research methodology - bijay lal pradhan, ph.d. · research methodology dr. ram prasad khatiwada...
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Dr. Ram Prasad Khatiwada Associate Professor
Central Department of Statistics Kirtipur
Tribhuvan University
Bijaya Lal Pradhan Lecturer
Birendra Multiple Campus Chitwan
Tribhuvan University
Nabaraj Poudyal Lecturer
Amrit Science Campus Kathmandu
Tribhuvan University
KEC Publication and Distribution
Kathmandu, Nepal
Phone: 01-4168301, 01-4241777
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY First Edition 2014
Copyright by Authors.
author's e-mail address:
Publisher & Distributor by
KEC PUBLICATION AND DISTRIBUTION Kathmandu
Ph. 01 4168301, 01 4241777, 01 4168215
email: [email protected]
Price Rs. 425.00
ISBN No.: 978 – 9937 – 8925 – 2 – 0
Printed in
Kathmandu
PREFACE
The developing counties like Nepal have been facing a lot of problems almost in every walk of our
life. It is due to the lack of research based practical education. However, the universities of Nepal,
now, have adopted Research methodology subject in their curriculum and most of the faculties in
bachelor degree and all faculties in master degree and above already have been teaching this course.
The research course has taken different modes like, thesis writing, field work report, project work
report and term paper assignments as the integral part of the teaching and learning procedure.
Research orientated activities are encouraged in universities and colleges in order to improve
teaching and to enhance analytical and research skills. It has been a meaningful learning from the
study of the success adopted in the developed countries; we can assume that a good and effective
research based education system is essential to overcome these problems.
It is our pleasure to bring a book on research methodology that we suppose as a down-to-earth
guide for the students who wish to conduct research. This book is ideal for those students having
minimal knowledge on research as well as for those with intermediate knowledge who need quick
refresher regarding particular aspect of research design and methodology. The purpose of this book
is to discuss various types of research design which are commonly used in research related
considerations, which researcher should be aware of, the manner in which the results of research
can be interpreted and disseminated.
Although this book has especially been designed as a text book for the students of B. Sc. third year,
Tribhuvan university, this book is also expected to serve the need of students of all faculties of
Bachelor and Master Degree of different universities. We hope the book will definitely provide a
good deal of assistance to entire researchers in every discipline.
We would like to acknowledge all the writers of different Research books from where we have cited
different materials. Our whole-hearted obligation goes to Mr. Badri Singh Adhikari, Managing
Director, KEC Publication and Distribution for his keen interest to publish this book efficiently with
great speed. We are also thankful to Mr. Binod Shrestha and Jeevan Neupane for their painstaking
computer work without which the book will not have come in this nice look.
We highly expect that all our good wishers and contributors, students, teachers, colleagues will
encourage our effort and will continue to suggest us to improve this book, for which we will be open
and highly thankful to all of them.
Authors
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o R e s e a r c h
1.1 Scientific Methods and Research ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1.1 Notion of scientific method ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1
1.1.2 Concept and Definitions of Research ------------------------------------------------------------------ 3
1.1.3 Research as a Scientific Activity ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
1.1.4 Purposes of Research ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
1.1.5 Research Types According to Purposes --------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.1.6 Importance of Research ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.1.7 Steps of Research ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
1.1.8 Concepts of Research Methodology ------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.1.9 Different Phases of Research Methodology ---------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.1.10 Levels of Research ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.1.11 Rigor of research ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10
1.1.12 Different Paradigms of Research ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
1.2 Basic Types of Researches ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
1.2.1 Fundamental vs. Applied Research ------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
1.2.2 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research ------------------------------------------------------------------ 14
1.2.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research ---------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.2.4 Conceptual vs. Empirical Research -------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.2.5 Diagnostic vs. Hypothesis Testing Research -------------------------------------------------------- 14
1.2.6 Theoretical vs. Action Research ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
1.2.7 Longitudinal vs. Cross Sectional Research ---------------------------------------------------------- 15
1.3 Research Problem, Research Questions, Objectives and Hypothesis --------------------------- 15
1.3(A) Research Problem ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
1.3.1 Identification of Research Problem ------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
1.3.2 Ways of Understanding Research Problem ---------------------------------------------------------- 16
1.3.3 Ways of Selecting Meaningful Problem -------------------------------------------------------------- 17
1.3.4 Steps in Research Problem Formulation -------------------------------------------------------------- 18
1.3.5 Criteria of a Good Problem------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 18
1.3.6 Guidelines for Selecting Meaningful Problem ------------------------------------------------------ 19
