Republic of Venice 1

Republic of Venice

Most Serene Republic of Venice• Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia• Venetian: Serenìsima Respùblica de Venexia

← 697–1797

→ → →

Flag Coat of arms

AnthemJuditha triumphans"Judith triumphant"

Anachronistic map of the Republic of Venice.

Capital Eraclea(697–742)Malamocco(742–810)Venice(810–1797)

Languages Venetian, Italian, Latin

Government Oligarchic Republic

Doge

- 697–717 (first) Paolo Lucio Anafesto[a]

- 1789–1797 (last) Ludovico Manin

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Legislature Great Council

- Upper Chamber Senate

- Lower Chamber Council of Ten

History

- Established1 697

- Sent Fourth Crusade    against Byzantine Emp.

October 1202

- Ceded Rep. Ragusa    under Treaty of Zadar

June 27, 1358

- Treaty of Leoben April 17, 1797

- Surrender to France May 12, 1797

- Treaty · Campo Formio October 18, 1797

Currency Venetian lira

a. ^ Paolo Lucio Anafesto is traditionally the first Doge of Venice, but John Julius Norwich suggests that this may be a mistake for Paul, Exarch ofRavenna, and that the traditional second doge Marcello Tegalliano who may have been the similarly named magister militum to Paul. Theirexistence as doges is uncorroborated by any source before the 11th century but, as JJ Norwich suggest, is probably not entirely legendary.Traditionally, the establishment of the Republic is, thus, dated to 697.

The Republic of Venice (Italian: Repubblica di Venezia, Venetian: Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) wasa state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7thcentury until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Italian: Serenissima Repubblicadi Venezia, Venetian: Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta or Repùblica de Venesia) and is often referred to as LaSerenissima, in reference to its title as one of the "Most Serene Republics". Despite its long history of war andconquest, the Republic's modern reputation is chiefly based on its status as an economic and trading power.

HistoryThe city of Venice originated as a collection of lagoon communities banded together for mutual defence from theLombards, Huns and other invading peoples as the power of the Western Roman Empire dwindled in northern Italy.At some point in the first decades of the 8th century, the people of the Byzantine province of Venice elected theirfirst leader Ursus (or Orso Ipato), who was confirmed by Constantinople and given the titles of hypatus and dux. Hewas the first historical Doge of Venice. Tradition, however, first attested in the early 11th century, states that theVenetians first proclaimed one Anafestus Paulicius duke in 697, though this story dates to no earlier than thechronicle of John the Deacon. Whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea.

RiseUrsus's successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s. He was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more than commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history, but all were ultimately unsuccessful. During the reign of Deusdedit, Venice became the only remaining Byzantine possession in the north and the changing politics of the Frankish Empire began to change the factional divisions within Venetia. One faction was decidedly pro-Byzantine. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire. Another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish. Supported mostly by clergy (in line with papal sympathies of the time), they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard, faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers and interested in maintaining peace with the neighbouring (and

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surrounding, but for the sea) Lombard kingdom.

Early Middle Ages

Map of the Venetian Republic, circa 1000

The successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the PaxNicephori (803) the two emperors had recognised Venetian de factoindependence, while it remained nominally Byzantine in subservience.During the reign of the Participazio family, Venice grew into itsmodern form. Though Heraclean by birth, Agnello, the firstParticipazio doge, was an early immigrant to Rialto and his dogeshipwas marked by the expansion of Venice towards the sea via theconstruction of bridges, canals, bulwarks, fortifications, and stonebuildings. The modern Venice, at one with the sea, was being born.

Agnello was succeeded by his son Giustiniano, who stole the remains of Saint Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria,took them to Venice, and made him the Republic's patron saint.

During the reign of the successor of the Participazio, Pietro Tradonico, Venice began to establish its military mightwhich would influence many a later crusade and dominate the Adriatic for centuries. Tradonico secured the sea byfighting Slavic and Saracen pirates. Tradonico's reign was long and successful (837–64), but he was succeeded bythe Participazio and it appeared that a dynasty may have finally been established. Around 841, the Republic ofVenice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone,but it failed.[1] In 1000, Pietro II Orseolo sent a fleet of 6 ships to defeat the Narentine and Croatian pirates fromDalmatia.[2]

