland lakes. He also showed that the communities were poor in carp

sampled from isolated highland lakes in Yunnan province of south-west

China where carp is introduced in some lakes. Nie et al. (1999) investigated

the intestinal helminth communities of carp in lakes in the flood plain to

provide comparative information of helminth communities of the fish in its

native habitats. Nie et al. (2000) reported the first record of Bothriocephalus

acheilognathi from the Cyprinid fishes of three lakes food plain of the Yangtz

river, China.

Cone et al. (1993) compared metazoan parasite communities of

yellow eels (Anguilla rostrata) inhabiting acidic (pH 4.5 - 5.0) and deacidified


100

(limed to a pH of 6.0- 7.0) portions of a watershed in southwest Nova

Scotia.

Siddall et al. (1993) found Parasites of Buccinum undatum (Mollusca:

Prosobranchia) as biological indicators of sewage-sludge dispersal. Siddall

et al. (1997) examined the effect of exposure to a relatively high

concentration of pulp and paper mill effluent on the prevalence, abundance

and distribution of Dactylogyrus spp. on the gills of roach. Same researcher

and Sures (1998) analyzed and examined the uptake of lead by cystacanths

of the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis in naturally infected

amphipods, Gammarus pulex, and by immature parasites in experimentally

infected fish, Leuciscus cephalus.

Sures et al. (1994) collected Adults of Pomphorhynchus laevis from the

intestines of Chubs (Leuciscus cephalus) from the river Ruhr near Bochum,

Germany. The Acanthocephalans and various tissues of the fish (muscle,

liver, and intestine) were analyzed for lead. Same authors in the same year

(1994) conducted a comparative study of lead accumulated in different

organs of perch (Perca fluviatilis)and its intestinal parasite Acanthocephalus

lucii. He and Taraschewski (1995) analyzed adults of Pomphorhynchus laevis

and Acanthocephalus lucii. Their cadmium concentrations were compared

with those found in different tissues (muscle, liver, and intestine) of their

final hosts the chub and perch. Cadmium and lead were predominantly

accumulated by the adult acanthocephalans. Same author with other

coworkers (1997) analyzed intestinal helminths of fish caught from

freshwater and brackish water biotopes throughout Europe for their heavy

metal (Pb and Cd) levels. The metal concentrations of the parasites were

compared to those of different organs (muscle, liver, intestine) of the fish

hosts and to those detected in the whole bodies of the respective

intermediate hosts. He with researchers (1997) analyzed intestinal fish


101

parasites for heavy metal bioindicators and made a comparison between

Acanthocephalus lucii (Palaeacanthocephala) and the zebra mussel, Dreissena

polymorpha. Same author in association with Siddall (1999) worked on

aqueous lead exposure of Chub (Leuciscus cephalus) experimentally infected

with the parasite Pomphorhynchus laevis resulted in a rapid accumulation of

this metal in the intestinal acanthocephalans, reaching concentrations

which were significantly greater than in the host muscle, liver, and intestine

and approximately 1000 times higher than the exposure concentration.

Same researcher and its coworkers (1999) found Parasites as accumulation

indicators of heavy metal pollution. Same authors in the year (2001)

reviewed on the use of fish parasites as bioindicators of heavy metals in

aquatic ecosystems. Same author individually in the year (2003)

summarised the present knowledge about parasites as bioindicators and

compared the accumulation properties of parasites and established free

living indicators and stated how parasites could be advantageous and even

more sensitive indicators for environmental monitoring purposes. They

also suggested how environmental science and parasitology might profit

from each other in the near future

Gelnar et al. (1994) presented preliminary report of helminths

parasitizing fishes of the river Morava and gave remarks on the effect of

water pollution. He and with his associates(1997) studied biodiversity of

parasites in freshwater environment in relation to pollution. Parasite

species diversity was higher at the unpolluted site, and the dominant

species were found different at two different sites. Ectoparasites were

common at the unpolluted site and endoparasites at the polluted one.

