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Review of Literature

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter reviews several studies on role conflict, job satisfaction, career

orientation and quality of work life. These studies have been carried out in the last five

decades. As defined in the introduction chapter women in Indian context are generally

perceived as home makers than career borne ones. Thus the moment women have their

career aspiration that influences other variables like job satisfaction, role conflict and

quality of work life. The review of literature traces the evidences of the relationships

among those variables including other important demographic variables.

As stated in the introduction chapter about role conflict and its relationship with

other related variables it is evident that role conflict arises when women assume dual

roles as mother/housewife as well as a worker. Since many women occupy work and

have family roles too, their experiences at work and in the family have come to represent

primary social contexts in examining women‘s lives (McBride, 1990). Working women

loyalties, interests and aims differ between one place and the other and it demands two

different types of individuals (Shameer and Soloman, 1985). Today women function in all

multiple roles simultaneously operating both work and family domains as a mother, spouse,

housekeeper and as well as maintaining a full time job outside the home (Zedeck, 1992).

The relationships between these dual roles have thus become an interested area of

research among organizational researchers. In most of the studies conducted, researchers

have found that carrying out these dual roles often leads to family conflict among

women. The profound demographic trends have elevated the need to understand and

manage the interface between work and the family. (Fraser, 2001).


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2.1. Role Conflict

It is evident that our work lives can either enhance or detract our family lives.

In the same manner, our family lives can have positive or negative influences on our

work attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes. For example, extensive and inflexible work

hours, over-involvement in work, and job stress may produce distress within the family

domain, withdrawal from family responsibilities, and adversely affect one's overall

quality of life. Similarly, extensive care-giving responsibilities and intensive involvement

with family activities can limit individuals' career choices and aspirations and negatively

affect their work involvement, job satisfaction, and intention to continue their

employment. In contrast, there are several resources derived from one's work role, such

as income, job autonomy, and social support from co-workers and/or supervisor, that can

positively influence one's experiences and well-being in the family domain. Similarly,

individuals' home and family lives can also strengthen or enrich the quality of their work

lives by providing a variety of supportive resources to draw upon.

Because work and family lives have a profound influence on one another,

understanding the linkages between work and family roles has important implications not

only for organizations and individuals, but also for educators and researchers interested in

this area. With the growing representation of women in the workforce and a blurring of

traditional gender-based roles, both men and women are confronted with the daily

challenge of handling their work and family responsibilities in a way that meets the needs

of their family as well as their employer.


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Work-family conflict or interference refers to simultaneous pressures from the

work and family domains that are mutually incompatible in some respect such that

meeting the demands of one role makes it difficult to meet the demands of the other role.

Sometimes referred to as negative spillover, work-family conflict can take different forms

and can originate either in the work domain or the family domain.

Therefore, understanding the mechanisms by which work and family life affect

each other will help individuals and their employers determine the most effective ways to

reduce work-family interference and increase work-family enrichment. For example,

human resource professionals, training and development personnel, work-family and

diversity consultants, and other decision makers can use these insights to design policies

and programs aimed at promoting a higher quality of life for employees.

Similarly, understanding different facets of the work-family interface can help

working women and men not only achieve a better balance between their work and

family roles, but also become more responsive to their subordinates' work-family

concerns. Finally, this knowledge will be helpful for educators and researchers in

management, organizational behavior, sociology, family studies, and other areas who are

interested in gaining additional insight into the nature of work-family relationships.

Lodahl and Kejner (1965) explained that major determinant of work-family

conflict is one‘s involvement at work, that is, the degree to which a person actively

participates in his or her work role which influences the time and effort one could spend

in the job. It has been found that high work involvement is associated with higher levels

of work-family conflict. The study also reveals that work involvement could be an

outcome of career salience. Objective characteristics in the workplace such as work


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conditions and job demands may also have significant impacts upon the amount of

involvement put in one‘s work. For this reason, it is believed that work involvement has

an effect upon work-family conflict above and beyond one‘s career salience.

Kala Rani (1976) in her study states that, more women are employed in new avenues

of employment and in new occupations. They enjoy more and more opportunities than ever

before as individuals, workers, wives and mothers. Their adjustment to social changes is

retarded and is generally associated with a high balance between satisfaction and tensions.

This is due to the fact that their lives are linked with the existence of the family and the

continuation of the race. The study also examines the relationship between role conflict and the

number of children among working women. The result of the study says that there is positive

correlation between role conflict and the number of children. That means working mothers with

more number of children are experiencing more conflict than those who have less children.

Gutek B.A., Nagamura C.Y. and Nieva V. (1981) studied interdependence of

work and family role among women employees. It is revealed from the study that, the

inter role conflict is likely to increase as the demands of either the work role or family

role increase. Similarly inter-role conflict can increase once the obligations to the family

expand through marriage and the arrival of children.

Greenhaus J.H. and Beutell N.J. (1985) explored in their research to know the

sources of conflict between work and family roles. The study reveals that the family-related

variable that has drawn wide attention such as number of children at home, having young

children at home, shortage of time for women to do household work are the reasons for

causing role conflict among working woman. Younger children generally require more

attention from working parents, and thus more time is needed to spend on them.


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Barnett R.C. and Baruch G.K. (1985) had conducted a study to know the

relationship among the variables like role quality, multiple role involvement and

psychological well-being of middle aged women. The result of the study explains that the

quality of a woman‘s work role was a significant predictor of her role overload, whereas

mere occupancy of the work role was not.

Frone M.R., Russell M. and Cooper M.L. (1992) have conducted a study on

antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict. Model has been tested on work-family

interface acknowledged that employees with significant dependent care responsibilities

like, employees with dependent children or dependent elders and employees with large

families tend to experience higher levels of work-family conflict. This study examined

the work-family conflict from the social as well as organizational perspective.

Aminah A. (1995) examined the conflict that married women experienced between

work and family roles, and analyzed the coping behaviour. Data from 82 professional women

from six research institutes revealed that married women experienced work-family conflict

with varying intensities in trying to meet the expectations of work and family roles.

The study also suggests that married working women experience work-family conflict, it

pertinent that employers and policy makers pay special attention to improve the welfare

of employees through improved facilities and support services such as day-care on site,

flexible-time and maternity leave to help them to cope with their multiple roles. Besides

employers, policy makers, extension planners and family development practitioners and

educators, husbands also have a role to play since spousal support is a crucial variable for

reducing the role conflict.