1.3.7 Constraints of Problem selection ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
1.3.8 Research Problem and its Periphery ------------------------------------------------------------------ 20
1.3 (B) Research Questions -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
1.3.9 Types of Research Questions --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
1.3.10 Identification of Research Question ------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
1.3.11 Framing a Fruitful Research Question --------------------------------------------------------------- 22
1.3 (C) Research Objectives --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
1.3.12 Characteristics of Research Objectives ---------------------------------------------------------------- 24
1.3.13 Broad Objective ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
1.3.14 Specific Objectives ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
1.3.15 Goal of Research ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
1.3(D) Research Hypothesis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
1.3.16 Meaning of Research Hypothesis --------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
1.3.17 Hypothesis Setting and Hypothesis Testing -------------------------------------------------------- 26
1.3.18 Null and Alternative Hypothesis ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
1.3.19 Sources of Hypothesis ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 28
1.3.20 Qualities of Workable Hypothesis --------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
1.3.21 Utilities of Hypothesis ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
1.3.22 Difficulties in Formulation of Hypothesis------------------------------------------------------------ 30
1.4 Designing of Research work ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
1.4.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
1.4.2 Principles of Designing a Research -------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
1.4.3 Purposes of Research Design --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
1.4.4 Concerns of Research Design --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
1.4.5 Characteristics of a Good Research Design ---------------------------------------------------------- 33
1.4.6 Sectors of Research Design ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
1.4.7 Design of Experiment (DOE) --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
1.4.8 Research Methods as Research Design --------------------------------------------------------------- 36
1.4.10 Similarities and Differences between Research Design and Research Method -------------- 39
1.4.11 Conceptual Framework and its Opertionalisation ------------------------------------------------- 41
Chapter 2
S o m e R e s e a r c h M e t h o d s
2.0 Background ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 44
2.1 Conventional Research Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 44
2.1.1 Scientific Method as Conventional Method---------------------------------------------------------- 44
2.1.2 Principles of Conventional Method ------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
2.1.3 Importance of Conventional Method ----------------------------------------------------------------- 46
2.1.4 Characteristics of Scientific Method / Conventional Method ------------------------------------ 47
2.1.5 Aspects of Scientific Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
2.1.6 Evolution of Scientific Studies -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
2.1.7 Steps in Scientific Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
2.1.8 Reasoning Process in Scientific Method -------------------------------------------------------------- 50
2.2 Historical Research Method ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50
2.2.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 50
2.2.2 Importance of Historical Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
2.2.3 Nature of Historical Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
2.2.4 Fundamentals of Historical Research ----------------------------------------------------------------- 52
2.2.5 Steps of the Historical Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
2.2.6 Sources of Historical Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 54
2.2.7 Limitations of Historical Research --------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
2.2.8 Essential Qualities for the Researchers to carry out Historical Researches -------------------- 56
2.3 Experimental Research Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 57
2.3.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
2.3.2 Types of Experiment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
2.3.3 Purposes of Experimental Method -------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
3.3.4 Problem in Experimentation --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
2.3.5 Steps in Experimental Methods ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 60
2.3.6 Ex-Post Facto Research --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
2.3.7 Types of Ex-post Facto Study --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
2.3.8 Problems in Ex- Post facto Research------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
2.3.8 Procedures of Ex-post Facto Research ---------------------------------------------------------------- 63
2.4 Survey Research Method -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
2.4.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 64
2.4.2 Fundamentals of Survey Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
2.4.3 Purpose of Survey Method ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 65
2.4.4 Importance/Significance of Survey Method--------------------------------------------------------- 65
2.3.5 Basic Differences between Survey and Other Research ------------------------------------------- 65
2.4.6 Social / Technical Survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
2.4.7 Objectives of Social Survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 67
2.4.8 Objectives of Technical Survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
2.4.9 Steps of Social Survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 68
2.4.10 Steps of Technical Surveys ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 69
