responding to sexual harassment on transit

28RESPONDING TO SEXUALHARASSMENT ON TRANSIT

Towards an Agenda for Research andPractice

Vania Ceccato and Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris

In this chapter we draw from the results of the empirical work in the 18 casestudy cities to propose recommendations on how to respond to sexual harass-ment and sexual assault in transit environments. We first synthesize and criticallyreview some of the key findings to set out a new research agenda, then outlinea series of suggestions on how to address sexual harassment—first in each city,and subsequently as a global problem.

Responding to Harassment at Different Global South-GlobalNorth Contexts

So far, we have showed that sexual harassment is a global phenomenon, buthow, where, and to what extent it happens may be quite context specific. Forthis reason, “one size fits all” responses to sexual harassment may not be valid.We, therefore, asked the authors of the 18 case studies to provide recommenda-tions on how to address sexual harassment in their specific city and country con-texts. The results are presented in Table 28.1 and are grouped in threecategories: (1) city-specific research agendas; (2) design changes to the transitenvironment of cities; and (3) planning and policy changes in each city.The discussion that follows is not meant to be a summary of the table but

rather a critical reflection of the recommendations it presents. Recommendationscan be distinguished between reactive (limiting mobility) and preventive (takingmeasures to minimize risk); some demand long-term investment or changes inpeople’s attitudes, while others impose minor changes and adjustments to thetransit environments. We also reflect upon current and new technologies, aswell as new advances in transportation that are bound to affect people’s mobilityand safety.

TABLE 28.1 Suggestions for research and recommendations for practice.

Research Design Policy/Planning

Tokyo, Japan • Investigate whatworks and whatdoes not in sexualharassmentprevention.

• Investigate whatcan improve thesense of security.

• Study how currentand new technolo-gies can helpreduce harassment.

• Install good light-ing at bus stopsand stationplatforms.

• Install CCTVcameras.

• Enact a privacyconscious and easyto use reportingsystem.

• Develop a real-time informationsystem that showswhich train carsare less congested.

• Instigate detailedcrime codingsystem for report-ing sexual crime intransitenvironments.

• Deploy visiblestaff.

• Stop selling alco-holic drinks at sta-tion kiosks.

• Increase humanguardianship atparticular times ofthe day/night.

• Facilitate off-peakcommuting.

Guangzhou,China

• Investigate howeffectively securitychecks enhancesafety perceptionsof passengers.

• Focus more on thesafety situation ofcertain minoritypopulations (e.g.the LGBTQIgroup and thedisabled).

• Determine the spa-tial distribution ofsexual crime intransit settings andunderstand whattypes of environ-mental characteris-tics may generatecrime.

• Improve the light-ing condition ofbus stops.

• Establish safe-guarded waitingzones for womenboth at the busstop and platformduring nighttime.

• Install CCTV atthe most problem-atic areas.

• Have safety patrolsin the metroduring peak hours.

• Instigate detailedand easy-to-followguidelines for vic-tims and witnessesto report crimes.

• Better educate thepublic about theproblem of sexualharassment.

• Follow CPTEDstrategies (design-ing out crime), forexample, increasevisibility in transitenvironments.

• Better maintainthe routes linkingpublic transport toresidential areas.

• Develop smart-phone apps show-ing transittimetables.

Manila,Philippines

• Systematically col-lect data as part ofa national surveyor local census to

• Consider place-making as animportant placeactivation strategy

• Instigate policies tosupport those whoreport harassment/violence.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


understand thenature of victim-ization and harass-ment across citiesand to assesspotential change.Collect informa-tion about victimsof sexual harass-ment, by sex, age,disability status,and place ofoccurrence (in theprevious 12months) allowingus to understandthe differences inthe experiences ofdifferent sub-groups, andinforming appro-priate gendermainstreamingpolicies.

to rejuvenateignored anddegraded transportenvironments thatoften encouragecrime and sexualvictimization andharassment. Place-making throughcultural curation ortactical urbanismcan encouragesocial interaction,improving ourawareness andconsciousness asplace custodiansand encouragingpositive placevalues such as“showing respect”and “sharingspaces” withothers.

• Identify changechampions—per-sons who wouldlikely shepherdand advocate forsafer public spaces.

• Policymakersshould be madeaware and experi-ence firsthand theconditions andsituation of publictransit environ-ments in Manila tounderstand thelived experience ofboth public trans-port users andpublic transportdrivers/operatorsand understandwhat change isneeded and howchange shouldoccur.

Melbourne,Australia

• Identify the linksbetween insuffi-cient transit servicefor university stu-dents in the outersuburbs, low hous-ing affordability inbetter served areas,and insecurity/harassment.

• Explore the poten-tial for collabor-ation with ride-sharing services for“the last kilo-meter” between

• Install digital time-tables at bus andtram stops.

• Install better light-ing and CCTV attram stops.