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Rout (1996) identified specific pressures at work and at home experienced by

general practitioners and their spouses. The finding of the study says that female physician‘s

workload and decreased interest in her family were important stressors that affected her entire

family unit. Other important stressors mentioned in the study which affects entire family are

time pressure, hours on call, lack of support and amount of paper work. This study also

identified role conflict as a major stressor for female general practitioners where many

women brought work home, spend time away from home at meetings, and family life was

constantly interrupted by telephone calls causes role conflict in them.

Frone M.R., Russell M. and Barnes G.M. (1996) conducted study on

work-family conflict, gender and health related outcomes of employed parents that revealed

the reasons for role conflicts which are many. Among these, prominent ones are age and

number of children, type of family in which a working mother lives, the nature and extent of

participation by other members of the family and more number of children in the family

meant a higher level of work family conflict. This finding indicates the possibility that highly

educated men (i.e., men with high socio-economic status) and men with several children

living at home (i.e., men with preschool children) appear to feel guilt about neglecting the

family because of work. These feelings of guilt may arise out of social expectations; men are

increasingly expected to be good husbands and fathers, and devote time to the family.

Thus the ability of men to maintain a positive family related self image is hindered.

Itshree Padhi (1999) studied the adjustment pattern of working mothers in balancing

work responsibility and house responsibility. The finding of the study reveals that married

woman who works outside her home is under various pressures and is most often engaged in

a struggle to balance her work and responsibilities inside and outside her home.


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Edward J.R. and Rothbard N.P. (2000) in their study explained that

work-family compensation can produce positive effects of one role on another. For

example, an individual who lacks the opportunity to make decisions in his or her job may

compensate by pursuing leisure or recreational roles that provide extensive opportunities

to make decisions (e.g., a little league coach). Further the study explains that work family

compensation arises from a deficiency in a role whereas work-family enrichment arises

from a strength or resource in the role. There has not been a great deal of empirical

research on compensation, further he explains that, Segmentation, the separation or

independence of work and family roles, has gained recent attention in the literature.

Segmentation is currently viewed as an active strategy to maintain a boundary between work

and family roles. Work-family role segmentation can also be viewed as a characteristic of

the two roles rather than as a personal strategy.

Ashforth B. E., Kreiner G. E. and Fugate M. (2000) believed that two roles are

segmented when their boundaries are inflexible and impermeable to one another and how

they are very different from one another in terms of role requirements. He also suggested

that segmented roles have both advantages (less blurring or confusion between work and

family responsibilities) and disadvantages (difficulty in crossing the boundary from one

role to the other).

Steven S.L., Hang-Yue N. and Anita W.N. (2001) studied the relationship

between job satisfaction and role conflict. Data was collected from a sample of

251 professional accountants employed in Hong Kong firms. The findings of the study

show that inter role conflict arises from incompatible role requirements between two or

more work-related roles. This study also examined effect of role conflict on job satisfaction


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and propensity to leave. Results from hierarchical regression analyses revealed that inter

role conflict was associated with low job satisfaction and high propensity to leave.

In addition the study also reveals that professional commitment of the professionals

moderated the relationship between inter role conflict and propensity to leave.

Kim J.L.S. and Ling C.S. (2001) studied the work family conflict of women

entrepreneurs in Singapore. They identified three dimension of conflict such as job - spouse

conflict, job-parent conflict and job-home maker conflict. The findings of the study

reveals that number of hours worked and work scheduled inflexibility had great impact

on job-parent conflict and job-house maker conflict. Work-stressor had great influence on

job-spouse conflict. Age and number of children significantly influenced job-parent

conflict. Spouse attitude and emotional support had great influence on reducing the level

of role conflict.

Sunita M. and Sapna S. (2005) carried out a study on knowing the effects of

different professions and multiplicity of social (familial) roles on the role conflict

amongst working women. For the study purpose three categories of professionals like

lectures, doctors and nurses were considered. For this purpose, a 3x3 factorial design was

used. Results revealed significant main effects of women‘s professions and social roles as

well as an interaction effect on the role conflict wherein women teachers are experiencing

low level of role conflict than women playing role as doctors and nurses. Women who

plays social role as nurse who are married and mother of child experience high

role conflict. The findings of the study highlight the importance of quality of job.

The profession of doctors and lecturers are experiencing low level of role conflict

because they provided with more variety, autonomy i.e. the freedom to make choices on


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the job, more control as compared to nurses whose job is more monotonous, and who are

also expected to follow and act according to the guidelines of the doctor with little

control over the situation.

Ujvala R. and Kamala (2010) conducted a study on Work-Family conflict in

India. In this study the author considered 405 respondents who were working as full time

employees in different type of organizations and having at least one dependent child still

living at home with them. The sample was roughly equally distributed (25 per cent)

among the healthcare, education, manufacturing and finance sectors. Path analysis was

adopted to know the work support to negative work outcomes, family support to negative

family outcomes, work demands to negative work outcomes, family demands to negative

family outcomes. They found that all these factors were significantly correlated.

Vijaya T. G. and Hemamalini R. (2012) examined how organizational commitment

and turnover intention are influenced by role ambiguity, role conflict and faculty work role

balance in engineering colleges. Role stress occurs as faculty faces the challenge of balancing

their teaching, research, and service roles while maintaining practice, knowledge and expertise.

In this study only two role stressors are taken into consideration role ambiguity and role

conflict. The findings of the study reveals that role ambiguity and role conflict is negatively

correlated with the variables affective commitment and normative commitment. Higher the

percentage of role ambiguity and role conflict there will be less commitment of the faculties

towards the college. Turnover has a positive relation with role ambiguity and role conflict.

Higher the roles stress higher the turnover condition of the faculties.

Somya P. and Shobha U. (2012) in their conceptual study defines role conflict as

―conflict among the roles corresponding to two or more status of working woman‖.


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The study also explains different types of role conflict faced by working women such as a

growing daughter, as working girl, a wife (home maker), as a working married woman.

The study also explains measures to reduce the fatal effects of role conflict faced by

middle class working women of India such as support from her parents, support from her in

laws and husband, social interaction with other females of her age group, Self Help can able to

reduce the role conflict of Indian women.

Dhaifallah O.A. (2013) examined the relationship between role conflict and job

satisfaction among academic staff in Saudi Arabian Universities. The finding of the study

revealed that there was a negative relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction.

