review of 3d molded interconnect device (3d-mid) in …

ACADEMIC JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, VOL.19, ISSUE 3/2021

71

REVIEW OF 3D MOLDED INTERCONNECT DEVICE

(3D-MID) IN THE PROSPECTIVE OF ADDITIVE

MANUFACTURING

Salman Ahmed Hashmi

1, Nik Mohamad Farid Nik Ismail

2 and Jaronie Mohd Jani3

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Malaysia-Italy Design Institute, University of Kuala Lumpur (UniKL MIDI), Malaysiar

ABSTRACT: The use of conductive inks and direct writing techniques for the fabrication of

electronic circuits on complex mould base or substrate is attracting ever increasing interest.

Several challenges are encountered in the process of printing conductive ink material on any

moulded 2D or 3D structure. Such structures are sometime known as molded interconnect

devices (MID). The present review aims to summarize the ideas to address these challenges. It

focusses on these points: 1) Identifying conductive inks available, 2) Issues involving deposition

of conductive ink on 2D, 2.5D and 3D structures which includes adhesive concerns, 3)

Deposition of electronic parts such as capacitors, resistors, and integrated chips specially on

the 3D surfaced structures. In this review paper, the audience is introduced with the printing

techniques and then discussed in detail one by one. The term printed electronics is defined with

a survey of applications in terms of types of inks utilized, techniques used in printing, and

substrates or surfaces used in the application.

KEYWORDS: molded interconnect device, printed electronics, additive manufacturing,

conductive inks

1 INTRODUCTION

The field of printed electronics has emerged as

vital technology for all sorts of electrically

controlled machines. It promises a straightforward

process of manufacturing an extensive variety of

electronic circuits and electrical devices on a

flexible or a solid substrate inexpensively with

effective performance. It challenges a continuing

drive to boost performance, improve printing

processes with increased manufacturing speed, and

discover other novel applications.

In the past recent years, a sudden development in

cyber technologies has been observed, the internet

of things (IoT) has become a hot topic in this

modern world [1]. It is a device which interconnects

other devices that can interact with humans. There

exists a drive for brand spanking innovative

capabilities, such as sensors, actuators to be

integrated in daily electronic devices which is

resulting in the a huge advancement in its

innovative technologies by combining mechanical

and electrical functions to create interconnected

systems with improved performance and reduced

weight [2]. The manufacturing industry recognizes

the need of in methods that integrates electronics

onto or into 3D structures to improve performance,

lessen the footprint and complexity of

electrochemical fabrication. One such method is to

use 3D-MID (moulded interconnected devices)

which enables the incorporation of electronic

circuits into thermoplastic devices using injection

moulding process. This method has proven to be

more effective in several fields, for example,

automotive [3], medical and telecommunications

[4]. Such devices require some extra steps within

the fabrication process of thermoplastic objects to

integrate electrical components in or at the surface

of the object. A two-shot injection moulding is one

of the approaches for MIDs, where final plastic part

is produced by bonding two different polymers. The

challenges with such method are strength of

bonding and interface quality [5]. The other method

is known as Laser Direct Structuring (LDS) in

which a thermoplastic molded material is patterned

by a laser. The thickness of the circuit is performed

using plating process. The challenges include

limited availability of substrate materials, multistep

processing, and the requirement of plating for both

process [6]. Another method to achieve integration

of electromechanical structures is to use two-

dimensional manufacturing practices, such as low

powered circuits fabricated on a flexible film and

them moulded around a 3D surface [7]. Another

approach is to adapt Aerosol Jet process which

enables developing the 3D part along with the

integration of electronics on any geometrical

substrate and material. Such process can print on

complex orthogonal surfaces and generate multi-

layered circuit with no utilization of two-

dimensional approaches. For example, any circuit


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incorporating IC‟s and LED‟s in a 3D structure;

printed antennas on 3D surfaces.

This review paper mainly focuses on the printing

electronics subject and methods used for

manufacturing printed electronic devices.

Furthermore, it focuses on the conductive inks and

materials used for printing in those methods.

Printing and Printed Electronics

Printing process involves producing predefined

pattern by deposition of material on a substrate.

Printing is a prominent process by which identical

multiples of originals can be produced rapidly.

There exist three fundamental techniques of printing

which are positive contact, negative contact, and

non-contact printing. The positive contact printing

involves a separate surface that holds the ink. The

inked surface is than stamped on to the substrate.

The negative printing involves a recessed surface.

The pattern is then filled by ink when part‟s surface

is getting in contact with the substrate. Once the

surface is removed, it leaves the desired imprint on

the substrate and neglecting the spread of extra ink.

Gravure printing is an example involving patterned

drum with the recesses that define the patterns being

filled with the ink. Screen printing also involves

negative contact printing in which ink is placed on

top of the mesh to one edge and pushed onto the

substrate travelling to the other edge. At the other

end, noncontact printing is a contactless printing

where substrate does not make any contact with the

printing device. Inkjet printing and aerosol printing

are examples of non-contact printing.

1.1 Inks

Ink-jet printing in printed electronics is ascribed

to functional printable inks which categorised as

zero-dimension (0-D), one-dimension (1-D), two-

dimension (2-D), and three-dimension (3-D)

nanostructured materials [8]. Typically, less than

100 nm has been used for 0-D materials, while 1-D

materials are larger than nanoscopic scale;

nanotubes and nanowires are examples of 1-D. The

2-D materials have similar structure to plates such

as graphene. The 3-D nanomaterials have higher

surface area.