• Encourage moreactivity and lessisolation near trainstations, tram andbus stops and ser-vices, as these areascan be a focus formixed-land-useintensification,including afford-able housing.

• Expand thefocused campaignon reporting har-assment under-taken by policeand transitauthority.

• Public securityofficers should pri-oritize respondingto assault and har-assment instead ofhaving asa primary focusfare evasion.

• Instigate anti-racism and anti-

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


transit stops andhomes.

homophobia train-ing for publicsecurity officers.

• Recognize andrespond to the factthat low transitfrequency, result-ing in scant ser-vices in urbanperiphery andovercrowding incentral city, con-tributes towardsassault andharassment.

Lagos,Nigeria

• Examine the safetyand comfort levelof female under-graduates of theUniversity ofLagos.

• Document thevarious harassmentcrimes, mostlyencountered byNigerian femaleundergraduatesusing public trans-port system.

• Determine copingmechanismsamong femaleundergraduateswho are using thepublic transportsystem in Lagos.

• Build on theemerging data andsuggest newapproaches to thedesign and deliveryof urban transportservices to support

• Install digitaltimetables.

• Encourage morewomen to getprominentlyinvolved in (re)design and plan-ning of transportservices.



• Improve mainten-ance of transitfacilities.

• Improve guardian-ship in transitnodes that are iso-lated/considerrelocation of busstops and crimepreventionthrough environ-mental design(CPTED) measures

• Train and tramtransportation asthe most dominantmode of transpor-tation in developedcountries shouldbe at the center oftransportationpolicy and trans-portation invest-ments in Nigeria.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


the complex needsof all urban resi-dents in Nigeria.

such as increasedvisibility, lighting,alarms, phones,etc.

Bogotá,Colombia

• Examine the roleof social disorgan-ization factors (dis-advantage, turn-over, andpopulation hetero-geneity) in encour-aging sexualharassment.

• Compare problem-atic stations, routesand times of travelwith safe ones tounderstanddifferences.

• Examine repeatvictimizationamong students.

• Analyze policeresponse to casesof sexual harass-ment in publictransport.

• Examine theexperience of vic-tims reportinga case of sexualharassment.

• Examine theimpact of sexualharassment onmental health andstudents’ perform-ance at theuniversity.

• Increase thenumber of vehiclesduring peak hoursto decrease waitingtimes andovercrowding.

• Increase visibilityand guardianshipafter 6pm invehicles, stations,and bus stops.

• Install cameras inproblematic routes,stations and stops.

• Develop or allowalternative modesof transport (Uberand other car shar-ing platforms) todecrease over-crowded services.

• Restrict the accessof panhandlers tobus stops, plat-forms and vehicles.

• Increase patrollingof vehicles inTransMilenio(TM) and buses.

• Produce a socialmarketing cam-paign to promotenorms of respectand identify appro-priate behaviorswhen traveling inpublic transport.

• Cast deterrentmessages thatclearly identify dif-ferent types ofsexual harassmentas a crime andwarn about pros-ecution of cases ofsexual harassment.

• Make the publicaware of therecording cameras(CCTV).

• Promotea supportive atti-tude from bystand-ers to potentialvictims and offersuggestions as to“how to respond”when a member ofthe community isbeing harassed.

São Paulo,Brazil

• Identify how toprevent sexual

• Demand from busoperators more

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


harassment on theway to/at the busstop, and not justinside the bus andmetro/trainsystem.

• Understand betterthe challenges thatdifferent groupsface when ridingtransit so as toimprove theirexperience ofusing publictransportation.

• Identify ways toreduce fees paid bytransport users onconnections withother servicesachieving a moreunified transporta-tion system andincreasing the useof publictransportation.

• Implement theRTI system inmost of bus stops.

• Better designs ofbus stops, forexample withoutelements thata person can hidebehind, with morevisibility for peoplepassing by.

• Install automaticdoors betweentrain and platformsin more train/metro stations.

• Avoid long dis-tances betweenplatforms, withlong stairs andramps.

• Improve the envir-onment aroundthe train/metrostations and busstops, with betterlighting, mixed usezoning, betterlocation choices,in places with highpedestrian traffic.

responsibility aboutthe security of thepassengers waitingat or walking tothe bus stops.

• Promote improvedinteractionbetween transitoperators andpublic safetyauthorities.

• Expand the metro/train lines, offeringmore bus fleets, sothat transit reachesmore distantplaces, at the sametime, making trainsless crowded.

• Improve reliabilityof publictransportation.

• Reduce the timepeople wait at busstops and platformsand define differ-ent ranges of wait-ing time in areaswith high rates ofsexual harassmentand crime.

• Implement a truemobility agendathat breaks withthe culture of pri-vate transportationand makes publictransport the mostimportant travelmode.