This study revealed employees under excessive role conflict tend to be less satisfied with

their jobs. Therefore, the study also gives suggestions that educational leaders should pay

more attention to the factors that can lead to dissatisfaction. The work procedures should

be clear and every employee should know her/his role in the organization. However,

further studies are recommended to include other variables that can lead to less job

satisfaction such as work-family conflict and role ambiguity, overloaded work.

Quarat, Muhammad A.K. and Nadeem I. (2013) in their study tried to explore

direct relation of role conflict with job satisfaction and job stress in a mediating role of job

stress in role conflict and job satisfaction among employees of private banking sector in

Pakistan. An effort is made through this study to find out how role conflict act as a job

stressor which influences job satisfaction. Three step regressions was used to test hypothesis

and results indicate that there is significant positive relation between role conflict and job

stress while role conflict has negative relation with job satisfaction. The result of the study

also explains that job stress mediates between role conflict and job satisfaction.


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2.2. Job Satisfaction

Some people like to go to work and consider it an integral part of their lives.

Others do not want to work but do it only because they must, for financial or other

reasons, because there were such divergent perspectives about work as well these

perspectives had the potential to impact job performance. Job satisfaction was a topic of

great interest for people who worked in organizations and for those who studied them.

In fact, it was the most frequently studied variable in organizational behavior research

(Spector, 1997). Job satisfaction has been a topic of interest to researchers because of the

perception that it was associated with absenteeism, worker productivity, employee turnover,

and general mental health of employees. The assessment of job satisfaction, its causes,

consequences, and nature were important variables that drew the attention of researchers for

almost seventy years. The earliest studies about it focused on productivity and turnover while

later studies focused on need fulfillment. Researchers were concerned about whether or not

the job met the employee‘s physical and psychological needs for things provided by work,

such as salary (Porter, 1962; Wolf, 1970).

The assessment of job satisfaction, its causes, consequences, and nature were

important variables that drew the attention of researchers for almost seventy years.

The earliest studies of Job satisfaction, the extent to which employees are satisfied with

the various aspects of their work, is one of the most studied concepts in organizational

research. One of the earliest nurse job satisfaction studies was conducted by Nahm (1940)

and his findings supported that supervisory relations, individual adjustment, promotional

opportunities, and relationships with family and friends were determinants for job satisfaction


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Job Satisfaction Theories

Factors impacting job satisfaction could be divided into two categories (Spector, 1997).

He called them antecedents of job satisfaction. The first antecedent was the job

environment comprised of factors external to the individual such as treatment by others in

the workplace, rewards, on the job relationships, and the nature of the work. The second

antecedent comprised of individual factors that the person had brought to the job.

This included expectations, personality, the need for fulfillment, motivation, and

experiences (Chappell, 1995). Both categories of factors worked together to determine

how well the individual fits into the job and how it influenced job satisfaction.

Person-Environment Fit Theory

Person-Environment Fit Theory states that the fit between the person and the job is

an important influence on job satisfaction (Kristof, 1996). An emphasis on improving the

fit between the abilities of people and the demands of their jobs has made an important

contribution to both organizational functioning and individual adjustment. A good fit was

described as a healthy match between the worker‘s needs and the demands of the job

(Chappell, 1995). There was job satisfaction when characteristics of the job were matched to

characteristics of the individual (Edwards, 1991). The importance of the relationship between

the organization and the individual was first recognized by Argyris (1957). He pointed out

that a conflict sometimes developed when there was a discrepancy between the needs of the

organization and the needs of the individual. He also maintained that this incongruence

resulted in frustration, failure, short term perspective on the part of the employee, and conflict

within the organization. Argyris stated that employees who felt incongruence in their job

found ways to resist or deal with frustrations within the organization.


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1. They withdrew from the organization through absenteeism or by quitting.

2. They stayed on the job but developed a mental distance by becoming apathetic or

passive.

3. They resisted the organization by restricting output or through deception and

sabotage.

4. They tried to escape the present circumstance by climbing the hierarchy to a

better job.

5. They tried to create groups such as unions that tried to deal with problems

between the organization and the people who belong to it.

6. They socialized their children to believe that their work was unrewarding and

offered little chance for advancement. (Bolman and Deal, 1991)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Employees usually wanted to have some say over matters that affected them in

the workplace and if they did not have this they were not likely to feel satisfied no matter

what other issues they were permitted to address. Personal meaningfulness, therefore,

was an important factor to consider regarding job satisfaction (Brady, 1989). Including

this dimension was not as straightforward as it appeared on the surface because personal

meaningfulness varied as people grew and changed in their lives and careers. At a

particular time in one‘s life and career a person might have been preoccupied with salary

and security needs. At a later point, the focus might have been on accomplishment and

recognition. Maslow (1970) was the first to recognize that there was a hierarchy of needs

in people. His premise was that as lower needs were met they became less of a concern


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and were replaced by higher level needs. He asserted that higher level needs could not be

addressed until lower level needs had been met. He classified human motivation into

five categories.

1. Physiological needs: need for food, clothing, and shelter;

2. Safety needs: the need to be free of fear of physical danger or deprivation;

3. Social needs: the need to belong to and be accepted within various groups;

4. Esteem needs: the need for self esteem and for esteem from others;

5. Self- Actualization needs: the need or desire to become all that one is capable of

becoming. (Galpin, 1996)

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer (1975) considered Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs and offered a

revised and realigned version of it. He concluded that all people had three basic needs which

were existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs. Alderfer‘s existence grouping

corresponded to Maslow‘s basic psychological and safety needs. Relatedness corresponded to

Maslow‘s social needs. Growth needs corresponded to Maslow‘s esteem and

self-actualization (Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson, 1996). Examples of Alderfer‘s existence

needs were food, water, shelter, and pay. Examples of relatedness needs were relationships

with friends, family, co-workers, and employers. Examples of growth needs were the need to

feel good about oneself and the desire to accomplish more personally and in one‘s work.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Frederick Herzberg extended Maslow‘s theory of motivation by applying it

specifically to the workplace. He developed the concept of man as having two sets of


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needs, which were independently met. His studies of job attitudes revealed that esteem

and self-actualization seemed to become more important as people developed.

In interviews, he asked people from eleven industries in the Pittsburgh area what kinds of

things about their jobs made them unhappy or dissatisfied and what kinds of things made

them happy or satisfied. From this data he concluded that people had two different kinds

of needs. He observed that when people felt dissatisfied with their jobs they were

concerned about the work environment. In contrast, when they felt good about their jobs,

the feeling was about the job itself. The first category of needs he called hygiene or

maintenance factors. They were hygiene factors because they impacted the worker‘s

environment and served in preventing job dissatisfaction. They were maintenance factors

because they were never fully met and must continue to be maintained. He called the

second category of needs as motivators because they were effective in motivating people

to better performance.