2.4.11 Common Types of Social and Technical survey ---------------------------------------------------- 69
2.4.12 Special Categories of Social Surveys ------------------------------------------------------------------ 71
2.4.13 Pilot survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
2.5 Case Study -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
2.5.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 73
2.5.2 Types of Case Studies ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 74
2.5.3 Steps in Case Studies ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 74
2.5.4 Sources of Case Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
2.5.5 Limitations of Case Study ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
Chapter 3
D a ta , M e t h o d s o f D a ta C o l l e c t i o n
3.1 Needs and Nature of Data------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 79
3.1.1 Concepts of Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 79
3.1.2 Necessity of Data in Natural and Social Sciences --------------------------------------------------- 79
3.1.3 Nature of Data in Natural and Social Sciences ------------------------------------------------------ 80
3.1.4 Different forms of information: ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 81
3.2 Types of Data According to Scales of Measurement ----------------------------------------------- 83
3.2.1 Qualitative Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
3.2.2. Quantitative Data ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
3.3 Data Collection in Social Sciences---------------------------------------------------------------------- 84
3.3 (A) Schedule ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 84
3.3.1 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 84
3.3.2 Purpose of Schedule -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 85
3.3.3 Kinds of Schedule ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
3.3.4 Contents of Schedule ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.3.5 Limitations of schedule ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 87
3.3(B) Questionnaire ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
3.3.6 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 88
3.3.7 Types of Questionnaire ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
3.3.8 Requisites of a Good Questionnaire ------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
3.3.9 Importance of Questionnaire Method----------------------------------------------------------------- 90
3.3.10 Limitations of Questionnaire Method----------------------------------------------------------------- 90
3.3.11 Difference in Schedule and Questionnaire ----------------------------------------------------------- 90
3.3. 12 Format of a Questionnaire------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 91
3.3.13 Problems in Questionnaire Method ------------------------------------------------------------------- 92
3.3(C) Interview ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
3.3.14 Types of Interview ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
3.3.15 Field Workers and their Qualities --------------------------------------------------------------------- 94
3.3.16 Ways of Obtaining an Interview ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
3.3.17 Process of Interviewing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
3.3.18 Focus Group Discussion --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 96
3.3 (D) Survey and Census --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97
3.3.19 Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 97
3.3.20 Similarity and Differences between Survey and Census ------------------------------------------ 98
3.3.21 Method of Sampling Human Population ------------------------------------------------------------ 98
3.3 (E) Observation Method -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 98
3.3.22 Kinds of Observation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 99
3.3.23 Participatory Observation Method -------------------------------------------------------------------- 99
3.3.24 Non-participatory Observation Method -------------------------------------------------------------100
3.3.25 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) ----------------------------------------------------------------100
3.3.26 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) -------------------------------------------------------------------------102
3.3.27 Controls used in Social Survey ------------------------------------------------------------------------103
3.3.28 Observational Documents and Their Types --------------------------------------------------------103
3.4 Data Collection in Lab Oriented Science and Technologies -------------------------------------104
3.4.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------104
3.4.2 Methods of Data Collection in Natural Sciences ---------------------------------------------------104
3.4.3 Criteria of Observation Method ---------------------------------------------------------------------104
3.4.4 Data Measurement and Observation -----------------------------------------------------------------105
3.4.5 Process of taking Observation -------------------------------------------------------------------------105
3.4.5 Tools used for the Measurement in the Lab- Sciences --------------------------------------------105
3.4.6 Observation Schedule -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------105
3.4.7 Observation Plan -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------106
3.4.8 Devices used for Data Recording ---------------------------------------------------------------------107
3.4.9 Rating Scale -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------108
3.4.10 Likert Scale ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------109
3.4.11 Not-controlled and Controlled Observation --------------------------------------------------------109
3.4.12 Observation in the Laboratory ------------------------------------------------------------------------110
3.4.13 Sample and Specimen -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------111
3.4.14 Sampling as of Being or Objects -----------------------------------------------------------------------112