• Make public trans-port services moreaccessible, in terms

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


of cost and access,and safer forcitizens.

Rio Claro,Brazil

• Identify the mostvulnerable busstops and theirmost critical timesof the day/night.

• Identify the mostadequateapproaches foreducational cam-paigns to persuademen not to harasswomen, and per-suade women toreport harassmentcrimes.

• Install good light-ing at bus stopsand surroundingareas.

• Relocate someproblematic busstops to saferplaces nearby.

• Install CCTVcameras with facerecognition soft-ware, both on thebuses and at busstops.

• Install digital time-tables at bus stops.

• Install digital dis-plays on buses torun sexual harass-ment preventioneducation cam-paigns and real-time messaging.

• Increase policing atthe most criticaltimes and at themost vulnerablebus stops.

• Extend the existingpolice cameramonitoring systemto include busesand bus stops andinclude facerecognition.

• Install geolocationand tracking sys-tems on buses tofeed digital time-tables at bus stops.

• Create regular andmassive educa-tional anti-harassment cam-paigns based onthe best detectedapproaches.

• Create educationalcampaigns for dif-ferent age groupsat schools.

Los Angeles,USA

• Examine harass-ment at differentsettings of thetransitenvironment.

• Understand howsexual harassmentaffects differentsub-groups.

• Examine theimpact of newtechnologies on

• Pay attention tofirst/last mile tran-sit connections;have well-lit, well-maintained routes.



• Organize publiceducation cam-paigns at schoolsagainst harassment.

• Enact anti-harassment cam-paigns throughsocial and printmedia and signageon buses andtrains.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


women’s safetravel.

• Disseminate find-ings beyondacademia.


• Choose the loca-tion of bus stops tobe near people andactivities, allowingnaturalsurveillance.

• Pay attention tobus/bus stopdesign to avoidobstructed views,nooks and cornerswhere people canhide.

• Keep bus stops andpublic streets cleanfrom litter.

• Instigate a clearand easy protocolfor reporting har-assment incidents.

• Instigate strict pen-alties forperpetrators.

• Improve transitfrequency duringrush hour toreduce busovercrowding.

• Train bus drivers,transit staff to besensitive and knowhow to respond toharassmentincidents.

San José,USA

• Identify high-crime stations andbus stops and studytheir physical andsocialcharacteristics.

• Evaluate sexualharassment preven-tion strategies tounderstand whatworks and whatdoesn’t.

• Instigate researchwith a focus on thewhole journeyapproach to identifythe settings thatgenerate morefear.

• Study the potentialof new technolo-gies to create saferenvironments forwomen.

• Investigate whycertain settings

• Include women inthe design andplanning of trans-port facilities andservices.




• Improve policing/surveillance in iso-lated transit nodeswith high rates ofcrime.

• Utilize environ-mental design(CPTED) toincrease naturalsurveillance oppor-tunities, lighting,alarms, phones,

• Have all materialsaimed at the trav-eling public avail-able in multiplelanguages and haveprograms designedto be sensitive todifferent culturaltransitions.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


become crimeplaces and othersdon’t.

and cleanliness oftransit facilities.

Vancouver,Canada

• Identify bus andSkyTrain stationswhere riders feelthe most unsafeand conduct anenvironmental scanto determine whatpreventive meas-ures can be imple-mented to increasefeelings of safety.

• Determine whichstrategies would bemost effective tomake riders feelsafe throughresearch/focusgroups (e.g.women, LGBTQI,minorities, etc.).

• Collect data ontransit crimes thatare separate fromregular police inci-dents to makea distinctionbetween the twoenvironments andcan allow for com-parison/research.

• Increase lighting atbus stops.

• Implement moredigital timetables atmajor bus stops/exchanges (cur-rently only atSkyTrain stations).

• Re-consider theplacement of cer-tain bus stops (e.g.ensure bus stop isnot in an isolatedarea).

• Re-configure seat-ing to allow moreeasy access/freemovement withinthe train to avoidfeelings of being“trapped”.

• Conduct moreCPTED/environ-mental scans/detailed assessmentsof potential newbus stops/SkyTrainstations beforeconstruction toidentify vulnerableareas and imple-ment effectivestrategies tocombat againstnew issues.

• Patrol more busstops and sur-rounding nearbyenvironment ofSkyTrain stationswith the use ofTransit Police(currently only atSkyTrain stations).

• Use undercovertransit officers onbuses to routinelymonitor space/intervene inpotential situations.

• Utilize more tran-sit officers in allaspects of the tran-sit environmentand not just atsome SkyTrainstations.

• Liaise with police,city planners, andthe public whenimplementing newprevention strat-egies/new con-struction ofstations/stops/routes.

• Employ morepublic campaignsthat are in multiplelanguages to edu-cate riders abouttravel etiquette andresources for helpin the event of an

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


emergency/dan-gerous situation.