High Middle Ages

Drawing of the Doge's Palace, late 14th century

In the High Middle Ages, Venice became extremely wealthy throughits control of trade between Europe and the Levant, and began toexpand into the Adriatic Sea and beyond. In 1084, Domenico Selvopersonally led a fleet against the Normans, but he was defeated and lost9 great galleys, the largest and most heavily armed ships in theVenetian war fleet.[3] Venice was involved in the Crusades almostfrom the very beginning; 200 Venetian ships assisted in capturing thecoastal cities of Syria after the First Crusade, and in 1123 they weregranted virtual autonomy in the Kingdom of Jerusalem through thePactum Warmundi.[4] In 1110, Ordelafo Faliero personallycommanded a Venetian fleet of 100 ships to assist Baldwin I ofJerusalem and Sigurd I of Norway in capturing the city of Sidon.[5] Inthe 12th century, the Venetians also gained extensive trading privilegesin the Byzantine Empire and their ships often provided the Empire witha navy.

In 1182, there was a vicious anti-Western riot in Constantinople, ofwhich the Latins were the targets, the Venetians in particular. Many in the Empire had become jealous of Venetianpower and influence, and thus, when in 1182 the pretender Andronikos I Komnenos marched on Constantinople,Venetian property was seized and the owners

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Horses of Saint Mark, brought asloot from Constantinople in 1204.

imprisoned or banished, an act which humiliated and angered the Republic. TheVenetian fleet was crucial to the transportation of the Fourth Crusade, but whenthe crusaders could not pay for the ships, Doge Enrico Dandolo offered transportto the crusaders if they were to capture the (Christian) Dalmatian city of Zara(Croatian: Zadar), which had rebelled against the Venetian rule in 1183, placeditself under the dual protection of the Papacy and King Emeric of Hungary andhad proven too well fortified to retake for Venice alone, because 90% of theshipowners had changed the opinion of Enrico Dandolo .

Upon accomplishing this, the crusade was again diverted to Constantinople, thecapital of the Byzantine Empire, another rival of Venice, in order to avenge the1182 massacre of Venetian citizens living in Constantinople. The Dalmatiansseparated from Hungary by a treaty in 1199 and they paid Hungary with aportion of Macedonia (theme). In 1201 the city of Zadar, formerly under theprotection of the Republic of Venice, recognized Emeric, King of Hungary, againas overlord, perhaps because he could not realize Hungary's portion on

Macedonia (theme).

When Macedonia (theme) became disputed between the Crusaders and the Bulgarian Empire in 1204,Constantinople was captured and sacked by the Crusaders. The sack of that city has been described as one of themost profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history.[6] The Republic of Venice signed a trade treaty with theMongol Empire in 1221.[7] Koloman of Croatia counted 77 judges in Dalmatia in 1235 and wrote their names.The Byzantine Empire, which until 1204 had resisted several attacks and kept the Islamic invaders out of WesternAnatolia and the Balkans, was re-established in 1261 by Michael VIII Palaiologos but never recovered its previouspower and was eventually conquered by the Ottoman Turks, who later occupied the Balkans and Hungary and ontwo occasions even besieged Vienna.The Venetians, who accompanied the crusader fleet, claimed much of the plunder, including the famous four bronzehorses which were brought back to adorn St. Mark's basilica. As a result of the subsequent partition of the ByzantineEmpire, Venice gained a great deal of territory in the Aegean Sea (three-eighths of the Byzantine Empire), includingthe islands of Crete (Candia) and Euboea (Negroponte); for example, the present core city of Chania on Crete islargely of Venetian construction, built atop the ruins of the ancient city of Cydonia.[8] The Aegean islands came toform the Venetian Duchy of the Archipelago.In 1295, Pietro Gradenigo sent a fleet of 68 ships to attack a Genoese fleet at Alexandretta, then another fleet of 100ships were sent to attack the Genoese in 1299.[9] From 1350 to 1381, Venice fought an intermittent war with theGenoese. Initially defeated, they devastated the Genoese fleet at the Battle of Chioggia in 1380 and retained theirprominent position in eastern Mediterranean affairs at the expense of Genoa's declining empire.

Venetian fort in Nafplion, Greece. This is one ofthe many forts that secured the Venetian trade

routes in the Eastern Mediterranean.

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15th century

Territories of the Republic of Venice: in dark red the territories conquered at the start ofthe 15th century, in red the territories at the start of 16th century, in pink the territoriesconquered temporarily, in yellow the sea dominated by Venetian fleet during the 15th

century, in orange the main routes, purple squares are the main emporiums andcommercial colonies.