Sebelova et al. (1995) studied the effect of water pollution on the

occurence and distribution of metazoan parasites of chub, Leuciscus

cephalus. She along with her associates (2002) made a comparative study of


102

the haptoral morphology of four species of Diplozoon (Monogenea:

Diplozoidae) from the gills of fish exposed to different levels of water

pollution in two river systems in eastern Europe. The abnormalities have

been recorded and their morphology compared in the light of conditions of

environmental stress. Chishti and Peerzada (1995,1998) carried out

comprehensive study to understand the influence of environmental factors

on the helminth parasitic infections in the fishes of Wular lake, and

observed the dynamics of Acanthocephalan and trematode infections in

different months and their correlation with some environmental factors.

Bagge and Valtonen (1996) examined experimentally the influence of

paper and pulp mill effluent on gill parasite communities of roach (Rutilus

rutilus). Same author with other researchers (2004) worked on diversity and

abundance of parasites that vary widely among populations of the same

host species. The infection parameters was determined by characteristics of

the host population or of its habitat.

Hoole (1997) assessed the effect of pollution on the immune response

of fish and found it important in the dynamics of host/parasite interactions.

The same author with other coworkers in 2003 assessed the effect of

pollution and parasitic infection in combination on the fish inflammatory

response and evaluated in particular, the role of apoptosis and the acute

phase protein, C reactive protein. Haaparanta et al. (1997) compared gill

changes over five seasons in perch and roach among the four lakes differing

in parasite species composition and water quality to determine factors viz.,

parasites, pollution or a combination of these two factors caused the most

severe damage which presented the greatest problem within the system.

Mo, Tor Atle (1997) studied the seasonal occurrence of Gyrodactylus

(Monogenea) in brown trout (Salmo trutta) and Atlantic salmon in the


103

Sandvikselva river, Norway. It was noticed that both prevalence and

intensity of parasitism increased and decreased correspondingly with the

rise and fall in water temperature. D'Amelio and Gerasi (1997) while

analysing the degree of biological diversity as an indicator of the well-

being of ecological systems suggested an approach for monitoring the

health of an ecosystem by analysing the ratio between monoxenous and

heteroxenous parasite species infecting model hosts. By this methodology it

was possible to confirm pollution effect as highlighted by other quantitative

methods.

Zampella and Bunnell (1998) compared the Digenetic trematode,

Phyllodistomum in banded sunfish (n=72) from 4 streams, the 2 most

disturbed and 2 least disturbed (pristine) habitat. In the disturbed streams,

Phyllodistomum occured in 12.12% of the fish (n=33) but in 7.7% of the fish

(n=39) in pristine streams. Brotheridge et al. (1998) correlated the presence

of encapsulated parasitic larvae found in the population of brown trout

with the concentrations of two metals, Nickel and Copper in fish.

Le Morvan et al. (1998) discussed the effects of temperature on

nonspecific defences, such as phagocytosis and cytotoxicity, total immune

competence in teleosts at low environmental temperature. Dusek et al.

(1998) found that monogeneans differed in their responses with respect to

their systematics (genera Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus, Paradiplozoon),

microhabitat distribution (location on gills or fins versus body surface of

host fish) and evolutionary strategy (specialists versus generalists) to

different pollutants and concluded that more precise approach is needed to

clarify associations between parasites and different environmental impacts.

Galli et al. (1998) measured Lead (Pb) and Chromium (Cr)

concentrations in the Acanthocephalan Acanthocephalus anguillae and found


104

higher concentrations of Pb and Cr in the parasites, respectively

approximately 200 times and approximately 60 times higher than that of the

host liver. He with his coassociates (2001)worked on the populations of

Lamproglena pulchella von Nordmann 1832 (Copepoda: Eudactylinidae) in

Cyprinid fish in rivers with different pollution levels. Again in 2001 b with

his coworkers characterized water quality as a determinant of the

composition of fish parasite communities.

Zander (1998) reviewed the ecology of helminth parasites in the

Baltic Sea under headings: characteristic abiotic conditions of the Baltic Sea

and the composition of its parasitic fauna; the parasite fauna of ecological

equivalents or guild community; effects of eutrophication etc. same

researcher and Kesting (1998) compared parasites of gobiid fishes from two

sites in the western Baltic Sea to get information on the quality of the

respective environments.

Majidah and Khan (1998) studied the population dynamics of nine

species of helminths from fishes in Wular lake. Positive correlation was

observed between parasite population and temperature. Landsberg et al.