• Conduct regularevaluations of busstops/train sta-tions/transit routesin consultationwith actual ridersto determine bestpractices.

Mexico City,Mexico

• Quantify theimpact of newmeasures such aspink (women-only) transport andnew police mod-ules located intransport systemfacilities for report-ing sexualaggressions.

• Relate the travelexperience withthe characteristicsof the mode oftransport to pro-pose mitigationmeasures for thedifferent travelmodes (formal orparatransit).

• Research whathappens after vic-timization takesplace.

• Analyze the pro-cesses of reportingto see why it isineffective.

• Show in real timethe timetables ofestablished trans-port services(Metro or Metro-bus) and lessformal services(combi, minibus).

• Design the modalexchange infra-structure witha crime preventionapproach such as:short walking dis-tances, lighting, orpolice surveillance.

• Increase the qualitylevels of transpor-tation services thatcurrently have lowstandards (combi,minibus).

• Provide transporta-tion infrastructuremaintenance (tran-sit vehicles, stopsand stations, andaccess routes).

• Identify the sta-tions, modalexchange points orpublic transportroutes with thehighest rates of

• Carry out educa-tional and socialawareness pro-grams that talkabout respect forwomen riders.

• Amplify policesecurity duringcritical times (atnight and early inthe morning).

• Interweave securitytechnology systemsto extend theirimpact radius; forexample, not onlyplacing CCTVcameras or panicbuttons on vehiclesbut also linkingthem to controland surveillancesystems to havea real-timereaction.

• Change the pro-cess of reporting tomake it easier andless intimidatingfor victims toreport sexual crim-inal offenses.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


sexual violenceincidents anddesign mitigationprograms accord-ing to the charac-teristics of theplace (infrastruc-ture, schedules).

Stockholm,Sweden

• Identify the mostproblematic sta-tions or bus stopsthat have highrates of sexualcrimes.

• Detect what doeswork and whatdoes not in sexualharassmentprevention.

• Understand whywomen feel saferonboard or at sta-tions and less safeon the way totrain or bus stops.

• Explore therequirements fora whole journeyapproach for secur-ity fromharassment.

• Determine howcurrent and newtechnologies (e.g.micro-mobility,mobility asa service—MaaS,drones, body worncameras (BWCs),Uber, apps, etc.)lead to safer envir-onments forwomen.


• Involve morewomen in the (re)design and plan-ning of transportservices.


• Install CCTVcameras at transitstops.

• Improve the main-tenance of transitsettings.

• Improve guardian-ship in transitnodes that are iso-lated or considertheir relocation.

• Instigate crimepreventionthrough environ-mental design(CPTED) measuressuch as increasedvisibility, lighting,alarms, phones,etc.

• Plan transportnodes as part ofthe nighttimeeconomy (NTE).

• Develop a detailedcoding system forreporting sexualcrimes in transitenvironments.

• Use the social andprint media andinstall signs onbuses and trainsagainst sexualharassment.

• Make transit staffvisible.

• Ensure that fellowpassengers can bea valuable sourceof additional sur-veillance andreporting throughmulti-agency con-sultation betweentransport agencies,police, women’sgroups and thewider community.

• Extend safety pro-grams to areasimmediatelyaround publictransport (thewhole journeyapproach).

• Increase humanguardianship at

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


• Evaluate the“necessary situ-ational conditions”for sexual harass-ment in transitenvironments byinvestigating whycertain settingsbecome crimeplaces and othersdon’t.

particular times ofthe day/night.

• Engage safetyexperts to examineresponses to sexualcrime.

• Recruit morewomen in publictransportationsector.

Huddinge Same as Stockholm.

• Investigate thecauses of differ-ences in victimiza-tion rates andsafety perceptionsof womenbetween theStockholm andHuddinge samples.

Same as Stockholm. Same as Stockholm.

Lisbon,Portugal

• Identify the mostproblematic spotsin the city—Con-duct this identifi-cation togetherwith a diversegroup of women,such as women indifferent stages oftheir life, of differ-ent sexual orienta-tion, and withother sub-groupsof women.

• Compile and sys-tematize collecteddata (regardingharassment), andanalyze and moni-tor harassmentpatterns.

• Install better light-ing at bus stops,tube/train/boatstations and othertransport nodes.

• Relocate isolatedbus stops to nodeswhere there aremore people pass-ing by on thestreet or close toshops/cafes.

• Ensure that peopleat bus stops havevisibility of thearea around thestop (avoid opaquebus stop shelters).


• Inform transportproviders, so thatthey recognize thatthere isa harassment prob-lem in publictransport andtransport stations/stops/nodes.

• Re-plan someroutes of the trans-port network sothat there isa higher frequencyof transport, espe-cially duringnighttime.

• Coordinate severaltransport modes,and schedules, toassure seamless

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


• Develop and testmethodologies topromote assess-ments of preven-tion strategieswhich may lead toimprovements atthe local level.