Herzberg felt that matters such as company policies, quality of supervision, working

conditions, interpersonal relationships, money, status and security should be considered

hygiene or maintenance factors because they were related to the conditions under which a

job was performed (Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson, 1996). Herzberg referred to factors

that involved feelings of achievement, professional growth, and recognition on the job as

motivators. He used this term because these factors were capable of having a positive

impact on job satisfaction which often resulted in an increase in individual performance

on the job (Kern, Riley, and Jones, 1987).


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Theory X and Theory Y

According to Douglas McGregor, the traditional organization had centralized

decision making, a hierarchal pyramid, and was based on certain assumptions about

human behavior and human motivation. He assembled these assumptions into two

theories: Theory X and Theory Y. ―Theory X assumed that most people preferred to be

directed, were not interested in assuming responsibility, and wanted safety above all.

Accompanying this philosophy was the belief that people were motivated by money, fringe

benefits, and the threat of punishment‖ (Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson, 1996 p. 37). Leaders

who accepted these assumptions closely supervised their employees because they believed that

external control was the best way to deal with unreliable or irresponsible people.

McGregor believed that Theory X assumptions about human nature were often

inaccurate and felt that management styles based on them would fail to motivate people

to work toward attainment of organizational goals. As a consequence, he concluded that

management needed leadership styles based on a more accurate understanding of human nature

and motivation. His Theory Y asserted that people are not, by nature, lazy and unreliable. This

theory conceived of man as desiring to work and use his skills, to make decisions for himself,

and operating heavily on internal controls (Kern, Riley, and Jones, 1987).

Theory Z

William Ouchi expanded and modified McGregor‘s work. He believed that the

ideal organization was egalitarian, fully engaged the participation of employees in day to

day operations, and emphasized interpersonal relationships. Such an entity was

characterized by employee cooperation with the objectives of the organization. Ouchi,

mindful of McGregor‘s Theory Y, used the term Theory Z to describe a leadership


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philosophy that focused on the interdependence between people and organizations.

The most important part of this relationship was the commitment in an organization‘s

culture to its people. Theory Z suggested that humanized working conditions increased

productivity and profits to the company and enhanced the self-esteem of the employees

(Bolman and Deal, 1991).

Expectancy Theory

Based on the earlier works of Lewin (1935), Victor Vroom created the

Expectancy Theory (1964). The premise of this theory was that felt needs caused

behavior and this motivated behavior in a work environment was increased if a person

perceived a positive relationship between effort and performance. Vroom concluded that

motivated behavior was increased if there was a positive relationship between good

performance and rewards. As a consequence, he identified three relationships that

enhanced motivated behavior. These were a positive relationship between effort and

performance, a positive relationship between desired performance and rewards, and the

achievement of valued outcomes or rewards (Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson, 1996).

This theory identified the link between effort and performance and the link between

performance and valued outcomes. It pointed out that people exerted effort to accomplish

a particular objective if there was a reasonable expectation that the effort expended would

result in a desired performance or reward.

Equity Theory

This theory, created by Adams (1965) contended that people wanted to receive

equitable reward and compensation for their work. He asserted that if people felt they were

treated equitably in the work environment they would be satisfied in their jobs. If they did not


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feel they were treated equitably in the work environment they were dissatisfied about

their jobs. Evans (1996) concluded that individuals wanted to be treated equitably in the

work place. If they were, they were satisfied with their jobs. If they were not, then

dissatisfaction resulted.

When workers considered the effort they put forth on the job and the personal

sacrifices they made to an organization, they expected certain outcomes such as an

equitable salary, status within the organization, and recognition for their efforts.

Beck (1990) stated that if the perception of workers was that a discrepancy existed

between the effort put forth and the compensation received, they would be dissatisfied on

the job. In contrast, he stated that if the perception of workers was that the compensation

was equitable, there would be job satisfaction.

Witt L.A. and Myers J.G. (1992) conducted a study to know the factors

influencing the job satisfaction. The study shows factors that made impact on job

satisfaction was the amount of involvement in decision making by employees.

Their experiments involved employees from various organizations and they concluded

that when workers were involved in decision making they were more likely to be satisfied

on the job, exerted more effort, and made more sacrifices to be successful within the

organization. The perception of being involved in decisions which affected them was an

important part of job satisfaction.

Brush D.H., Moch M.K. and Podyan A. (1986) studied the relationship between

educational level and job satisfaction. The finding of the study reveals that there is no

correlation between education level of employees in private organization and job

satisfaction. The findings strongly suggest that future studies of job satisfaction should


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take education factor into account in private organizations. Along with education other

demographic variables like family, marital status, traditions can be considered to see the

relationship with the variable job satisfaction.

Agho A.O., Mueller C.W. and Price J.L. (1993) tested an empirical test of a causal

model to identifying determinants of job satisfaction and studying its effects on job

outcomes and employees' behavior towards the organization. The study was based upon the

Price-Mueller model (1986) and the factors considered for the study purpose was overall

job satisfaction, routinization, instrumental communication, autonomy, integration, distributive

justice, and promotional opportunity. The finding of the study reveals that, these variables

were significant and have been identified as determinants of job satisfaction.

Nhundu (1994) conducted a study on the job satisfaction of teachers in

Zimbabwe. From the study it is found that self-appraisals and role-clarity factors emerged

as the major predictors of overall job satisfaction. An important finding was that

self-appraisal was a better predictor of overall job satisfaction than the appraisals by the

teachers' supervisors. This could indicate that supervisors are not well informed about the

inner feelings, experiences and perceptions of an employee as they assume. In the study it is

revealed that other demographic variables such as gender, school level, and school size did

not seem to be stable predictors of job satisfaction among Zimbabwean teachers. It also

appears from this study that intrinsic factors played an important role rather than extrinsic

factors as precursors to perceived job satisfaction among this population of teachers.

Meshal (2001) conducted a study to explore the relationship between education

level and job satisfaction among Kuwaiti women employees in the Kuwaiti private

banking sector. The analysis is focused on the responses of the female employees to their


37

own jobs as indicated by their level of job satisfaction The major findings of this research

indicate that a much broader approach towards increasing satisfaction than focusing on

the job itself is required. The study shows that the respondents‘ education background is

of substantial importance in affecting job satisfaction.