In the early 15th century, the Venetiansalso began to expand in Italy, as wellas along the Dalmatian coast fromIstria to Albania, which was acquiredfrom King Ladislaus of Naples duringthe civil war in Hungary. Ladislauswas about to lose the conflict and haddecided to escape to Naples, but beforedoing so he agreed to sell his nowpractically forfeit rights on theDalmatian cities for a meager sum of100,000 ducats.

Venice exploited the situation andquickly installed nobility to govern thearea, for example, Count FilippoStipanov in Zadar. This move by theVenetians was a response to thethreatening expansion of GiangaleazzoVisconti, Duke of Milan. Control over the north-east main land routes was also a necessity for the safety of thetrades. By 1410, Venice had a navy of 3,300 ships (manned by 36,000 men) and taken over most of Venetia,including such important cities as Verona (which swore its loyalty in the Devotion of Verona to Venice in 1405) andPadua.[10]

The situation in Dalmatia had been settled in 1408 by a truce with King Sigismund of Hungary but the difficulties ofHungary finally granted to the Republic the consolidation of its Adriatic dominions. At the expiration of the truce,Venice immediately invaded the Patriarchate of Aquileia, and subjected Traù, Spalato, Durazzo and other Dalmatiancities.Slaves were plentiful in the Italian city-states as late as the 15th century. Between 1414 and 1423, some 10,000slaves were sold in Venice, almost all of whom were "nubile" young women from the Balkans.[11][12]

In February 1489, the island of Cyprus, previously a crusader state (the Kingdom of Cyprus), was annexed toVenice.

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Venetian possessions in Greece, 1450.

Procession in St.Mark's Square by GentileBellini, 1496.

League of Cambrai, the loss ofCyprus and Battle of Lepanto

The Ottoman Empire started seacampaigns as early as 1423, when itwaged a seven year war with theVenetian Republic over maritimecontrol of the Aegean Sea and theAdriatic Sea. The wars with Veniceresumed in 1463 until a favorablepeace treaty was signed in 1479 justafter the troublesome siege of Shkodra.In 1480, (now no longer hampered bythe Venetian fleet) the Ottomansbesieged Rhodes and captured Otranto.By 1490, the population of Venice hadrisen to about 180,000 people.[13]

War with the Ottomans resumed from1499 to 1503. In 1499, Venice allieditself with Louis XII of France againstMilan, gaining Cremona. In the sameyear, the Ottoman sultan moved toattack Lepanto by land, and sent alarge fleet to support his offensive bysea. Antonio Grimani, more abusinessman and diplomat than asailor, was defeated in the sea battle ofZonchio in 1499. The Turks once againsacked Friuli. Preferring peace to totalwar both against the Turks and by sea,Venice surrendered the bases of Lepanto, Durazzo, Modon and Coron.

Venice's attention was diverted from its usual maritime position by the delicate situation in Romagna, then one of therichest lands in Italy, which was nominally part of the Papal States but effectively divided into a series of smalllordships which were difficult for Rome's troops to control. Eager to take some of Venice's lands, all neighbouringpowers joined in the League of Cambrai in 1508, under the leadership of Pope Julius II. The pope wanted Romagna;Emperor Maximilian I: Friuli and Veneto; Spain: the Apulian ports; the king of France: Cremona; the king ofHungary: Dalmatia, and each of the others some part. The offensive against the huge army enlisted by Venice waslaunched from France.

On 14 May 1509, Venice was crushingly defeated at the battle of Agnadello, in the Ghiara d'Adda, marking one ofthe most delicate points in Venetian history. French and imperial troops were occupying Veneto, but Venicemanaged to extricate itself through diplomatic efforts. The Apulian ports were ceded in order to come to terms withSpain, and pope Julius II soon recognized the danger brought by the eventual destruction of Venice (then the onlyItalian power able to face kingdoms like France or empires like the Ottomans).The citizens of the mainland rose to the cry of "Marco, Marco", and Andrea Gritti recaptured Padua in July 1509, successfully defending it against the besieging imperial troops. Spain and the pope broke off their alliance with