• Use CPTED(crime preventionthrough environ-mental design)techniques toenhance the designof critical spots/stations, and sur-rounding areas,where harassmentincidents arereported.

mobility for allpassengers, evenduring nighttime.

• Improve passengerinformation—timetables, fre-quency, routes.

• Create a properprocedure toreport harassment,at all transportmodes.

• Provide training toworkers dealingwith harassmentreports so thatcomplaints are welltaken care of andvictims aresupported.

• Employ morepolice at criticalspots where harass-ment has beenreported.

• Organize publiccampaigns for thegeneral populationregarding harass-ment prevention.

• Increase women’sparticipation in theplanning of publictransport servicesand the design ofpublic spaces.

London, UK • Identify the mostproblematic sta-tions or bus stops.

• Detect what worksand what doesn’tin sexual harass-ment prevention.


• Include women inthe planning oftransit services andthe (re)design oftransitenvironments.

• Use the social andprint media andinstall signs onbuses and trains tomake the problemof sexual harass-ment visible to thegeneral public.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


• Determine in whatways new tech-nologies can helpcreate safer envir-onments forwomen.

• Install good light-ing at transitenvironments.


• Improve mainten-ance and upkeepof transitenvironments.

• Improve guardian-ship/policing oftransit nodes thatare isolated orconsider theirrelocation.

• Enact CPTEDstrategies toenhance the visi-bility of transitenvironments.

• Have more transitstaff at problematiclocations.

• Enact campaignsthat inform transitriders to not bepassive bystandersif they are witness-ing sexual harass-ment incidents.

• Extend policingand surveillance toareas immediatelyaround publictransport.

• Increase humanguardianship atparticular times ofthe day/night.

• Recruit morewomen in thepublic transporta-tion sector.

Paris, France • Develop researchtools that are spe-cifically designedto analyze sexualviolence in publictransport.

• Rely on mixedmethods (quantita-tive and qualita-tive) to analyzethis phenomenon.

• Assess how sexualviolence in publictransport affectsspecific groups(e.g., teenagers,the elderly,LGBTQI, userswith reducedmobility).

• Improve visibilityof alarm devices inthe transitenvironment.

• Improve visibility/display of transitrules and laws onsexual violence inthe transitenvironment.

• Develop “boa”carriages for themetro, tram, RERand train: wagonsare not separatedand users canfreely walk fromone to another.

• Improve accessibil-ity for users withreduced mobility

• Remove/ban sexistadvertising fromthe transitenvironment.

• Conduct awarenesscampaigns againstsexual violence inpublic transportthat depicts thisphenomenonrealistically.

• Conduct cam-paigns to informusers about theirrights if they arevictims of sexualviolence in publictransport, and howthey can react ifthey witness thisphenomenon.

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


• Map sexual vio-lence for each typeof public transport(i. e., metro, tram,RER, train, bus).

• Evaluate measuresand policies ina rigorous, trans-parent, and inde-pendent way.

who may be orfeel vulnerabletowards sexualviolence.

• Develop on-demand stops forthe bus, especiallyat night: riders canask the driver toget out of the busbetween two busstops, thus redu-cing the walkingdistance to theirdestination.

• Facilitate reportingand filing ofa complaint in caseof sexual violencein public transport:online complaintor pre-complaint,enable transit staffto recordcomplaints.

• Collect riders’/rider groups’ opin-ions in order toidentify their spe-cific securityneeds, to includethem in policy-making processes,and to developsecurity measuresaccordingly.

• Include the issueof sexual violenceas a key elementof future transitprojects (e.g.,Grand ParisExpress, openingof subway andtram lines atnight).

(Continued )

TABLE 28.1 (Cont.)


• Improve cooper-ation betweenpolice services,transit operators,and researchers/research organisms,in order to rely onevidence-basedpolicing to guideand evaluatepractitioners.

Milan, Italy • Identify mostproblematic sta-tions or bus linesand daily and nightpatterns.

• Identify mostproblematic harass-ment issues intransit experiencedby the populationand suggest pos-sible ways toaddress them.

• Enhance awarenessamong policymakers about theissue which is cur-rently not at thecenter of thedebate in Italy.

• Place “helpalarms” in themost problematicplatforms and busstops.

• Improve mainten-ance and lighting.

• Enact crime pre-vention throughenvironmentaldesign (CPTED)measures at transitsettings to increasevisibility andopportunities fornaturalsurveillance.

• Enhance awarenessamong the popula-tion about sexualharassment.Organize publicoutreach cam-paigns about thetopic.

• Advertise where togo to reporta sexual harassmentor who to contact(which telephonenumber). This canbe useful both forvictims andwitnesses.

• Increase policing atproblematic transitsettings at particu-lar times ofthe day/night.