3.4.15 Ethical Issues in Research ------------------------------------------------------------------------------113
3.4.16 Major Ethical Issues: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------115
3.4. 17 Informed Consent ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------117
3.4.18 Observation Method vs Experimental Method: ----------------------------------------------------117
3.5 Non-responses --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------118
3.5.1 Causes of Non- response in Information Collection ----------------------------------------------118
3.5.2 Estimation of Non-response / Response Rate ------------------------------------------------------119
3.5.3 Techniques of Getting Responses ---------------------------------------------------------------------120
3.5.4 Random Response Technique -------------------------------------------------------------------------120
3.6 Questions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
3.6.1 Types of Questions---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
3.6.2 Question to be Avoided --------------------------------------------------------------------------------123
3.6.3 Sequence of Questions in Schedule or Questionnaire --------------------------------------------124
Chapter 4
S a m p l i n g
4.1 Introduction and Review of Sampling ---------------------------------------------------------------125
4.1.1 Population and Sample ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
4.1.2 Needs of Sampling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------126
4.1.3 Sampling Unit and Sampling Frame -----------------------------------------------------------------127
4.1.4 Sampling Error and Non-sampling Error -----------------------------------------------------------127
4.1.5 Basic Steps in Sampling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------129
4.1.6 Fundamentals of Sampling -----------------------------------------------------------------------------129
4.1.7 Characteristics of a Good Sample --------------------------------------------------------------------130
4.1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sampling ------------------------------------------------------130
4.2 Types of Sampling ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
4.2(A) Probability Sampling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
4.2.1 Simple Random Sampling (SRS) ----------------------------------------------------------------------132
4.2.2 Stratified Sampling --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
4.2.3 Systematic Sampling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------136
4.2.4 Cluster Sampling -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------137
4.2.5 Multistage Sampling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------138
4.2(B) Non Probability Sampling ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 138
4.3 Sample Size -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140
4.3.1 Factors affecting Sample Size --------------------------------------------------------------------------141
4.3.2 Testing Reliability of the Sample ----------------------------------------------------------------------141
4.3.3 Method of Estimating Sample Size -------------------------------------------------------------------142
4.3.4 Determination of Sample Size by level of Significance and Power of Test -------------------144
Chapter 5
D a ta A n a ly s i s a n d S y n t h e s i s
5.1 Ways of Data Organization and Summarization --------------------------------------------------145
5.1.1 Data Editing -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------145
5.1.2 Data Coding ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
5.1.3 Classification of Data ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146
5.1.4 Data Entering into Spreadsheet -----------------------------------------------------------------------148
5.1.5 Management of Missing and Inconsistent Information ------------------------------------------149
5.2 Principal Methods of Analysis and Interpretation ------------------------------------------------150
5.2.1 Descriptive Statistical Measures: ---------------------------------------------------------------------150
5.2.2 Data Concentration and its Measures ----------------------------------------------------------------150
5.2.3 Data Spread and its Measures ------------------------------------------------------------------------155
5.2.4 Ways of Identifying Nature of Curves ---------------------------------------------------------------162
5.2.5 Estimation of Population Parameter -----------------------------------------------------------------164
5.2.6 Standard Error (S.E.): ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------165
5.2.7 Testing of Hypothesis -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------167
5.3 Synthesis of the Findings -------------------------------------------------------------------------------191
5.3.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------191
5.3.2 Generalization --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------191
5.3.3 Logical Method of Generalization: -------------------------------------------------------------------192
5.3.4 Statistical Generalization -------------------------------------------------------------------------------193
Chapter 6
M e a s u r e m e n t a n d S c a l i n g
6.1 Review of the Concepts of Measurement and Scales ---------------------------------------------194
6.1.1 Measurement ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------194
6.1.2 Scale ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------194
6.1.3 Types of Physical Scales --------------------------------------------------------------------------------195
6.1.4 Sources of Error in Measurement ---------------------------------------------------------------------197
6.1.5 Needs of Scaling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------197
6.1.6 Characteristics of a Scale: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------198
6.2 Reliability -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------199
6.2.1 Definitions of Reliability --------------------------------------------------------------------------------199
6.2.2 Methods of Estimating Reliability (Tests of Reliability) -----------------------------------------199