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France, and Venice regained Brescia and Verona from France also. After seven years of ruinous war, the Serenissimaregained its mainland dominions west to the Adda river. Although the defeat had turned into a victory, the events of1509 marked the end of the Venetian expansion.In 1489, the first year of Venetian control of Cyprus, Turks attacked the Karpasia Peninsula, pillaging and takingcaptives to be sold into slavery. In 1539 the Turkish fleet attacked and destroyed Limassol. Fearing theever-expanding Ottoman Empire, the Venetians had fortified Famagusta, Nicosia, and Kyrenia, but most other citieswere easy prey. By 1563, the population of Venice had dropped to about 168,000 people.[13]

In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed nearLimassol on July 2, 1570, and laid siege to Nicosia. In an orgy of victory on the day that the city fell — September 9,1570 — 20,000 Nicosians were put to death, and every church, public building, and palace was looted.[14] Word ofthe massacre spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however,resisted and put up a heroic defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later, the naval forces ofthe Holy League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and Papal ships under the command of Don John ofAustria, defeated the Turkish fleet at Battle of Lepanto. The victory over the Turks, however, came too late to helpCyprus, and the island remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries. By 1575, the population of Venicewas about 175,000 people, but partly as a result of the plague of 1575-76 dropped to 124,000 people by 1581.[13]

17th centuryIn 1606, a conflict between Venice and the Holy See began with the arrest of two clerics accused of petty crimes,and with a law restricting the Church's right to enjoy and acquire landed property. Pope Paul V held that theseprovisions were contrary to canon law, and demanded that they be repealed. When this was refused, he placedVenice under an interdict. The Republic paid no attention to the interdict or the act of excommunication, and orderedits priests to carry out their ministry. It was supported in its decisions by the Servite monk Paolo Sarpi, a sharppolemical writer who was nominated to be the Signoria's adviser on theology and canon law in 1606. The interdictwas lifted after a year, when France intervened and proposed a formula of compromise. Venice was satisfied withreaffirming the principle that no citizen was superior to the normal processes of law.The latter half of the 17th century saw also prolonged wars with the Ottoman Empire: in the Cretan War(1645–1669), after a heroic siege that lasted 24 years, Venice lost its major overseas possession, the island of Crete,while it made some advances in Dalmatia. In 1684 however, taking advantage of the Ottoman involvement againstAustria in the Great Turkish War, the Republic initiated the Morean War, which lasted until 1699 and in which itwas able to conquer the Morea peninsula in southern Greece.

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Decline

Giovan Battista Tiepolo's Neptune offers thewealth of the sea to Venice, 1748–50. Thispainting is an allegory of the power of the

Republic of Venice, as the wealth and power ofthe Serenissima was based on the control of the

sea.

These gains were not meant to last, however: in December 1714, theTurks began the last Turkish–Venetian War, when the Morea was"without any of those supplies which are so desirable even in countrieswhere aid is near at hand which are not liable to attack from the sea".

The Turks took the islands of Tinos and Aegina, crossed the isthmusand took Corinth. Daniele Dolfin, commander of the Venetian fleet,thought it better to save the fleet than risk it for the Morea. When heeventually arrived on the scene, Nauplia, Modon, Corone and Malvasiahad fallen. Levkas in the Ionian islands, and the bases of Spinalongaand Suda on Crete which still remained in Venetian hands, wereabandoned. The Turks finally landed on Corfù, but its defendersmanaged to throw them back.

The Republic of Venice in the 18th century

In the meantime, the Turks had suffered a grave defeat by theAustrians in the Battle of Petrovaradin on 5 August 1716. Venetiannaval efforts in the Aegean and the Dardanelles in 1717 and 1718,however, met with little success. With the Treaty of Passarowitz (21July 1718), Austria made large territorial gains, but Venice lost theMorea, for which its small gains in Albania and Dalmatia were littlecompensation. This was the last war with the Ottoman Empire. By theyear 1792, the once great Venetian merchant fleet had declined to amere 309 merchantmen.[15]

The decline of Venice as a seaborne empire should not obscure the factthat the Republic remained in undisturbed possession of its vast and rich continental domain north of the Po valleyextending west almost to the walls of Milan. Treviso, Vicenza, Padova, Verona, Brescia, Bergamo, not to mentionVenice itself, benefited handsomely from the Pax Venetia throughout the allegedly decadent 18th century.