1.1.1 Metallic Inks

Metals is an essential material to be considered

when developing conductive tracks. Metallic

nanoparticles (0-D) based ink is more stable and

leads to a good shelf life while it has a lower

contact resistance. Metallic nanowires (1-D) also

have similar characteristics. Metallic nanowires

have higher mechanical flexibility over

nanoparticles and are used in producing antennas

[9], and wearable devices [10]. The other type of

ink can be metal organic decomposition which is a

metal solution incorporating metallic salt dissolved

in a suitable solvent. It delivers higher conductivity

and reduced nozzle clogging as it is a solution.

There are several methods for increasing

conductivity. One of it is depositing additional

layers which reduces variation in conductance

values. Another method is to process it at higher

temperatures to decrease the dot spacing of the

inkjet printer. The preference of opting metal type

depends primarily on the cost, performance, and

easy handling. Copper, which affordable but

requires a controller and regulated atmosphere to

prevent the development of CuO (copper-oxide),

whereas silver is the most conductive one but is

expensive.

1.1.2 Non-Metallic Inks

The creation of conducting tracks are not

constrained to functional inks (based on metals).

There exists alternatives such as polymer-based inks

i.e. poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) mixed with

polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) which is an

advanced resin formulation and has several benefits

over functional inks such as chemical stability,

optical transparency of approximately 88% and

structural elasticity of 1.2 GPa. Moreover, multiple

depositions of printed patterns increase its electrical

performance and have proven to be biocompatible

material. Such material has been utilized in solar

technology [11], energy storage devices[12], and

biocompatible flexible devices [13].

Another non-metallic 2-D ink which is an

allotrope of carbon has some exceptional properties.

It exhibits much stronger physical properties than

steel or diamond. It is an incredible light, flexible

material and has elasticity up to 20% of its original

size. The graphene material is available in form of

sheets and has excellent conductive properties and

thermal conductivity [14]. Graphene has been

utilized in applications such as developing thin film

transistors (TFT) [15, 16], sensory devices, and

energy devices [17, 18]. After combined with

PEDOT:PSS to incorporate biocompatibility, has

been used to develop temperature sensor that

comfortably attached to a human skin [19, 20].

Printed electronics is not limited to conductive

resin or conductive ink only. A TFT device is a

good example where two electrodes are separated

by a printing layer of insulating polymer. Materials

such as aluminum oxide-resin composite, SU-8,

epoxy-based resins, EMD6415 have been used

previously for metal-insulator-metal (MIM)

capacitor and smart textile devices [21-24]. Another

material, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicon

based organic polymer is used due to its insulating


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propertiesUsing Inkjet-printing, zirconium dioxide

has been used as an insulator to manufacture a TFT

device. Another material polyaniline, a polymer

with an intriguing behaviour, occurred while doped

with electrons and became insulating while

oxidized. Such behaviour has been exploited

extensively in printed devices [25, 26].

In capacitor and transistor printed electronics,

polymers as a dielectric material are used. Most

commonly poly(4-vinylphenol) i.e. (PVP) is used

for producing TFT device. One stabilizing agent is

poly(melamine-formaldehyde) methylated (PMF),

working as a cross-linking agent, in propylene-

glycol-monomethyl-ether-acetate (PGMEA) [27].

1.2 Substrates

After selection of the ink comes the selection of

the substrate.

Paper

Glass

polymer substrates

Glass slides, a non-porous material, and a non-

reactive substrate offers reasonably smooth and

even adhesive surface for the material to be printed

on. An inexpensive option with apparent

transparency permits the printed material to be

observed from both the sides clearly. Inks in printed

electronics sometimes must go through heat

treatment or chemical washing which are post

processes. Therefore, the substrate material needs to

withstand the procedure. Glass slides are built from

silica and can endure approximate high temperature

of 513 °C until they start to decaying. Temperature

above 200–300 °C exceeds limits of sintering

temperatures of most functional inkjet inks. While

measuring the electrical and physical characteristics

of functional inks, it is essential for the substrate not

to influence those characteristics.

Paper is a permeable and rough substrate, and is

frequently favoured due to its flexibility,

inexpensiveness, and recyclable properties. Its

applications are flexible sensors [28], anti-

counterfeit applications [29], microfluidics [30],

and even biomedical applications [31]. Even though

paper-based substrates are porous but due to the

addition of coatings, the printing resolution and thee

functioning behaviour of the ink has significantly

improved. One of the examples of inkjet printing on

a paper is that it occupies a thin layer of resin which

accumulates ink nanoparticles onto the surface and

liquid content is absorbed. This results in a lower

resolution print giving a shiny finish [32]. The

process of sintering is very much constrained, as

paper substrate is produced from cellulose, its

thermal decomposition temperatures are beyond

100 °C. Whereas polymer as a substrate is more

reliable and generally used for flexible printed

electronics.

There are polymer substrates preferred for

carrying wide ranges of thermal stability such as

Polymide (PI) substrate, sustain under temperature

ranges (-269 °C to - 400 °C), which is also flexible

along with robust mechanical properties under

tough conditions such as DuPont™ Kapton®; It can

be produced into thin film structures up to 25 µm.

They are being used in many electronic devices and

applications. However, PI is not recommended for

applications where transparency is mandatory, that

is due to its opaque nature. There exist more than a

few polymers for example semi-crystalline

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene

naphthalate (PEN) which are in high demand for the

development of flexible electronics. The thermal

characteristics of PET and PEN do not meet that of

PI, their chemical endurance to solvents make them

suitable for applications that require optical

transmission and electric flow [33]. Another

material, Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is a

silicone elastomer substrate, utilized for flexible

electronics as it has elastic properties [34]. Optically

clear, nontoxic nature make it suitable for bio-

compatible applications [35]. Despite being highly

hydrophobic in nature, the material can be reshaped

via surface treatments using other polymers in order

to advance the adhesion and surface wettability to

metallic inks [36, 37].