• Promote a culturalchange startingfrom specific/tailored educationprograms in pri-mary and second-ary schools.

Source: Authors.

Research

Sexual crimes against women in transit represent a rather invisible problem. Themessage is unanimous across all case studies: sexual harassment and sexual assaultagainst women are highly underreported crimes. Underreporting or low report-ing rates have many causes; some of the most known relate to societal norms ofbehavior between men and women in public places (leading to normalization ofcertain sexual harassment behaviors), but may also be affected by “what is there”in terms of infrastructure that enables victims to report a crime, as discussed inChapter 24.Research on sexual harassment in public places also requires detailed data

collection. The current methods of crime coding in many cities do not takeinto account the spectrum of sexual crimes, from serious crimes such asrape and sexual assault, to other coercive acts such inappropriate touching,to verbal offenses (e.g. unwanted sexual comments). Further research isneeded in each context to understand where the problem lies and how todeal with it. In cases of sexual violence, for example, there may be vari-ations of victimization by type (verbal, non-verbal, physical) and transporta-tion mode. There may also be temporal variations such as differencesbetween weekdays and weekends and between peak and off-peak hours.Without this contextual perspective, policy makers miss opportunities toaddress the problem systematically. There is also a need to develop appro-priate methodologies for data collection and analysis that take into accountthe different parts of the stations and/or bus stops, as well as the trip to/from the transit station or stop.Avoidance of certain stations and/or routes is a common precaution taken by

students around the world to prevent exposure to sexual harassment. Some ofthese precautions limit their mobility; others may help empower them to min-imize risk as indicated in Chapter 26 of this book. Further research is suggestedto better understand these behavioral changes triggered by the risk of victimiza-tion and/or perceived lack of safety. This is particularly important for womenwho compose a large share of the group known as “transit captives,” namely,those with relatively little access to non-public forms of transportation, who aretherefore overly reliant on public transit. They constitute millions of passengersall around the world. For those in countries of the Global South, poor safetymeans impaired mobility, which directly affects the life chances of many womenand girls.The “whole journey approach” to safety is fundamental in the context of

the United Nation’s 2030 Agenda and its goals for sustainable development.Only when we focus on safety patterns over time and space will we be ableto achieve safe travel from door to door. The empirical work in the 18 citiesshowed that women riders often feel safer onboard the transit vehicle or atthe station platform (even though these are settings where overcrowding sig-nificantly facilitates groping), and less safe on the way to the train station or

Responding to Sexual Harassment on Transit 321

waiting at the public environment of the bus stop. Studies find that differenttypes of crime take place in different environmental conditions ((Loukaitou-Sideris, 1999), and this seems to be true about the different types of sexualcrimes. This necessitates a research agenda that inquires about the variationsof safety risk during the whole trip.We also need to understand that the risk of victimization is unequally dis-

tributed in society, and as such, interventions must be tailored to the needsand particularities of different groups. Even though our study shows thatwomen are overrepresented as victims of sexual harassment in transit envir-onments, women are far from a homogenous group; and this has an impactfor both research and policy implications (Loukaitou-Sideris, 2016). Indeed,the intersectionality of women’s safety is a reccurring topic in this book andhas been illustrated in Chapter 23. The case studies also showed thata segment of male students are also victimized by sexual harassment. Moreresearch is necessary to understand the characteristics of harassment againstmale victims, and who the offenders are.Focusing on women victims, it is essential to understand the differential levels

of vulnerabilities; in particular, the vulnerabilities of women with disabilities,who are often an easy target of sex offenders (Iudici et al., 2017). There is alsoa need to better understand how sexual harassment affects other sub-groups ofwomen, such as older or younger women, minority women, transit captives,and low-income women. We need to study norms and behavior patterns as wellas possible solutions that are tailored to the safety needs of these diverse womentravelers (Whitzman, 2007; Smith, 2008). The overarching question is: How dowe make transit safer for all groups, in particular for vulnerable groups to maxi-mize their mobility?Future research should also focus on transit safety beyond the simple

binary category of women/men. In this study, we made a first attempt toexamine the impact of sexual orientation on sexual victimization in transitenvironments, and some researchers collected information about theLGBTQI status of their student sample. However, the small numbers of sam-ples did not allow for a robust analysis of the victimization patterns of thissubgroup, and therefore, our analysis in this book focused primarily onwomen who were non-LGBTQI. How sexual harassment in transit environ-ments affects gender non-conforming and transgender individuals is a topicthat needs further exploration.Another important area of future research is to identify settings and places that

should be improved to decrease victimization and maximize safety perceptions.Transport nodes with signs of poor social control, poor maintenance and light-ing, signs of social disorder, and desolate settings were often mentioned by stu-dents as problematic. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design(CPTED) strategies can provide useful guidelines for interventions, as illustratedin Chapter 25, but further research is needed to evaluate whether and how