(1998) while investigating the feasibility of using parasites of fish as

response indicators divided environmental parameters that can affect

parasite abundance, richness, prevalence and diversity into three

categories: 1) the physical and chemical characteristics of the water and

sediment including contaminants) external to the fish; 2) the internal

environment defined by the physical condition (physiological) of

individual fish; and 3) the presence and relative abundance of benthic

macroinvertebrates, many of which survive as intermediate hosts. Parasites

appeared to be useful biomarkers and more sensitive to environmental

stressors than the fish themselves.


105

Landry (1999) investigated the influence of physico-chemical factors

on prevalence and intensity of nine parasite taxa and related parasite

abundance to the habitat effects on intermediate host and parasite life cycle

dynamics. Roberts and Barnhart (1999) while studying the effect of

temperature, pH, and CO2 on transformation of the glochidia of Anodonta

suborbicllata, on fish host and in vitro found low temperature facilitating

successful encystment and transformation of the parasitic glochidia larvae

of mussels on fish hosts. They found that the % transformation success of

attached glochidia in laboratory infection on fish hosts was significantly

higher at 10 oC than at 21 oC.

Carney and Dick (2000) recorded twenty-eight parasite species from

yellow perch (Perca flavescens) collected from Dauphin Lake and Beaufort

Lake, Manitoba; Lake Winnebago, Green Bay and Lake Michigan,

Wisconsin. The trophic status of the aquatic system was found indirectly

affecting the parasite communities by limiting the variety of potential

intermediate hosts. Halmetoja et al. (2000) studied parasite communities of

perch in a natural lake (Vetamajarvi) and two reservoirs (the Kyrkosjarvi

and Liikapuro reservoirs) located in Western Finland. The protozoan ciliate

Capriniana piscium benefiting acidic water and Acanthocephalus lucii, due to

the abundance of its intermediate host, were most prevalent in the reservoir

conditions.

Schmidt-Posthaus et al. (2001) discussed poor water quality as a

major factor causing a decline of brown trout populations in Swiss rivers.

Several infectious agents were diagnosed in fish exposed to river water. The

most important findings were furunculosis and proliferative kidney

disease. Onusiriuka (2001) investigated helminth infestation of the electric

fish, Malapterurus electricus, in river Kaduna, Nigeria. 32.11% were infected

with helminth parasites. The intestine and the stomach recorded the highest


106

number of parasites (58.40% and 34.51% respectively). Onusiriuka (2002)

investigated the effect of parasitism on the protein and free fatty acid of the

Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and African catfish, Clarias gariepinus from

swimming pool end of river Kaduna. Water quality parameters showed

variation but these were regarded as affecting the parasitized and

unparasitized fish samples equally.

Hamilton and Poulin (2001) used inter-population comparisons to

investigate the effects of parasitism and variability in water temperature on

life history traits in New Zealand freshwater fish, Gobiomorphus breviceps the

upland bully. Thomas (2002) conducted ecological studies of Welsh rivers

by studying the feeding behavior of Salmonid fish, their helminth parasites

and intermediate hosts. Statistical analyses confirm that the genome, age

and sex of salmonid fish hosts, the station and seasonal change in radiation

levels as the significant factors in predicting the number of parasites.

Zsigmond et al. (2002) investigated the susceptibility of the fish to the

Rhipidocotyle fennica cercariae from Lake Vatia, contaminated with BKME,

and compared with the fish from uncontaminated lake. Matbouli and

Hoffmann (2002) presented data from field studies and exposure

experiments and the possible association of limno and physicochemical

parameters with outbreaks of Proliferative Kidney Disease (PKD) in

rainbow and brown trout. Pietrock and Marcogliese (2003) examined the

effects of natural variables and pollutants on two specific properties

(survival and infectivity) of free-living stages of endohelminths, mainly

trematodes, and recognized that other parasitic life history stages in

addition to the hosts are also affected.

Vidal-Martinez et al. (2003) investigated the effect of pollutants on

the intensity of infection of metazoan parasites in the Mayan catfish,


107

Ariopsis assimilis from five localities in Chetumal Bay. Dusan et al. (2003)

investigated the parasite communities of the freshwater fish species roach

(Rutilus rutilus), bitterling (Rhodeus sericeus amarus) and perch (Perca

fluviatilis) during a major flood. They concluded that the parasite

communities of the three fish species responded in different ways to the

flood. Manfredi et al. (2003) investigated the structure of parasite infra

communities of Chubs (Leuciscus cephalus) from various locations along the

river Adda and from lake of Como (Lombardy, Northern Italy) with respect

to different habitat typologies.