After printing, comes the process of wetting to

determines the quality of print. It is a phenomenon

of defining how the liquid spreads over the surface.

To quantify the adhesion of ink to a substrate; two

types of tests are followed. One is cross-cut test and

pull-off test. Detailed discussion on both ISO

standardized test can be found in following studies

[38, 39].

1.3 Non-Contact Printing

1.3.1 Inkjet Printing

The inkjet printing technique develops images

and structures in form of droplets. Continuous inkjet

and drop on demand inkjet printing are the two

major types of inkjet printing. As depicted in epithet

suggests continuous ink jet printing produces

continuous flow of beads which are passed between

charging plates, which as a result produces an

electric charge, and then guided towards the

substrate by an electric field whenever necessary.

Since droplet production is continuous, there is a

necessity to manage unwanted droplets. These

undirected droplets are taken through the canal; and

then recirculated back into the reservoir. However,

there may be possible clogging in the nozzle due to

drying up on the occasions when print head is left


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idle. There are two possible types in droplet on

demand printers which are:

• Thermal droplet

• Piezoelectric droplet

In piezoelectric type, pressure is formed in the

ink chamber and piezoelectric actuator ejects a

droplet. By varying the voltage levels, velocity and

volume of an ejected droplet can be controlled. The

size of the droplet is determined by the diameter of

the nozzle and can be varied by replacing it with a

required corresponding size.

In thermal droplet on demand printer, droplets

are produced based on resisters temperature. The

resistor heats up vaporizing liquid and producing a

bubble. The majority of industrial and research

droplet on demand printer heads are piezo type [40].

The continuous advancement of inkjet printing

permits researchers and manufacturers to avoid the

costly conventional manufacturing techniques.

Above all. The printed electronics is the most

benefitting from advancement in such resources

[41]. There are some profoundly written articles on

printed electronics. The selection of materials and

printing procedures were mostly emphasized in the

discussion [42]. In another place, review paper

documented which focused mainly at inks

containing metal nanoparticles, its preparation and

locating patterns of conductive ink by utilizing

several sintering techniques [43]. Elsewhere, a

study was conducted with a prominence on

conductive nanomaterials, printing technique and

ink formulations. Furthermore, flexible and

stretchable electronics are reviewed to illustrate

their potential [44]. A comprehensive review was

presented on several printing technologies over

larger flexible substrates. The focus of the study

was related to flexible sensors and other electronic

devices using inkjet printing [45]. Another review

was presented with the focus on inkjet printing for

wearable devices.

Table 1: Various types of ink materials and substrates

used in inkjet printing.

Author Ink Type Substrate

Niittynen [53] CuNPs silicon wafer

Niittynen [54] CuNPs Kapton PI

Chan [55] CuNPs PI film

Kang [56] CuNPs glass–epoxy

Huang[57] Au nanocrystals plastic

Perelaer [58] AgNPs PEN foil

Perelaer[59] AgNPs and

additives

boron silicate

glass

Niittynen [60] AgNPs PI film

Magdassi [61] AgNPs in PDAC

solution

glass, PET and

paper

Black [62] Silver ROM ink glass

Jahn [63] Silver MOD ink Glass and PET

Dearden [64] Silver MOD ink glass

Valeton [65] Silver MOD ink PET

Van-Thai [66] ZnO with silver

printed electrodes

Kapton

Pyroelectric

sensor by Wang

[67]

ZnO Aluminium

Sheet

3D shape

memory

polymer printed

object by Zarek

[68]

Silver

nanoparticle ink

Kapton

LED attached

circuit by Zheng

[69]

GaIn24.5 liquid

alloy

Coated paper

Electronic

Tattoo by

Tavakoli [70]

Silver ink Temporary

Tattoo Paper

Due to the significant advances in material

technology printed electronics is getting fishable for

manufacturers.

Nowadays the functional inks developed are

getting more reliable. The ink consists of relative

components which have either semiconducting,

conducting, dielectric or insulating properties.

Furthermore, they are being used to produce organic

LED displays [46, 47], sensors [48, 49], transistors

[50], thin film batteries [51], and even solar cells

[52] using inkjet printing. A drawback to inkjet

printing is that it uses raster motion for printing

which slows down the process. Table 1 show types

of inks and substrates used in studies using inkjet

printing.

1.3.2 Aerosol Printing

Another contactless deposition technology,

aerosol jet printing, developed mainly for the high-

resolution circuitry. It is a direct write process

which uses aerosol droplets to deposit functional

ink on to a substrate. The process relies on

aerodynamic jetting of impinge droplets to the

substrate. The functional liquid is aerosolized in

droplets of 2 to 5 microns in diameter by means of

ultrasonic or pneumatic atomization. The viscosity

of the inks ranges from 1 to 1000 cp and passed

through a printing head into a collimated beam with

the velocity of 80 m/s from a deposition head and

impacted on a substrate. The printing of any shape

is achieved by the translation of printing head all


75

x,y,z and theta directions. Standard materials used

for printing includes nanoparticle metal inks, carbon

nanotubes, dielectrics, biological materials and

functional organic materials However, it has been

reported in the literature that metallic printed

conductive patterns have limited bending durability

for flexible printed circuits [71]. However,

alternative conducting materials can be solution to

this problem. The conductive materials based on

polymers or forms of carbons such as graphene

provide good flexibility. Furthermore, the

conductivity with lower resistance matters in such

materials. It was investigated that the deposition of

graphene-built interconnects has low resistivity and

good conduction property. Another reason for

limited conductivity is nozzle clogging; in order to

overcome this issue graphene inks are required to

have lower concentrations [72]. In a follow up

study, an attempt was made to overcome this

problem by combining graphene with silver

nanoparticles. This allowed the graphene to be more

flexible and produced increase in conductivity [73].