Watson J.J., Buchanan I., Champbell and Briggs C. (2003) conducted study

on knowing the challenges faced by employees in working life. The study further

explains that job satisfaction is the favorableness or unfavorableness with which

employees view their work. It is affected by the environment. Different aspects such as pay,

promotions, supervision, fringe benefits, co-workers support are associated with the

levels of job satisfaction.

Tasmin (2006) conducted study to know the relationship between job satisfaction

and quality of work life among primary school teachers in Bangladesh. Various factors

were considered to measure quality of work life also tested how these factors influencing

on job satisfaction. The findings of the study shows that factors such as work

environment, interpersonal relations and supervision of the head teachers influences

women teachers‘ job satisfaction, where as men teacher‘s job satisfaction is influenced by

salary and job security.

Colin G. and John S.H. (2008) investigated the influence of performance-related

pay on several dimensions of job satisfaction. This study considers the dimensions like

profit sharing, bonuses and performance pay. The findings of the study shows that,

performance-related pay is associated with increased overall satisfaction, satisfaction

with pay, satisfaction with job security and satisfaction with hours. It appears to be

negatively associated with satisfaction with the work itself.


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Robert D. M. and Cindy Z. (2008) conducted a survey to know the relationship

between job satisfaction and high involvement work practices such as quality circles, feedback,

suggestion programs and task teams in Canadian work place. They consider the direction of

casuality, identifying both reasons and work practices might affect job satisfaction. They find

that Job satisfaction is positively associated with high involvement practices.

William D.R., Tahira M.P., Swee L.C., Cesar M. and Cornelius J.K. (2010)

examined the effects of job security on three outcomes i.e. job satisfaction, work behavior

and negative emotions among the managers working in USA. The analysis reveals that

job insecurity negatively related to satisfaction and that job insecurity has both direct and

indirect effects on work behaviours of emotions.

Sharma R.D. and Jeevan J. (2010) conducted an empirical study on job

satisfaction of university teachers. The study was conducted to understand the factors

affecting job satisfaction of teachers working in University of Jammu. The researcher

considered the various intrinsic and extrinsic factors to find out the level of job

satisfaction. The study considered intrinsic and extrinsic factors to find the level of job

satisfaction and to see the effect of age, gender, marital status, education, occupation

level and length of employment on the job satisfaction of a teacher order of importance.

The result of the study shows that ages, education level length of employment are

associated with job satisfaction of working teachers.

Ishfaq A., Ahmad U. and Sahar L.R. (2011) in their study explained how job

satisfaction mediates the relationship between facets of job and citizenship behavior

in banking sector of Pakistan and specially focusing on female employees. Total 200

self-administered questionnaires were distributed among the female staff of different banks.


39

188 completed questionnaires were received back with response rate of 94%. Statistical

analysis reveals that there exists significant relationship between facets of job (pay,

promotion, supervisor‘s behavior and coworker‘s behavior) and dependent variables such

as organizational citizenship behavior. Likewise, job satisfaction mediates the

relationship between facets of job and citizenship behavior.

Halagalimath and Rajeshwari (2012) carried out a study to find out the level of

job satisfaction and other factors influencing the job satisfaction among women

employees working in University of Agricultural Sciences and Karnataka University.

The study revealed the following: overall satisfaction with their job, salary, jobs itself as

it is challenging, recognition, support from superiors and the co-workers. The study also

revealed that job security and size of the family had no relation with job satisfaction level

of the respondents.

Manju C. (2013) made an attempt to trace out the level of job satisfaction

among various working women engaged in different professions in Guwahati. An attempt

was also made to compare the job satisfaction level of the working women, working in

different job environments. The sample population consists of working women of

different professionals such as Teaching, Bank employees, Private sector employees,

Advocates, Government employees and Business women. The result of the study shows

that among the working women engaged in different professions the government sector

employees have a higher level of satisfaction than the other professions and private

sectors working women have the lowest level of satisfaction.


40

2.3. Career Orientation

A gender role is a theoretical construct in the social sciences and humanities that

refers to a set of social and behavioral norms that, within a specific culture, are widely

considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex. Socially accepted

gender roles differ widely between different cultures. In Eastern cultures and specifically

in India the role of women is defined more to do with the household chores than

involving in any economical activities, though women widely participate in agriculture

and other related works traditionally. After 1970‘s the scenario started changing in India

as dual career has become a norm and steadily grown over the decades. In the current

economic opportunities women workforce has increased significantly. It is important to

note some statistics of the women participation in the world of work in India. As per the

evidence from the 61st, 66

th and 68

th Round National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)

India, the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) of urban women during 2009-10 was

25.4 million which increased to 28.8 million during 2011-12, Whereas reversal results

were found in case of rural female LFPR which was 105.5 million in 2009-10 and

decreased to 103.6 million in 2011-12 in to the world of work. That also shows that the

role perception and the role or career orientation is changing among women as they

equally participate in the income generation activity. Therefore, it is important to

understand the various aspects of career orientation of women in India.

The term gender role orientation is used to refer to the extent to which individuals

describe themselves according to personality attributes of instrumentality and expressiveness

(Bem, 1981; Spence and Helmreich, 1980). Attributes considered instrumental in nature

include being independent, goal oriented, objective, assertive, competitive, and logical;


41

whereas stereotypical expressive characteristics include such traits as emotionality,

nurturance, and sensitivity to others (Bem, 1981; I. Broverman, Vogel, D. Broverman,

Clarkson, and Rosenkrantz, 1972; Orlofsky and Stake, 1981). Androgyny is the extent to

which individuals describe themselves as possessing high levels of both instrumental and

expressive traits (Bem, 1977).

The dominant theoretical perspectives in gender role research are the socialization

point of view (Henning and Jardim, 1977) and the social learning or structuralist perspective

(Kanter, 1977). The socialization theory asserts that individuals manifest congruent

gender role stereotypical personality traits (e.g., instrumental, expressive traits) and

behaviors (e.g., problem-solving, avoidance, negotiating behaviors) that are not readily

amenable to change. According to this perspective, women who are socialized to exhibit

stereotypical feminine characteristics will also behave in a more stereotypical feminine

manner. Research on gender differences suggests that gender role orientation is an

effective explanation and predictor of some behaviors (Arkkelin and Simmons, 1985).

The structuralist view argues that gender role traits and gender role behaviors are

relatively independent due to situational influences, Kanter (1977). For example,

contends that gender differences in work attitudes and behaviors are influenced by

organizational variables, such as job description, position in the hierarchy, and status.