6.2.3 Length of the Test and the Reliability ----------------------------------------------------------------202
6.2.4 Theory of Reliability ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------203
6.2.4 Estimation of True Score: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------204
6.3 Validity -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------205
6.3.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------205
6.3.2 Types of Validity -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------205
6.3.3 Factors influencing Validity----------------------------------------------------------------------------208
6.3.4 Validity Theory: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------208
6.3.5 Measures of validity (Testing the validity)----------------------------------------------------------209
6.3.6 Validity and the length of the test --------------------------------------------------------------------209
6.3.7 General Criteria of Validity of a scale ----------------------------------------------------------------210
6.4 Scaling -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------210
6.4.1 Scores and Scales -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------210
6.4.2 Scaling of the Scores ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
6.4.3 Difficulties in scaling ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------211
6.4.4 Scales used in Social and Physical sciences ---------------------------------------------------------212
6.4.5 Standard Scores / Standard Scale---------------------------------------------------------------------213
6.4.6 Percentile Scores and Percentile Ranks --------------------------------------------------------------214
6.4.7 Z-Scores (-Score) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------219
6.4.8 T–Scores ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------220
6.4.9 Percentile scale, -scale and T-scale ------------------------------------------------------------------220
Chapter 7
Ta s k o f W r i t i n g i n R e s e a r c h
7.1 Research Proposal ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------225
7.1.1 Meaning of Research Proposal ------------------------------------------------------------------------225
7.1.2 Purpose of Research Proposal -------------------------------------------------------------------------226
7.1.3 Different Types of Proposal ----------------------------------------------------------------------------227
7.1.4 Steps for Preparing a Research Proposal ------------------------------------------------------------228
7.1.5 Framework and Arrangement of Sub Heading in Proposal -------------------------------------229
7.1.6 Writing Research Proposal for Academic Program -----------------------------------------------232
7.1.7 Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing -------------------------------------------------------------232
7.2 Note Taking with Review of Literature -------------------------------------------------------------233
7.2.1 Review of Literature -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------233
7.2.2 Needs of Literature Review ----------------------------------------------------------------------------234
7.2.3 Outline of Literature Review --------------------------------------------------------------------------234
7.2.4 Purposes of Literature Review ------------------------------------------------------------------------235
7.2.5 Methods of Selecting Relevant Literature -----------------------------------------------------------235
7.2.6 Note Taking -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------236
7.2.7 Ways of Note Taking and Recording ----------------------------------------------------------------237
7.3 Research Report ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240
7.3.1 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------240
7.3.2 The purpose of Research Report ----------------------------------------------------------------------240
7.3.3 Different Forms of Report ------------------------------------------------------------------------------241
7.3.4 Qualities of a Good Research Report -----------------------------------------------------------------241
7.3.5 Kinds of Report -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------242
7.3.6 Format of the Research Report ------------------------------------------------------------------------242
7.3.7 Necessary Elements of Good Research Report -----------------------------------------------------244
7.3.8 Procedures of Report Writing -------------------------------------------------------------------------244
7.3.9 Precautions to be adopted while making Research Report --------------------------------------244
7.4 Thesis/ Dissertation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------245
7.4.1 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------245
7.4.2 Feature of Thesis -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------245
7.4.3 Fundamental Structure of Thesis ---------------------------------------------------------------------246
7.4.4 Steps in Thesis Writing----------------------------------------------------------------------------------246
7.4.5 Documentation of a Thesis/Dissertation ------------------------------------------------------------247
7.5 Citation and Referencing -------------------------------------------------------------------------------251
7.5.1 Reference Materials --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------251
7.5.2 Bibliography ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------252
7.5.3 Work Citation or Referencing -------------------------------------------------------------------------252
7.5.4 Arranging Reference Material -------------------------------------------------------------------------252
7.5.5 Different Systems of Citation and Referencing-----------------------------------------------------254
7.5.6 APA style of Citation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------255
Syllabus-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 266
Models for Practical Work-------------------------------------------------------------------- 270
Collection of Questions ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 272
Bibliography and Suggested Readings -------------------------------------------------- 288