Aerosol jet printing has mainly been used for

surface patterning, and its potential is being

explored in 3D additive manufacturing. A study

demonstrated a method using direct writing of

nanomaterial dispersion using aerosol printing in

3D space without templating of supporting

materials followed by binder removal and sintering

[74]. By varying post processing conditions,

additional control over internal hierarchical porosity

was introduced to demonstrate an overall void size

and feature size control of five orders. Silver

nanoparticle ink with ethylene glycols as a solvent

was used in the process. Further in the study it was

stipulated that any nanoparticle ink could be used in

this process. Later studies presented that these

lattices can be utilized as electrodes in lithium ion

batteries [75]. Another method to build 3D

formations is to accumulate thin layers on to a non-

planer surfaces which can be cured with UV. The

hybrid approach of fusing the thin layer capabilities

of aerosol printing technique with the laser-based

direct write to produce high-resolution 3D

structures [76, 77].

A new technique for manufacturing a hybrid

smart device on cellulose material substrate is

presented by using aerosol jet printing. Three

different materials were used in the study which are

photopaper, cardboard and chromatographic paper

along with HPS 108-AE1 (an aqueous suspension

of silver fragments), which has been used for

printing conductive tracks and are specifically

formulated for aerosol jet printing. It carries

polymeric additives to strengthen the adhesion to

substrates. Furthermore, the method was used for

fabricating a smart multilayer electronic device on a

3D cellulose paper [78]. Aerosol jet printing has

been used in several printed electronics applications

such as TFT [79], capacitive sensors [80, 81], and

RFID tags [82].

As mentioned earlier, the process uses three or

more axes to create complex 3D circuits on

thermoplastics (3D-MIDs). One such example is

shown in Fig. 1 which demonstrates an electronic

thermometer printed on a 3D-MID part. First, the

body is molded from rapid tooling thermoplastic

material and then aerosol jet deposits a 3D circuit

using silver which is then sintered to accommodate

desired conductive characteristics. The SMD

components are then mounted on to the device.

Figure 1: 3D MID Digital thermometer [83]

In applications such as aerospace require several

devices such as sensors, antennae, or interconnects

to be printed or embedded into non-planer surfaces.

Figure 2: Phased array antenna [6]

Similar to 3D printing, the requirement to print

on non-planer or 2.5D surfaces i.e. significantly

planar surfaces, but with a gentle slope, curvature or

topography is of general interest. An example of a

large scale 2.5D application is the phased array

antenna shown in Fig. 2. Table 2 presents some of

the experiments done with the types of ink materials

and substrates used for aerosol jet printing.


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Table 2: Various types of ink materials and substrates

used in aerosol jet printing.

Author Ink Type Substrate

Mette [84] Silver

nanoparticles

Glass and Silicon

Arsenov [85] platinum ink

containing

colloidal

particles

ceramic

Padovani

[86]

Silver Glass

Jabari [73] Graphene

combined Ag

Kapton, DuPont

Platt [87] Aluminum Silicon

Hest [88] Silver MOD Silicon

Williams

[89]

Copper zinc

Tin Sulfide

Kapton and glass

Jabari [72] Graphene Si/SiO2

Serpelloni

[78]

Silver chromatographic

paper, photopaper,

cardboard

1.3.3 Fused deposition modelling

Fused deposition modelling (FDM), a most used

additive manufacturing methods to create a three-

dimensional (3D) product from CAD data with

complex geometry. Its cost effective with a

resolution of 40 µm and being used for medical

applications to automotive and aeronautics [90-94].

Such process of manufacturing is assisted with heat,

in which the printing material that is usually a

thermoplastic polymer in the form of rolled

filament. The platform moves in the direction

perpendicular to the nozzles (z direction). The

filament is heated up in the printer head and it is

then extruded. The material is deposited onto a

substrate layer by layer through printer nozzle

which moves in the x-y plane, thus depositing the

extruded material onto a sliding platform moving in

vertical direction (z). When the first layer is

completed, the platform slides down allowing a

second layer to be placed onto the previous one.

The layers hold on to each other as they cool down

and the process ends once the entire layers are

deposited. The process is shown in Fig. 3 [95].

Figure 3: Schematic diagram showing the important

components of an FDM printer [95]

Furthermore, there is a good potential for

developing and new and novel materials as they are

being continuously researched and developed. A

polymer/metal composites and adding metal

powders to thermoplastics such as acrylonitrile

butadiene styrene (ABS).

It may improve efficiency and performance of

manufactured parts as its thermal and electrical

conductivity increases. There are several

applications utilizing such composites which are

rapid tooling and moulding, electromagnetic

structures for coating and 3D-printed circuits [96,

97]. For FDM process, utilization of polymers such

as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), poly(lactic

acid) (PLA), poly (caprolactone) (PCL), poly

(carbonate) (PC) and poly (ether-ether-ketone)

(PEEK) have been reported [98, 99]. While

combining metal traces into FDM parts, the

smoothness of the surface is a vital factor. The

printed FDM parts accuracy is dependent on the

interaction of the material feed and the movement

of the extruder. It can produce extruded droplets

ranging from 0.20mm to 0.97mm wide and heights

ranging from 0.127mm to 0.508mm. Height of

extrusion is an important factor in the finishing of

the part, the finer droplets provide good finishing of

the part‟s surface.