FallBy 1796, the Republic of Venice could no longer defend itself since its war fleet numbered only four galleys andseven galliots.[16]

In spring 1796, Piedmont fell and the Austrians were beaten from Montenotte to Lodi. The army under Bonapartecrossed the frontiers of neutral Venice in pursuit of the enemy. By the end of the year the French troops wereoccupying the Venetian state up to the Adige. Vicenza, Cadore and Friuli were held by the Austrians. With thecampaigns of the next year, Napoleon aimed for the Austrian possessions across the Alps. In the preliminaries to thePeace of Leoben, the terms of which remained secret, the Austrians were to take the Venetian possessions in theBalkans as the price of peace (18 April 1797), while France required the Lombard part of the State.After Napoleon's ultimatum, Doge Ludovico Manin surrendered unconditionally on May 12, and abdicated himself,while the Major Council declared the end of the Republic. According to Bonaparte's orders, the public powers passedto a Provisional Municipality under the French Military Governor. On October 17, France and Austria signed theTreaty of Campo Formio, according the sharing of all the territory of the ancient republic, with a new border justwest of the Adige River. Italian democrats, especially young poet Ugo Foscolo, viewed the treaty as a betrayal. Themetropolitan part of the disbanded republic became an Austrian territory, under the name of Venetian Province(Provincia Veneta in Italian, Venedig Provinz in German).

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Present day use of the Winged LionThe winged Lion of St. Mark, which had appeared on the Republic's flag and coat of arms, is still featured in thered-yellow flag of the city of Venice (which has six tails, one for each sestier of the city), in the coat of arms of thecity and in the yellow-red-blue flag of Veneto (which has seven tails representing the seven provinces of the region).The winged lion also appears in the naval ensign of the Italian Republic, alongside the coat of arms of three othermedieval Italian maritime republics (Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi), as well as the Golden Lion, awarded at the VeniceFilm Festival, and in the insignia of the Assicurazioni Generali insurance company.

Government

Venice's governmental structure.

The hearing given by the Doge in the Sala delCollegio in Doge's Palace by Francesco Guardi,

1775-80.

In the early years of the republic, theDoge ruled Venice in an autocraticfashion, but later his powers werelimited by the promissione, a pledge hehad to take when elected. As a result,powers were shared with the MaggiorConsiglio or Great Council, composedof 480 members taken from patricianfamilies, so that "He could do nothingwithout the Major Council and theMajor Council could do nothingwithout him".[17]

In the 12th century, the aristocraticfamilies of Rialto further diminishedthe Doge's powers by establishing theMinor Council (1175), composed ofsix advisers of the Doge, and theQuarantia (1179) as a supremetribunal. In 1223, these institutionswere combined into the Signoria,which consisted of the Doge, theMinor Council and the three leaders ofthe Quarantia. The Signoria was thecentral body of government,representing the continuity of therepublic as shown in the expression: "si è morto il Doge, no la Signoria" ("The Doge is dead, but the Signoria isnot").

Also created were the sapientes, two (later six) bodies that combined with other groups to form a collegio, whichformed an executive branch. In 1229, the Consiglio dei Pregadi, a senate, was formed, being 60 members elected bythe Major Council.[18] These developments left the Doge with little personal power and saw actual authority in thehands of the Major Council.

Whilst Venice claimed to be a "Republic", in reality it followed a mixed government model, combining monarchy inthe Doge, aristocracy in the senate, and a "democracy" of Rialto families in the Major Council.[19] Machiavelli alsorefers to Venice as a republic, considering it "excellent among modern republics" (unlike his native Florence).[20][21]

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In 1310, a Council of Ten was established, becoming the central political body whose members operated in secret.Around 1600, its dominance over the Major Council was considered a threat and efforts were made in the Counciland elsewhere to reduce its powers, with limited success.In 1454, the Supreme Tribunal of the three state inquisitors was established to guard the security of the republic. Bymeans of espionage, counterespionage, internal surveillance and a network of informers, they ensured that Venicedid not come under the rule of a single "signore", as many other Italian cities did at the time. One of the inquisitors -popularly known as Il Rosso ("the red one") because of his scarlet robe - was chosen from the Doge's councillors,two – popularly known as I negri ("the black ones") because of their black robes – were chosen from the Council ofTen. The Supreme Tribunal gradually assumed some of the powers of the Council of Ten.[18]

In 1556, the provveditori ai beni inculti were also created for the improvement of agriculture by increasing the areaunder cultivation and encouraging private investment in agricultural improvement. The consistent rise in the price ofgrain during the 16th century encouraged the transfer of capital from trade to the land.