Career orientation operationally defined in this study as ―refers to the positive

attitude of women teachers that women can take up career and be successful in career, and

the belief that taking up career will not affect the family responsibilities and relationships, but

it will rather help to improve family‖.


42

Hall D.T. (1975) defined ―career as the individually perceived sequence of attitudes

and behaviors associated with work-related experiences and activities over the span of the

person's life‖

The other definition given by Van Maanen and Schein (1977) is ―as the pattern of

objective and subjective work-related experiences that reflect a chosen work-related life

theme over the span of one‘s life‖.

Nieva and Gutek (1981) in their study on women and work explain that

traditionally women are viewed as home makers and their entry to the world of work was

not appreciated due to meek nature and submissiveness of women. These characteristics

are valued feminine traits and it was feared to be lost if women entered the work force.

Women when they develop desires to be career oriented especially after their marriage

and off spring then the challenges and barriers are quite a task to keep in pace with the

career oriented goals. The conflict between different roles played by married women is

evident from various studies quoted in the role conflict topic. Thus the working women

have the challenge of keeping the career interests, maintain a balance of multiple roles

and achieving quality of work life.

Miguel (1993) studied the relationship between demographic variables such as age,

length of service, education level, occupation level, gender with career orientation. The study

reveals that demographic factor age is correlated with career orientation, personal career

orientation differ as people grew older.

Burke and Mc Keen (1996) explain professional women in the 20th

century have

the exceptional challenge of balancing the multiple tasks associated with their homemaker

and work roles, namely, fulfilling the responsibilities of mother, caregiver, spouse and


43

employee simultaneously. It is also clear that women‘s ability to balance these roles

has a direct bearing on their physical and mental well-being, as well as their career

performance and success.

Brown and Barbosa (2001) explained that barrier is any obstacle that prevents

forward movement or any event or condition that makes career progress difficult.

The study also indicated barriers partially explain the gap between the abilities of women

and their achievements, these barriers could explain the inhibitions of women‘s career

aspirations. Women face barriers from their childhood in terms of their choice of career

and aspirations and barriers are reinforced during schooling, college and work and they

become more complex over time. Women often perceive barriers and role conflicts as

obstacles in their career development process. Childcare was another potential barrier to

career success faced by women.

Kim N. (2004) studied on stability and dominance in career success orientation

among South Korean employees. The participants in the study differed in their career

orientation in terms of age, length of work experience and employment level; however

they did not differ in terms of education level.

The scenario in India of working women was though not the same but not much

different from the US. Culturally in India defining the role of women was more to do with

house hold chores than what they do outside home. Therefore the belief and the cultural

practice for very long years kept women workforce outside the work until recent past. However

post 1990 economic liberalization in India created opportunities for women to participate in

work and the scenario changed significantly since then. The migration into urban cities and

need for dual income or careers have become a necessity for economic reasons. The World


44

Bank (2013) report on women work force participation stated that only 29 per cent of Indian

women participate in work as compared to China (63 per cent), Brazil (60 per cent), and Russia

(57 per cent) among the BRIC countries. However, the sheer population of India makes the

numbers different and posses a different challenge for the working women.

Shiva (2013) conducts study on work family balance and challenges faced by

working women explains that long term exposure of workers to excessive work hours and

high levels of work to family interference elevates their risk of mental and physical health

problems. It also concludes that women face several challenges to balance work and family.

2.4. Quality of Work Life

The humanistic approach in management has begun in late 1970‘s and during this

emergence, the employees‘ need for meaningful and satisfying work and for participation

in decisions that influence their work environment were all assessed. Therefore, from a

historical perspective this concern for Quality of work life in organizations can be seen as

the latest and, in many ways, the culmination of a string of reform movements that have

attempted during the past several decades, to protect the rights and interest of workers.

The human relations movement which emphasized the importance of people element

than the machine element restored the balance and brought forth the significance of human

beings in organizations. The Tavistock institute of Human Relations using the Socio-technical

Approach emphasized the fact of job redesign and giving high importance of bettering working

life. During the same period Herzberg, Hackman and Lawler and many others have contributed

with their research on job redesign approaches, which essentially indicating the importance of

autonomy, feedback for betterment, meaningfulness of work etc., the central point of all these

approaches was the importance of treating people in organizations as human beings and


45

helping them to grow, develop and take part in the decision-making processes. The goal was to

sensitize the organizations about the importance of people aspects of organizations. Various

terms such as, humanization of work, industrial democracy, workplace democracy, work

redesign, organizational redesigning, participative work and later on, Quality of Work life were

used interchangeably to describe the same thing.

Quality of work life refers to the quality of relationship between employees and

the total working environment which includes, adequate and fair compensation, safe and

healthy working conditions, opportunity to use and develop human capacities, opportunity

for career growth, social integration in the work force, work-life balance, participative

management style, recognition, reward and recognition.

The phrase ―Quality of work Life‖ (QWL) has come in use recently to evoke a

broad range of working conditions and the related aspirations and expectations of the

employees. The QWL can be described as the subjectively perceived satisfaction in one‘s

different aspects of work life as reported by the individual. It is an index of what people

find interesting and satisfying at their work. For this reason, one needs to be sensitive to

the factors related to performance, recognition, work content, responsibility, promotion

and pay, organizational policies, working conditions etc. QWL is a concern not only to

improve life at work, but also life outside work. Hence, it encompasses a wide variety of

programs and techniques that have been developed to endeavor to reconcile the twin

goals of an individual and the organization, i.e. Quality of Life and Organizational

Growth. The QWL has, therefore become key area of consideration now a days.

Interest in the area of QWL got a major boost due its importance as panacea for

organizational problems related to people in the organization. QWL sustained its


46

importance from the fact that organizations started focusing on certain social responsibilities

and realized that focus only on profit making may not suffice to encounter the

organizational issues. Improvement in QWL is considered necessary not only because it

contributes to organizational efficiency and to a fall in negative employee behavior but

also because justice and fair play demand it. Moreover, the discharge of this social

responsibility by organizations is not merely a means to some end but is an end in itself

(Mullins, 1996, 535).