In a study, stretchable composites were

developed by combining a biocompatible

thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and carbon

material. Using such material, structures were

printed which could exhibit electric conductivity

and higher flexibility. Three different types of

Carbon/TPU composites, carbon nanotube (CNT),

carbon black (CCB), and graphite (G) were

developed with different size and compositions. The

results implied that Carbon/TPU composites offer

different techniques to develop a 3D-printed

stretchable electronic circuit in a single

composition. TPU/CNT with better mechanical

properties of printed parts proved to be more stable,


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specifically with the composition of 10 wt% CNT.

Such composited provide the best solution when

designing biomedical related devices such as

implant for soft and robust structures. The

composite filament is suitable for printing 3D

structures exhibiting flexible properties with good

electric conductivity as shown in Fig. 4. This

prototype demonstrates using Carbon/TPU

composite materials in 3D-printed electronics. Fig.

4a–c shows good electric conductivity in the soft

and flexible structures. Fig. 4c represents the circuit

working while it is being deliberately curved.

Developing more complex devices requires

improvement in conductivity levels.

Figure 4: Prototypes of 3D-printed electronic devices

made from TPU/CNT (10 wt %); (A) PNE lab logo,

(B) joystick with MakeyMakey Printed Circuit

Board(PCB), and (C) flexible circuit [100]

However, Carbon/TPU composite materials

proved to be suitable for printing conductive

flexible 3D structures [100]. Table 3 incorporates

the different composite materials used in the

literature.

Table 3: Various types of polymer materials used

in FDM

Author Composite

Type

Fillers

Foster [101] PLA Graphene

Namsoo [100] TPU Carbon

Lebedev [102] PLA Graphene

Dorigato [103] ABS CNT

Papageorgiou

[104]

PEEK CF/GNP

Leigh [105] PCL CB

Christ [106] TPU MWCT

Gnanasekaran

[107]

polybutylene

terephthalate

(PBT)

CNT

Mohan [108] (PMMA) GNP

1.3.4 Laser Direct Structuring

A method widely used for fabrication of MID

structures. The thermoplastic moulded parts are

produced with the process of injection moulding.

These moulded parts undergo through laser

activation to stimulate the surface of the moulded

part which further undergoes through process

known as metallization to form the conductive

patterns and can be seen in Figure 5 [109]. The

technology comes with several advantages such as

design flexibility, the possibility of developing

circuits on 3D structures with enhanced functional

functionality and reduced costs. Such process

permits the manufacturing of ultrafine parts to be

printed with widths less than 100mm [110].

Figure 5:Schematic of LDS process steps [110]

In a study, it was established that CuAl2O4 may

be used to generate conducting patterns using LDS.

It was utilized to fabricate thermoplastic (PC)

composite and thermoset (PI) composite. Laser

parameters were set to 11 W with the frequency of

50 kHz, in order to achieve uniformity on surface

patterning and plating in PC composites, , while

hatch width was 25 mm. For PI composites, the

optimum parameters were set to 9 W while

frequency and hatch width was 40 kHz and 40 mm

respectively [110].

Table 4: Various types of polymer materials and inks

used in LSD

Material Metallization Type of

Laser

Reference

PA6 Cu Pulse

(Nd:YVO4

and

Nd:YAG)

[112]

PC/SMA/GF Cu Pulse (FB-

20W fiber

laser)

[113]

ABS Cu Pulse

(Nd:YAG

[114]


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fiber

lasers)

PC Cu Pulse

(Nd:YAG

fiber

lasers)

[115]

PEEL Cu/Ni/Ag Pulse

(Nd:YAG

fiber

lasers)

[116]

Several critical factors for determining LDS

thermoplastic quality were also identified which are

thermal stability, mechanical characteristics, and

solderability etc. It has been reported that there are

some well-known LDS compatible thermoplastics

which are ABS PC (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Poly Carbonate), PPE (Polyethylenimine), LCP

(Liquid Crystal Polymer), PBT (PolyButylene

Terephthalate), PEEK (Polyether ether ketone), PEI

(PolyEtherImide), PPA (PolyPhthalAmide) etc.

In another study, concept of multilayer 3D-MID

process is defined in detail. The metallization layer

requires to be covered with a dielectric layer, in

order to achieve multilayer structure. It is indicated

that unmetallized surfaces receive a laser treatment

to modify the polymer surface to get valuable effect

on the adhesion of the over moulded dielectric.

After laser treatment, the part reinserted to injection

mould tool for next layer [111].

1.3.5 Contact Printing

1.3.5.1 Screen Printing

A well-known process used for manufacturing

electronic circuits and components due to its shorter

processing times. It is one of the mass printing

methods used. A conductive ink through a patterned

template which is known as screen has been pressed

with a squeegee as shown in Fig. 6, its job is to be

displaced on the screen while pressing the ink

across it.

Figure 6: (a) flat-bed Screen Printing, (b) rotary Screen

Printing [44]

Higher aspect ratio is the distinctive element of

this printing technique. The suitable range of wet

layer for printed electronics ranges between 10–500

µm. Thickness in such range is utilized when higher

conductivity is essential. The applicability of this

method is determined by viscosity of the ink,

substrate wetting, and other parameters. Another

method of screen printing is the rotary screen

printing, which is basically R2R (roll to roll)

method. Using such technique improves the

efficiency of printing. In this technique, there is a

rotary screen with static internal squeegee, the ink is

confined inside the rotating screen and ink is

exposed with minimal effects of surroundings. The

resolution of screen printing is higher and is

dependent on the screen mask. Such masks can be

produced by photochemical patterning of polymer

on the screen mesh. The printed resolution of 40 µm

is achievable with method [117].Table 5 presents

various types of materials and substrates used in

screen printing.