Schludermann et al. (2003) stated that in order to validate the role of

parasite community patterns related to heavy metal pollution, more

investigations on food web dynamics, interrelationships between parasites

and the presence/absence of intermediate hosts is essential. Joanne (2003)

studied four native fishes in the Grand Canyon. Among them one species,

humpback chub Gila cypha, was federally listed as endangered. They found

that introduced parasites and diseases further threaten native fishes.

Poleo et al. (2004) demonstrated that aqueous Almunium and Zinc

have a stronger effect on the ectoparasite Gyrodactylus salaris than on the

salmonid host, Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and suggested that the metals

can also be used as a pesticide to control ecto parasites such as G. salaris.

Fellis and Esch (2004) examined the community structure and seasonal

dynamics of 16 helminth species infecting green (Lepomis cyanellus) and

bluegill (L. Macrochirus) sunfishes in Charlie's Pond, North Carolina.

Rumiantsev (2004) investigated succession of fish parasite fauna in

lakes (with example of Baltic shield). At the middle oligotrophic stage, the

fauna of parasites and fishes maintained a relative stability for a long

period and was characterized by maximum species diversity. Yousuf and


108

Humaira (2004) studied Parasite community of Carassius carassius in three

lakes of Kashmir depicting different eutrophication level Dal lake

(eutrophic), Manasbal lake (meso-eutrophic) and Khushalsar lake (hyper-

eutrophic). They concluded that the water quality influenced the parasite

community directly in case of ectoparasites and indirectly in case of

endoparasites by affecting the population dynamics of the intermediate

hosts. Ondrackova et al. (2004) studied the seasonal dynamics of

Posthodiplostomum cuticola metacercariae in 0+ juvenile fish, Rutilus rutilus,

Scardinius erythrophthalmus and Abramis bjoerkna, on the floodplain of the

Dyje River, Czech Republic.

Sara et al. (2005) necropsied Sixty-two specimens of Iheringichthys

labrosus, captured in Rosana, Taquarucu, Salto Grande and Canoas

reservoirs, located in the Parana River basin,. Fifty specimens were

parasited by at least one species (80.65%). Comparison of parasite infra

communities from the fishes of both sites presented a similarity of 54.54%.

Shirakashi et al. (2006) worked on recent epidemic of the invasive

monogenean Neoheterobothrium hirame of olive flounder, Paralichthys

olivaceus, in Japan. To clarify the causal link between parasite invasion and

host depletion, they monitored the infections of N. hirame on juvenile

flounder for 2 years at two widely separate bays, Obama Bay. Fishes

captured at Obama Bay harboured three times more worms than those at

Miyako Bay and had a significantly higher overall prevalence of infection.

In addition, there was a negative correlation between parasite intensity and

host condition factor at Obama Bay, suggesting a causal link between the N.

hirame epidemic and the reduction of local flounder populations.

The above mentioned review illustrates the complete picture of the

of the work done on environmental, morphological, and biological studies


109

of fish parasite system and indicated that the fishes of Kashmir are

invariably infected by all the four helminth groups viz. Diplozoon,

Clinostomum and Allocreadium from Trematoda; Adenoscolex and

Bothriocephalus from Cestoda; Pomphorhynchus and Neoechinorhynchus from

Acanthocephala and Rhabdochona and Procamallanus from Nematoda. It is

also clear that tremendous literature is available on the morphological

aspects of helminth parasites but little attention has been paid towards the

effect of this large assemblage of parasites on fish health in general and that

of the indigenous fish – Schizothorax in particular. It was felt necessary to

carry out the detailed study in this direction.

Although a lot of work has been carried out on the water bodies of

Kashmir but studies of comparative nature and those revealing the factors

influencing the fish of Kashmir valley are wanting as is evident from the

non- availability of the references on this important aspect.

In addition to that, a lot of work has been done on finding the

association of parasites with environmental pollution with respect to fish

health. but in Kashmir valley, scant efforts have been put on finding the

relationships between degradation of environmental quality, higher

prevalence of helminth parasitic infections in the native fish of Kashmir,

which necessitated the present endeavour.

review of literature - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/90212/12/12... ·...

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