Many researchers have linked QWL with several other indicators such as

satisfaction with wages, hours and working conditions, describing the basic elements of a

good quality of work life as; safe work environment, equitable wages, equal employment

opportunities and opportunities for advancement (Mirvis and Lawler, 1984). Baba and

Jamal (1991) listed what they described as typical indicators of quality work life,

including: job satisfaction, job involvement, work role ambiguity, work role conflict,

work role overload, job stress, organizational commitment and turn-over intentions

Women work force now constitutes a significant percentage of the total work

force in any organization today. With major changes in the nature of work and work

arrangements, including the increasing numbers of women participating in the paid work

force, changes in women‘s career expectations, the decline of the family wage, the

disappearance of the job for life and changes in family formation, the relationship

between families and labour market participation has come under considerable scrutiny.

The pressure of career and family affects women especially at the mid-level

harder. Mid-level career women face more challenges when balancing work and life,

leading to more difficulty in career growth. The difficulty stems from the fact that there is


47

a double push on these career women as they are forced to compete between two

competing ideals: of mother and devoted worker. Attracting and retaining women in the

workforce is very important and hence the organizations must give importance for quality

of work life of women employees.

Katz D. and Kahn R. (1978) viewed quality of work life more broadly as an

individual‘s evaluation of the outcome of the work relationship. They observed that an

employee may be said to enjoy a high quality of working life when he has positive

feelings towards his job and its future prospects, and it is motivated to stay on the job and

performs well and feels his working life fits well with his private life to afford him a

balance between the two in terms of his personal values.

Chelte (1983) defines quality of work life as, quality of relationship between

employees and the total working environment with human dimensions, technical and

economic consideration. He also explored his study to know the relationship among

variables such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction and quality of work life.

The study revealed that there is impact of job satisfaction and quality of work life on the

organisational commitment of employees.

Bowen H.R. and Schuster J.H. (1986) in their book ―A national resource

imperiled‖ explains the several factors which leads to the depression of faculty belongs to

thirty eight institutions which affects the quality of work life, it also characterized the faculty

as dispirited, fragmented and devalued. It was also found that faculty members are satisfied

with their intellectual lives and dedicated to their work.

Bieber J.P., Lawrence J.H. and Blackburn R.T. (1992) explains the

professional lives of faculty members within the University of Michigan. The study was


48

conducted with the purpose of knowing the reasons for changing institution in their

career. In the study faculties have expressed that, factors like standard of competition,

achievement and collegiality of the campus climate are the main reasons for their shift

from one job to another job. The study was also revealed that there was increased

standard of competition and achievement but there was decrease in collegiality of

the campus climate.

Boyer E.L., Altbach P.G. and Whitelaw M. (1994) conducted a study to know

the perspective of faculties on quality of work life they experience in their work place.

The study points out that faculty were rarely satisfied with their institutions and working

conditions. Many faculties reported their perceptions of administrators as incompetent,

communication as poor based on the studies on faculty work life.

Johnsrud L.K. and Heck R.H. (1998) in their study explains three dimensions

which are important for increase in the quality of work life of faculty. These factors are,

professional priorities and rewards; administrative relations and support; and the quality

of benefits and services. They proposed and tested a multilevel structural model to

ascertain the impact of faculty work life on overall morale and the impact of both work

life and morale on intent to leave. The authors conclude that it is the quality of faculty

work life that matters most to the morale of faculty members, and it is the level of morale

that matters most to the intent to leave at the individual level.

Hossain and Tariqual I. (1999) explored study on quality of work life of nurses

working in the hospitals in Bangladesh. The study aims to know the relationship among

quality of work life, job satisfaction and performance of women employees. Statistical


49

tools like correlation was adopted to know the relationship among these variables.

The finding of the study revealed that there was a significant positive correlation between

quality of work life and job satisfaction.

Sirgy J. M., Efraty D., Siegel P. and Lee D. (2001) categorized QWL into two

major need categories as, lower- and higher order needs. The lower-order QWL comprised of

health or safety needs and economic or family needs whereas the higher-order QWL is

comprised of social needs, esteem needs, self actualization needs, knowledge needs, and

aesthetic needs. For measurement, they also suggested to consider following seven

categories of needs while measuring quality of work life. They are, health and safety

needs (protection against disease and injury within and outside the workplace) the needs

of family economy (wages, job security and etc), the need for social understanding

(cooperative work between colleagues, and having free time in the workplaces) social

needs (having the cooperative work between colleagues and spare time at work place) the

need for self-esteem (recognition and appreciation of the work inside and outside the

organization), the need for training (training to improve job skills) the aesthetic needs

(creativity workplace and personal creativity and general aesthetics).

Wyatt T.A. and Wah C.Y. (2001) found that the employees are spending most of

their time in work place as it is important for them to be satisfied by their work life. Therefore

work condition affects not only their physical but also their psychological health. Thus, if

organizations are concerned about achieving a competitive advantage in the market, they

should pay attention to human resource as one of the most valuable assets of their own.

Saklani (2004) empirically evaluated the importance of various quality of work

life factors pertaining to employees and to measure the status of their existence in


50

organization. The result of the study says that apart from monetary considerations,

employees in India accord a high value to the factors that satisfy self esteem and self

actualization need of a higher order.

Rethinam (2008) QWL is a multi-dimensional construct, made up of a number of

interrelated factors that need careful consideration to conceptualize and measure. It is

associated with job satisfaction, job involvement, motivation, productivity, health, safety

and well-being, job security, competence development and balance between work and

non work life and also he concluded as QWL from the perspective of IT professionals is

challenging both to the individuals and organization

Bharathi P., Umaselvi M. and Senthil Kumar N. (2010) conducted a study to

know the level of perception towards quality of work life among 239 college teachers in

Tiruchirappalli. The result of the study reveals that there is significant association

between departments, professional membership, the length of service and their perceived

levels of overall quality of work life. But there is no association between gender, type of

family, age, designation, income level, native place of the respondents and their

perceived levels of overall quality of work life.

Rochita Ganguly (2010) conducted a study to know the relationship between

quality of work life and job satisfaction among university employees. The result of the

study reveals that the university employees are not happy with the degree of autonomy

they are enjoying, the nature of personal growth opportunities, work complexity as well

as their control on the task and the degree of top management support in the work.

The study also reveals that there is positive relationship between job satisfaction and QWL.


51

Reddy and Reddy (2010) in his conceptual paper on quality of work life of

employees describes that, The elements of QWL comprise health and wellbeing, job security,

job satisfaction, competence development and the balance between work with non work life.

In this context, for improving the QWL, different groups have been taken responsibility such

as employers, workers, professional organizations, government, and managers. Therefore,

quality circles, management by objectives, suggestion system and other forms of employees‘

participation in management help to improve QWL in the industry circles. Techniques to

improve quality of work life include job redesign, career development, flexible work

schedules, job security and the like. If any organization properly adopts these techniques, the

QWL will certainly be improved to the desired levels.