Table 5: Various types of conductive materials and

substrates used in Screen Printing.

Conductive

Material

Substrate Post-

printing

Treatment

Reference

Ag NPs PI 250 °C [118]

Ag NPs Aramid 50°C [119]

Cu NPs PI 240°C (N2) [120]

Cu NPs PI Laser [121]

Graphene PI 350°C +

compressive

rolling

[122]

Graphene PI 300°C [117]

Graphene PET Photonic +

compressor

rolling

[122]

Graphene Paper Photonic +

compressor

rolling

[122]

Graphene

oxide

PET HI + 80 °C [123]

1.3.5.2 Gravure Printing

In gravure printing, functional ink is transferred

directly with the physical contact of the carved

engraves with substrate. Higher throughput may be

achieved by patterning functional materials with

R2R at high speeds [124]. A typical gravure

printing process is shown in Figure 7a.


79

Figure 6: (a) Gravure Printing, (b) Inverse Gravure

Printing [44]

The surface of the printing cylinder is engraved

with patterns. The ink is transferred to the

substrate‟s surface, squeeze between the printing

cylinder and the impression cylinder [125]. The

other type of gravure printing, which is called

“inverse direct gravure printing,” is represented in

Figure 7b. In this process a flat surface is used to

transfer patterns on the impact cylinder [126, 127].

As substrate is directly in contact with impression

cylinder, an advanced version gravure offset

printing can be used to avoid any damages.

Table 6: Various types of conductive materials and

substrates used in gravure printing

Conductive

Material

Substrate Post-

printing

Treatment

Reference

AgNWs PET 90 °C +

Spin

Coating

[131]

AhNWs/IZO Glass and

Plastic

One step [132]

AgNWs PET Rod

coating

[133]

AgNWs PET 150 °C +

coating

[134]

GO/AgNWs PET Rod

Coating

[135]

AgNWs/ZnO Glass ALD +

Rod-

Coating

[136]

AgNWs/TiO2 Glass Two step

Spin

Coating

[137]

AgNWs/ZnO Gass Sputtering

& Spin

coating

[138]

Printing results are affected by parameters such

as velocity, pressure, and blanket‟s thickness [45,

128-130]. Table 6 presents various types of

materials and substrates used in gravure printing.

2 DISCUSSION

It has been sometime that inkjet technology is

being used for deposition of functional materials

such as in printed electronics and biological

applications. However, their usage has mainly been

limited to flat deposits i.e. 2D applications. Any

nanomaterial when printed on a substrate, with the

evaporation of solvent, leaves behind an arbitrary

network of nanotubes. As a result, several

nanotubes may entirely get isolated from other

nanotubes without having any contact, which

suggests that isolated nanotubes have no

contribution in electric conduction. For any network

of nanotubes, this corresponds to a lower amount of

current flow. This implies that the length of the

nanotubes plays a vital role in the conductivity of

nanotubes. If the nanotubes are longer, the

probability of touching them increases. It has been

reported that in order achieve higher conductivity

using inkjet, requires to print multiple layers [139].

In the inkjet printing, good printability, super

rheological property, good adhesion to specific

substrates are essential conditions for conductive

inks. For acquiring ideal printing performance, vital

parameters such as viscosity, surface tension,

wettability and adhesion to substrate must be tuned.

Organic substance or any aqueous solution is

usually added to the ink to maximize its

performance and avoid clogging at the nozzle. The

ink used for printed electronics typically adds an

aqueous or organic fluid and numerous other

additives to enhance performance and avoid

clogging at the nozzle. It was reported in a study

that unstable jetting was observed when using

solvents such as xylene which evaporates during

printing process, and which causes ink‟s viscosity to

rise at the nozzle. The clogging at the nozzle occurs

when solutions are with 70% or greater curing

agent. Solutions with less than 60% curing agent

tend to jet out effectively without clogging [140].

Another issue with inkjet printing is the bulging

effect which occurs due to smaller drop spacing. In

a study, conductive lines of silver nanoparticle were

deposited with the inter-dot spacings from 20 µm to

40 µm before and after sintering at 200°C. It was

observed that the line width is negatively correlated

with the increasing inter-dot spacing. However,

bulging was observed in all the lines [141]. Such

formations arise due to instability inside the liquid

which occur due to changes in the contact angle

along the printed path [142]. One factor of

instability can be avoided by increasing the spacing

between the drops [143].

A study presented a combination of 2D printed

electronics with the additive manufacturing. The

conductive tracks were printed layer by layer, this

requires repeated post processing after printing each

layer. Even with such difficulty in processing

conductive material, ink jet printing comes with

some benefits if after deposition process is

accelerated. The inkjet printing is scalable and after

the multiple deposition of material, at the same time

it offers possibility for complex properties. A

method of improving the efficiency of

postdeposition processing is based on a

photothermal mechanism known as intense pulsed


80

light. A UV sintering method is used for enhancing

the conductivity of the deposited material [144].

Aerosol jet printing is another unique digital

manufacturing technique for producing electronic

circuits and components on various kinds of

substrate materials. Its process operates on both 2D

and 3D surfaces with a wide range of functional

materials. Parts produced by rapid prototyping

systems reveal several characteristics which hinders

the incorporation of 3D electrical systems. Several

challenges have been identified relative to the rapid

prototyping parts which are rough and permeable

surfaces, materials with lower thermal stability, and

higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of

the substrate.