References

Bibliography

Primary source

• Contarini, Gasparo (1599). The Commonwealth and Government of Venice. Lewes Lewkenor, translator. London:"Imprinted by I. Windet for E. Mattes." — The most important contemporary account of Venice's governanceduring the time of its blossoming; numerous reprint editions; online facsimile [22].

Secondary sources

• Patricia Fortini Brown. Private Lives in Renaissance Venice: art, architecture, and the family (2004)• Chambers, D.S. (1970). The Imperial Age of Venice, 1380–1580. London: Thames & Hudson. The best brief

introduction in English, still completely reliable.•• Garrett, Martin, "Venice: a Cultural History" (2006). Revised edition of "Venice: a Cultural and Literary

Companion" (2001).• Grubb, James S. (1986). "When Myths Lose Power: Four Decades of Venetian Historiography." Journal of

Modern History 58, pp. 43–94 — the classic "muckraking" essay on the myths of Venice.• Deborah Howard and Sarah Quill. The Architectural History of Venice (2004)• John Rigby Hale. Renaissance Venice (1974), ISBN 0-571-10429-0• Lane, Frederic Chapin. Venice: Maritime Republic (1973) — a standard scholarly history with an emphasis on

economic, political and diplomatic history; ISBN 0-8018-1445-6•• Laven, Mary, "Virgins of Venice: Enclosed Lives and Broken Vows in the Renaissance Convent (2002). The

most important study of the life of Renaissance nuns, with much on aristocratic family networks and the life ofwomen more generally.

• Mallett, M. E. and Hale, J. R. The Military Organisation of a Renaissance State, Venice c. 1400 to 1617 (1984),ISBN 0-521-03247-4

• Martin, John Jeffries and Dennis Romano (eds). Venice Reconsidered. The History and Civilization of an ItalianCity-State, 1297–1797. (2002) Johns Hopkins UP — The most recent collection on essays, many by prominentscholars, on Venice.

• Drechsler, Wolfgang (2002). "Venice Misappropriated." Trames 6(2), pp. 192–201 — A scathing review ofMartin & Romano 2000; also a good summary on the most recent economic and political thought on Venice.

• Muir, Edward (1981). Civic Ritual in Renaissance Venice. Princeton UP — The classic of Venetian culturalstudies, highly sophisticated.

Republic of Venice 11

• David Rosand. Myths of Venice: The Figuration of a State (2001) — how writers (especially English) haveunderstood Venice and its art

• Manfredo Tafuri. Venice and the Renaissance (1995) — architecture• Gottlieb Lukas Friedrich Tafel, Georg Martin Thomas (1856). Urkunden zur älteren Handels- und

Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig [23] (at the Internet Archive)• Luigi Tomaz, Il confine d'Italia in Istria e Dalmazia, Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri, Think ADV, Conselve 2007.• Luigi Tomaz, In Adriatico nell'antichità e nell'alto medioevo, Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri, Think ADV, Conselve

2001.• Luigi Tomaz, In Adriatico nel secondo millennio, Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri.• Benvenuti, Gino (1989). Le repubbliche marinare. Rome: Newton Compton.• Norwich, John Julius (1982). A History of Venice. New York City: Alfred A. Knopf.

Notes[1] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 32.[2] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 53.[3] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 72.[4] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 77.[5] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 83.[6] Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, Introduction, xiii.[7][7] The enemy within: a history of espionage, General Military, p.49, Terry Crowdy, Osprey Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1-84176-933-2[8] C.Michael Hogan, Cydonia, Modern Antiquarian, January 23, 2008 (http:/ / www. themodernantiquarian. com/ site/ 10881/ cydonia.

html#fieldnotes)[9] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 176-180.[10] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 269.[11] How To Reboot Reality — Chapter 2, Labor (http:/ / www. roxie. org/ books/ shoulders/ ch02-labor. html)[12] Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ blackhistory/ article-24160)[13] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 494.[14] Turnbull, Stephen (2003). The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-96913-0.[15] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 591.[16] J. J. Norwich, A History of Venice, p. 615.[17][17] Marin Sanudo.[18] Catholic Encyclopedia, " Venice (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 15333a. htm)", p. 602.[19] The Political Ideas of St. Thomas Aquinas, Dino Bigongiari ed., Hafner Publishing Company, NY, 1953. p. xxx in footnote.[20] Niccolò Machiavelli, The Prince, trans. & ed. by Robert M. Adams, W.W. Norton & Co., NY, 1992. Machiavelli Balanced Government