322 Vania Ceccato and Anastasia Loukaitou-Sideris

individual characteristics of passengers interact with types of settings in transitenvironments, be it a rail station or a bus stop. Detailed records of events atdifferent parts of the transportation system in peak and off-peak hours wouldfacilitate intervention measures.Knowledge needs to reach out to practice. This requires creation of arenas

of contact (interface) between academia and decision makers as well as practi-tioners. Moreover, there is a need to further develop groundbreaking meth-odologies to best translate and transfer scientific knowledge to practical action(Laub, 2012). At the same time, academics could learn from security experts’best practices of preventing transit crime, and in particular sexual harassment.However, academics and security practitioners often do not interact, usuallyattend different conferences, and read different publications. As a result,much of the current knowledge remains siloed in universities or professionalcycles. In contrast, we need to detect opportunities and obstacles for translat-ing knowledge into practice, and practice into knowledge, and developdetailed guidelines of what must be done to achieve successful translationalprocesses.Current and new monitoring technologies, such as CCTV, body worn cam-

eras, and apps, can be particularly effective in promoting safety (Ariel et al.,2018; Piza et al., 2019; Ceccato, 2019) in combination with traditional securityroutines in transit environments, while data collection methods can be assistedby new digital technologies such as crowdsourcing. However, it is still unclearwhat kinds of opportunities and risks digitalization, ICT solutions, and newmobility services could offer in promoting safety for individuals in the nearfuture. In particular, research is necessary to understand how current and newtechnologies and new advances in transport (e.g. micro-mobility, mobility asa service—MaaS, drones, body worn cameras (BWCs), Uber, apps etc.) maylead to safer environments for women.

Design

Research has long suggested that certain environmental characteristics havea positive effect on reducing crime rates and enhancing feelings of safety,while others have adverse impacts and seem to relate to higher crime inci-dence and/or fear. As suggested by Loukaitou-Sideris (2016) the design oftransit vehicles, stops and systems can contribute to comfort and perceivedsafety for all travelers, especially women. As she notes, “placing bus stops inplaces that facilitate natural monitoring, as well as good lighting, makes wait-ing for the bus less stressful.” However, there is a lack of research as to whattypes of factors may facilitate different types of harassment—namely verbal,non-verbal, or physical (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1). Crowded rush hoursmight just provide the right opportunity for groping and all sorts of inappro-priate and unwanted sexual behaviors (Madan and Nalla, 2015; Natarajan,


2016); meanwhile an empty bus stop in the late evening hours may just offerthe anonymity that an offender needs to commit a rape (Hewitt and Beaure-gard, 2014; Gekoski et al., 2015; Ceccato et al., 2017). Based on the localcontexts of the case studies and the literature review discussed in Chapters 2and 25, we propose a number of changes and improvements in these transitenvironments to tackle transit crime, and in particular sexual transit crime.Good lighting at bus stops and station platforms is perhaps one of the

unquestionable interventions (mentioned by most students) to reduce risk ofcrime and improve people’s perceived safety. The physical environments ofthe stations/bus stops and the routes that lead to them (first/last mile con-nections to transit) should be well-lit and well-maintained. Presence ofCCTV has also been suggested as an important element that may detersexual offenders from acting, while digital timetables, especially if theirinformation can be accessed via a smartphone App, help minimize longwaits for the transit vehicle, and hence exposure to possible harassment.Additionally, the design of the transit setting can help minimize dark cor-ners and nooks and ensure high visibility from bystanders and surroundingestablishments.Overcrowding facilitates groping. Many transit operators seek to improve

transit frequency during rush hours to reduce overcrowding. In certain cases,they could also consider adjusting the size of the transit vehicles according topassenger density for peak and off-peak hours.In general, CPTED strategies that have been shown to have a positive impact

on reducing transit crime (Cozens and Love, 2015) should also have a positiveeffect on making sexual harassment more difficult for offenders.

Policy

In terms of policies that can help minimize the risk of harassment, the relativelysimple measure of “on-demand stops,” especially at night, which has been triedin certain cities in Europe and elsewhere, lets women disembark from the bus atplaces closer to their destination than the bus stop, thus helping reduce the riskof stalking. Other policies that respond to the risk of harassment relate to theimprovement of guardianship in transit nodes that are isolated; however, it isdifficult to deploy police or transit personnel in every possible hot spot of transitcrime, and prioritization for police/staff deployment should focus on the mostproblematic spots.Transit and policing agencies can also employ ICT technologies and social

media to faster inform passengers and better enable them to report problems,but should also train transit drivers and transit staff to be sensitive and knowhow to intervene when a female rider needs help. Indeed, students in all citiesmentioned that the perception of lack of support during and after a crimeoccurs, as well as the general ambiguity of where and how to report it, highly


contribute to the victims deciding not to report to the police and/or transitauthorities. If the police are not there, or if it is too difficult to file a report,reported cases of sexual crimes against women in transit will continue to remainlow and invisible to authorities. Therefore, policy interventions should createclear and easy protocols for reporting harassment incidents.Creating educational campaigns and policy frameworks is also essential.