With Aerosol, porous, uneven, and rough

surfaces can be printed easily. Sometimes such

porous and rough surfaces can have adverse effects

in terms of the behaviour of the deposited ink. It is a

tricky process to print a uniform and even deposits

when surface energy is high. In such a case, the

thickness of the ink is much smaller than the

roughness of the surface. A probable alternative to

avoid such problem can be to smooth the surface

where electrical path is to be printed.

There exists various polymer based rapid

prototype materials with lower temperature

characteristics which can also be problem. Due to

which it can become challenging from the deposited

inks to provide good electrical conductivity. There

are commercially available inks based on silver

nanoparticles which begins to sinter at 100 °C.

However, to obtain a good electrical property with

good adhesive properties, higher sintering

temperatures are required. Though, the range at

which silver nanoparticles sintering process

operates is between 150-250 °C. Most rapid

prototyping polymer materials have highest

temperature properties in the range of 100-150 °C

which ultimately limits the circuit performance. A

solution to overcome such constraint is to utilize

alternative sintering techniques working at lower

temperatures.

There are possible alternatives which may be

used such as laser, light beam, xenon flash lamp,

microwave, and electrical sintering. However, not

every low temperature sintering method is

straightforward to be used when producing 3D

surfaces. The most promising method to be used

with 3D parts is laser sintering as it has ability to

sinter with precise energy levels into the printed

circuit. The substrate materials with high CTE can

also be a problem, the thermal disparity can lead to

a cracks and lamination of silver printed circuit can

be affected. However, laser sintering may assist in

overcoming this issue by softening the surface. The

comparison of basic technical specification between

Inkjet printing and Aerosol Jet Printing is depicted

in Table 3 [145]. Aerosol jet printer with working

height of 1 to 5 mm is capable of print with highly

viscous ink 1-2500cP over non-planar surfaces. Its

printing resolution can go up to 10 µm without

creating any clogging at the nozzle.

FDM with many advantages exhibit fewer

downsides such as high temperatures result in

material degeneration, higher thickness of the

materials, thermal, and rheological properties. The

rheological properties of the material can be altered

by incorporating nanofillers with higher aspect

ratio, as a result it becomes easier for the nozzle to

extrude. To maintain a consistent flow, the material

must remain softer during extrusion which can be

achieved by heating the polymer matrix. The

heating must be controlled to avoid any material

degradation. This degradation temperature must be

higher than the processing temperatures [146].

Selection of right composites to work at allowed

range of temperatures is a challenging task [147].

Another parameter which effects the process is

coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). This

parameter has to be low which ensure neither any

expansion nor contraction occurs during the

process. The material cools down and to achieve a

consistent geometry, it is important that there is a

consistent extrusion through the nozzle [146].

In FDM process, the rheological properties of

the composites play an important part in

determining the flow, consistent texture, and

stability. As viscosity also play an important role, it

must continue to be constant as possible. Variations

in parameters such as temperatures may affect the

quality and result in inconsistent flow of the

deposited material. To keep the viscosity of the

material in allowed range, it is necessary to attain

percolation at low filler content. This is necessary to

improve thermal conductivity of the composite.

Other parameters also affecting thermal

conductivity of the printed object are temperatures

of printing bed, printing orientation, printing rate

and voids.

The quality of the manufactured good depends

on temperatures of the nozzle and cooling bed; it

affects the physical properties of the printed

structures. These effects are in form for

crystallization and viscosity. Minimal defects in

terms of voids, polymer chain adhesion and

structures can be guaranteed with steady extrusion

of material with viscosity set in working range. This

results in reduction of phonon scattering and

thermal conductivity effects are reduced [148]. In a

study, it was found that laser irradiated metallic


81

PLA had highest and coated metallic PLA had

lowest surface metallization roughness. Lowest is

better to achieve good adhesion [149]. The

incidence angle of the laser also influences the

surface roughness, and it is preferred to increase the

laser frequency to have lower surface roughness.

The incidence angle has a unified effect on the

structuring and relationship between the structuring

and incidence angle are based on the laser velocity

[116].

The most extensively used contact printing

method is the screen printing. One of the most

marketable products developed using screen

printing is the Si solar cells. For manufacturing of

conductive elements silver particles are largely used

[150, 151]. There are some shadow loses using Ag

particles as they do not allow printing with higher

resolution. There are several approaches to improve

the resolution which include rising temperatures of

the substrates which allows to reduce the spreading

of the material, controlling the adhesion of ink by

altering the mesh surface, and shrinking width of

nozzle [152, 153]. In a recent study, Ag

nanoparticle ink and ethylene glycol as cosolvents

were used to obtain silver lines. The size of the lines

was 22 µm and resistivity of 5.5 µΩ cm was

achieved. It was observed that the level of

resistivity obtained was lower than resistivity of

printed silver patterns using screen printing [153].

The synthesizing process of AgNW ink material for

screen printing has drawn prominent attention [154,

155]. In a study, the least feature size of 50 µm was

attained for the printed linewidth [154]. The

conductivity measure of AgNW were measured to

be 4.67 × 104 S cm-1. This reduction in the

conduction was caused by the void between printed

lines as linewidth increased. The adhesion of Ag

lines or patterns on the substrate is influenced by

two reasons which are roughness of the surface and

the extent of organic remains on the surface [156].