Raj Adhikar and Kumar Gautam (2010) conducted study knowing the factor

that affects the quality of work life of employees and how these factors lead to create

motivation among the employees. The result of the study shows that quality of work life

lead to create motivation, loyalty and flexibility in the workforce. All explains that these

factors are crucial for competitiveness of organizations also quality of work life lead to

reduce absenteeism, turnover rates of employees and increase their job satisfaction

Meenakshi Gupta and Parul Sharma (2011) conducted a study on the quality

of work life for the employees of telecom sector. The aim of this study is to determine

how the quality of work life affects the satisfaction level of employees of telecom

employees. Factors such as adequate income & fair compensation, safe & healthy working

conditions, opportunities to use & develop human capacity, opportunity for career growth,

social integration in the work force, constitutionalism in work organization, eminence of

work life and social relevance of work were considered in the study. The result of the


52

study shows that employees of telecom sectors are experiencing high level of quality of

work life. All the factors considered to measure the quality of work life were positively

and significantly correlated with quality of work life.

Drobnic S., Behan B. and Prag P. (2010), conducted a study on how working

environmental factors are affecting the quality of work life of employees in a European

company. The result of the study explains that those employees who have secured better

jobs and good pay structure would feel comfortable at the work place and this affects

their quality of work life.

Hossein (2012) conducted survey with the purpose of assessing the role of job

satisfaction as the intervening variable in determining the quality of work life among the

staff who are information technology users in selected universities based in Iran.

For this purpose, the author used the model of QWL developed by Rethinam and Ismail,

which consists of elements such as health and well-being, job security, competency

development, balance between work life and non-work life. The result of the study

reveals that there is a significant direct correlation only between job satisfaction and

health and well-being.

Indumathy R. and Kamalraj S. (2012) In their study on knowing the factors

influencing on quality of work life of workers of textile industries, reveal that the workers

are most satisfied with work environment and safety measures in the company. Workers

are not much satisfied with the relation and cooperation with co-workers and job security

and they are least satisfied with Salary. He also gives the suggestions that, Quality of

work life can affect such things as employee‘s timings, his or her work output, his or her

available leaves, etc. Work life balance must be maintained effectively to ensure that all


53

employees are running at their peak potential and free from stress and strain. So it is up to the

organization to focus on their workers and improve their quality of work life so that attrition,

absenteeism and decline in workers‘ productivity can be checked.

Chitra D. and Mahalakshmi V. (2012) conducted study with the aim of knowing

the perception of quality of work life and how the factors of quality of work life is

influencing on job satisfaction. Ten variables of quality of work life are examined namely

support from organization, work-family conflict, relationship with peers, self competence,

impact on job, meaningfulness of job, optimism on organizational change, autonomy, access

to resources and time control. All these variables are tested the relationship with job

satisfaction. The test indicated that only three variables like meaningfulness of job, optimism

on organizational change and autonomy are significantly related to job satisfaction.

Zare H., Haghgooyan Z. and Zahra A.K. (2012) undertook a study on quality

of work life to identify its dimensions library method was used to gather information on

theoretical basics, literature and to identify aspects and scales. Field study method was

used to gather information through questionnaires distributed among 30 experts. The data

collected was analyzed using Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) and it is found that

QWL can be explained by four factors as given under:

1. Work life balance - Fair working hours, Work-life atmosphere, Opportunity for

doing religious ceremonies, Ergonomics, No physical and mental damages, Distance

between workplace and home.

2. Social factors - The importance of work in the society, social integration in

organization, Social networks in work, respecting employees, Self-esteem feeling in

the organization, Good colleagues.


54

3. Economic factors - Salary, Health service, Insurance, Retirement, Job security.

4. Job content - Team working, independence, meaningful work, rich and challenging

work, ownership feeling in work, the need of creativity in work, growth opportunity.

Ayesha T., Tasnuva. and Kursia J. (2012) studied the perception of quality of work

life of the faculty members of private universities in Bangladesh. A quantitative survey of

72 full-time faculty members from 11 private universities was conducted. The result of the

study revealed that there is significant relationship between QWL and its dimensions like

safe and healthy working condition, social integration, opportunity for continuous growth and

security, adequate and fair compensation, opportunities to use and develop human capacities.

The results also revealed that there is significant differences about the perception of QWL

exist in terms of gender and faculty of different department of the university.

Barka and Anukool (2013) conducted a study on managerial employees‘

perspective on quality of work life – a comparative study consists of 150 employees of

nationalized and a private bank. The result of the study revealed that there is no significant

difference between gender; experiences; age; income and total mean scores of managerial

employees of nationalized and private banks on QWL. Since managerial employees, equally

get benefits of the organization irrespective of gender, experiences, income in banks, both are

enjoying same level of QWL. The study also reveals that improved QWL helps to improve

the family life of the employees and also improves the performance of the organization.

Nitesh S. and Devendra S.V. (2013) studied the perception of quality of work

life of employees of small scale industries. Several factors were considered to measure

quality of work life such as, good working environment, chance of growth, fair

compensation, job satisfaction, employees motivation, communication flow, flexible or


55

suitable working time. The study revealed that employees are not happy with the

working environment of the organization also the study reveals that quality of work life is

not highly prevalent in the industries as per the view of the employees.

All the above studies quoted under the topic of QWL proves that it plays an

important role in employee overall physical & psychological wellbeing, satisfaction,

productivity and the like. Therefore the QWL as a variable gains attention among the

researchers to explore more on its impact on various other variables either as dependent

or independent. The present study uses the QWL as dependent variable while role

conflict, job satisfaction and career orientation as an independent variable. Also the study

developed a conceptual model incorporating all the variables mentioned along with the

demographic variables too.

2.5. Research Gap

Review of earlier studies on quality of work life, job satisfaction, role conflict and

career orientation helped the researcher to identify the research gap. The previous studies

have just focused on various issues related to working women like nurses and corporate

women employees. It has been found that only few studies have focused on women

teachers in higher education. It is also observed that the earlier studies have focused only

on factors contributing to quality of work life, job satisfaction, role conflict and career

orientation. However no study has been conducted showing the relationship among all

these variables and how each influences the other. Therefore, an indepth and

comprehensive study is needed in the present context where working women population

is increasing significantly in education sector. Hence, the present study aims to fill the

gap and also would finding the meaningful relationship among these variables.


56

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