Public transport authorities could launch awareness campaigns for the generalpublic against sexual harassment, sharing strategies and getting institutions,organizations and the public at large to work together to reduce these inci-dents. At the same time, educational institutions—from primary and second-ary schools to community colleges and universities—should conduct age-appropriate anti-harassment education workshops, letting students know fromvery early on that sexual harassment is not okay but constitutes a seriousoffense. There is also a need to rethink the training of those who plan,build, and renew urban environments, such as architects, engineers and urbanplanners. The relationship between women’s victimization and fear of crimein transit environments should be taught to students in these professions, sothat future practitioners can gain a sensitivity to gender-based dangers to per-sonal safety.Campaigns by some transit operators in the US, such as All Are Welcome

Here and Keep Your Hands To Yourself, highlight that transit serves all typesof passengers, and that sexual harassment and inappropriate comments are offlimits and should be reported to transit authorities immediately, so that all riderscan use transit safely (Hanson, 2019). The American Public Transportation Asso-ciation (APTA) has assembled examples of best practices; for instance, inApril 2018, Seattle launched a public facing communications campaign to coin-cide with National Sexual Assault Awareness month. Other cities launching ini-tiatives include Los Angeles, and the Twin Cities, as well as some cities inCanada (Hanson, 2019). There are also examples from the Global South, such asa campaign initiated in the São Paulo metropolitan area that motivates bystandersor victims to report sexual harassment incidents to a hotline (Ceccato and Paz,2017).Women riders are the real experts of where, when, and how sexual harass-

ment takes place in transit environments; where they feel mostly scared andunprotected; and what it will take to mitigate this. Therefore, more womenshould be prominently involved in the (re)designing and planning of trans-port services and transit facilities, and also more women should find work inthe transportation sector—a sector that today is male-dominated in mostcountries.Lastly, it is imperative that legislators and the criminal justice system take the

problem of sexual harassment in public spaces seriously. Only a few countrieshave started enacting legislation specifically focusing on sexual harassmentoffenses and designating strict penalties for them. But even when this happens,


most penal codes tend to adopt a narrow definition of sexual harassment thatonly considers physical harassment—namely inappropriate touching or penetra-tion for sexual gratification, which are considered as misdemeanors or feloniesrespectively. Many other sexual harassment behaviors are not included in thesecodes.In the end, response to sexual harassment in transit environments must be

multi-pronged, and demands an interdisciplinary and holistic approach by trans-port operators, the police, legislators, educators, municipal authorities, NGOs(e.g. women’s organizations), and civil society to ensure that sexual crime intransit environments will not be tolerated.

Conclusion

Sexual harassment and sexual crime in transit environments are unfortunatelyomnipresent, albeit invisible to authorities; they remain highly underreportedamong youth across the world. Verbal sexual violence is more common, fol-lowed by physical sexual violence, and non-verbal sexual violence. Regardless ofthe type, harassment varies by transport mode but also by time of day. Access tosafe and reliable transport is an individual right that is not guaranteed in manycities for all citizens. All over the world, the victims have to deal with the prob-lem of sexual harassment and sexual crimes as they travel through their cities.Such victimization affects mobility and may diminish women’s employment orrecreational opportunities.Issues of women’s safety in transit environments in many countries touch

upon more fundamental challenges in the delivery and provision of publictransportation services (Ceccato, 2017). If we want more sustainable cities,public transport and trips by bus and train must be made attractive, secureand safe for all groups of travelers. Servicing the “universal needs” of riders,as many transit operators purport to do (Loukaitou-Sideris and Fink, 2009),is not adequate, and attention should be paid to the particular needs of dif-ferent sub-groups. This demands more solid evidence of what works, whatdoesn’t, and for whom, in the prevention of sexual crimes. We should alsorecognize that things will not change unless we deliberately consider andplan for safer environments. As Juma Assiago, head of the Safer Cities pro-gram, UN-Habitat, suggests in the Preface to this book: “the safety ofwomen and young people in public transit cannot be taken to be an incidentalconsequence of the spatial development of cities and human settlements.Rather, it must be considered an explicitly planned outcome of urban planning.”This task is far from complete and needs concerted efforts from differentstakeholders, as discussed above. Only then will we have safer and sustainabletransit environments for all in our cities.


Acknowledgments

A big thank you goes to the authors of each case study who kindly contrib-uted to this chapter by making suggestions for improvement of transit safetyin their cities (research and recommendations for design and policy). Anedited version of the suggestions is presented in Table 28.1 and reflectsa plurality of interventions taking into account the diverse contexts of thesecase studies.

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