Another appealing process known for its higher

resolution patterning at higher speeds Is gravure

printing method. Similar to screen printing, silver

flakes ink and silver nanoparticles are frequently

utilized in this printing technique. The distinctive

feature of both inks leads to distinctions in

printability and electrical conductivity [157-159]. In

a study, an alternative to conventional thermal

sintering process, R2R printed silver nanoparticle

films on PET substrate were sintered using laser

sintering process. The films showed great

improvements in electrical and mechanical

characteristics. The process was done with rapid

sintering and there was no damage to the substrate

[160-162]. Gravure printing of silver nanowires has

drawn prominent attention from researchers [131-

135]. In a study copper engraved patterns were used

to print a network of silver nanowires on a substrate

made of PET. The fabrication of silver conductive

lines were carried out with different linewidths by

regulating speed and pressure [132]. In recent

studies, further work on printing CNMs has been

done which resulted in improved conductivity and

resolution. An effort was made for consistent

printing of graphene lines with solution of

approximately 30 µm over a sizeable area by

modifying the characteristics of ink and printing

conditions. The electrical conductivity of these

patterns was ≈10000 Sm-1. A printing speed of 0.3

m/min can be achieved by merging graphene sheets

with PEDOT:PSS and ethyl cellulose.

Furthermore, it was observed that the electrical

conduction of the fused hybrid films improved by

four time when ethylene glycol (EG) was used to

removed PSS component. Thermal sintering for

approximately 10 min was applied to achieve the

results at 120 °C. The improvement is much

noticeable as compared to film comprising of pure

PEDOT:PSS. Such rise in electrical conduction is

attributed due to two causes which are the strong

bonding between PSS and ethyl cellulose

(EC)#ensures separation between PEDOT and PSS

chains and highly uniform and conductive

graphene:EC enables the rearrangement of the

PEDOT chains with more expended conformation

surrounded by graphene:EC through the π–π

interaction between graphene:EC and PEDOT.

Table 7 shows a comparative analysis between

Inkjet, Aerosol jet, FDM, Screen, and Gravure

printing can be seen. Table 7 shows a comparative analysis between

Inkjet, Aerosol jet, FDM, Screen, and Gravure

printing.

Characteri

stic

Inkje

t

Aeros

ol Jet

FDM Screen Gravu

re

Printing

Technique

Non-

conta

ct

Non-

contac

t

Non-

conta

ct

Contac

t

Contac

t

Printing

principle

Electr

ostati

c

Aerod

ynami

c

Extru

sion

Stencil

ling

Engrav

e

Viscosity

(Pa s)

0.01-

0.02

0.001-

0.16

0.001

8-

0.001

9

0.5-5 0.1-1

Surface

Tension

(mNm-1

)

115-

50

- 40-65 35-50 25-45


82

Linewidth

(µm)

30-50 10-120 - 30-50 10-50

Line

thickness

(µm)

0.01-

1

0.01-3 - 0.1-

100

0.01-1

Printing

Speed

Medi

um

Mediu

m

Medi

um

High High

3 CONCLUSION

Printed electronics is one of the most diversified

and growing field of additive manufacturing in

which printing technologies plays a prominent role.

Regardless of the differences in the means of

deposition, all the techniques require a good

understanding of the interactions between ink and

substrate. This paper exhibited a detailed review on

inks being utilized for printing electronic circuits on

2D, 2.5D and 3D structures. Moreover, printing

technologies have been the focus of the study,

mainly inkjet, aerosol jet, FDM and LDS printing as

a contactless printing methods and Screen and

Gravure orienting as a contact printing. Ink

flexibility is limited in inkjet printing due to low-

viscosity inks with small particle sizes can be used.

Whereas aerosol jet printing permits much higher

viscosities and larger particle sizes, which is an

advantage over inkjet since a broader range of

functional materials can be used. It is a challenging

and hectic task to print a conductive 3D circuit

using inkjet printing as the process is quite lengthy

as compared to the 3D printed circuit using aerosol.

It was found in the study that, inks such as

graphene, carbon nanotubes and silver are suitable

for printed electronics provided if suitable solvents,

substrates, and process is used to enhance the

conductivity.

Moreover, materials for coplanar structures for

flexible electronics are also discussed in detail.

Several applications utilize complex shapes and

constrained space required electronics to be

seamlessly adaptable to such asymmetric and

arbitrary shapes without compromising their

electrical functionality. One situation can be for the

human body with its curved and complex geometry,

wearable and implantable embedded electronics can

then provide an imperative opportunity for day by

day and personal health monitoring. In this way,

such shaped and no-planar surfaces prompt the need

to remove the restriction for electronics to be

deformed and stretched. Furthermore, other

processes such as FDM and LDS have also been

discussed in detail. FDM is multi-material

aerodynamic printing technique and high-aspect-

ratio nanofillers to the printing materials can help

modify their rheological behaviour and make it

easier to extrude them through a finer deposition

nozzle. The choice of the right polymer matrix

having a sufficient high Tdeg must also be

considered for the FDM process. Whereas LDS is

largely used with MID devices for laser structuring

and followed by metallization.

Furthermore, the challenges such as nozzle

clogging, adhesion issues of conductive path with

different substrates and issues in additive printing

have been described in detail with some discussion

on comparison between all the methods stated.

Despite inspiring innovations, there are

considerable challenges requiring close attention.

For the development of flexible circuits, scalable

synthesis process of conductive nanoparticles can

contribute significantly. Gravure and screen printing

are popular methods for attaining higher throughput

i.e., mass production. However, the printing

resolution remains a common hinderance under

high-speed operations. Conductive nanomaterials

will indeed assist in the manufacturing of

innovative configurations of electronic devices.

Textile as substate represents certain and natural

solution for flexible electronics. Fabric has been

used previously for depositing functional inks on

them.

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