(http:/ / press-pubs. uchicago. edu/ founders/ documents/ v1ch11s1. html)[21] Niccolò Machiavelli, Discourses on Livy, trans. by Harvey C. Mansfield and Nathan Tarcov, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1996.[22] http:/ / dewey. library. upenn. edu/ sceti/ printedbooksNew/ index. cfm?textID=contarini& PagePosition=1[23] http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=AwMVAAAAQAAJ

External links• Geschichte Venedigs. Politik (http:/ / www. geschichte-venedigs. de/ politik. html) (German)• Sources for the history of the Republic of Venice (http:/ / www. storiadivenezia. net/ sito/ index.

php?option=com_content& view=article& catid=41:ricerca& id=87:testi& Itemid=30. htm) (Italian)• Interactive map of venetian fortresses & fortified villages in Greece and Aegean sea (http:/ / www. romeartlover.

it/ Greekmap. html)

Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and ContributorsRepublic of Venice  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=531196125  Contributors: -kayac71-, 15turnsm, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 5 albert square, A. Parrot, Adam Bishop,AdjustShift, Aherunar, AjaxSmack, Alansohn, Alexikoua, Altes, Analytikone, AndreaFox2, Andres, Ani td, Antidiskriminator, Arnaldo Mauri, Attilios, Axeman89, B.d.mills, B1mbo, Bahar101,Bejnar, Belligero, Blanche of King's Lynn, Bobby Brown, Bobo192, BokicaK, Brianski, Brunnock, Brutaldeluxe, Bucaramango, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Catalographer, Cattus, Cerobb01,Cewvero, Chesdovi, Chris the speller, Conte di Cavour, Cplakidas, CrniBombarder!!!, Cusio, Cypher z, D6, DIREKTOR, DMacks, Deguef, DerBorg, Djnjwd, Domino theory, Dorkules,Dougweller, Dove1950, Dppowell, Driftwoodzebulin, Dsnow75, Dusselmann, ERcheck, Edward Waverley, El C, Eleanaf, Eleassar, Erianna, Error, EunseokLee, Ev, Everyking, Evlekis, F l a n ke r, Filiep, Filippusson, Formeruser-81, Foscari, Frederikton, Frokor, GCarty, Gaijin42, Gaius Claudius Nero, Ghepeu, Ginyild, Giovanni Giove, Giraffedata, Glatisant, Godlord2, Good Olfactory,Greenshed, Grifter72, Grosfumeur, Gustavo Szwedowski de Korwin, Hans-Jürgen Hübner, Hayden120, Hervegirod, Hmains, Hotcrocodile, Hubertl-AT, Infrogmation, Ioannes Pragensis, Iota,Ivanplusequalsivan, JASpencer, JHMM13, JaGa, Jack1755, Jamesinderbyshire, Jauhienij, Jeff3000, Jenniferz, John K, John Riemann Soong, Johnny Vandalcloud, Joy, Judas1204,KathrynLybarger, Kayac1971, Kbdank71, Kdau, Kirill Lokshin, KjellG, Kross, Kurt Leyman, Lacrimosus, Lambtron, Lawrence Chard, Leandrod, Librarian2, Lightmouse, Lord Pistachio,Lubiesque, Luka Jačov, LukeMiguez, Mahmudss, Mai-Sachme, Maksim L., MapMaster, Marek69, MartinDK, Materialscientist, Mattis, Maus-78, McMarcoP, Menchi, Mesoso2, Mfield, Mic,Mimihitam, Momet, Mxn, N5iln, Nathanian, Neddyseagoon, NellieBly, Nidator, Norfgard, Nstenberg, Nug, Nv8200p, Oculi, Odedee, Olivier, Omassey, Ouedbirdwatcher, OwenBlacker, P. S.Burton, PDH, Panairjdde, Panarjedde, PaxEquilibrium, Perey, PericlesofAthens, Peter Isotalo, Pgk, Piotrus, Place Clichy, Plastikspork, Pmanderson, Poindexter Propellerhead, Polylerus,PortlandOregon97217, Publius, QueenCake, Quendus, R'n'B, Raffaeleserafini, Raguseo, RainbowOfLight, Red star, Reddi, Rereward, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Weil, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi,Robyvecchio, RodC, Ronhjones, RoseAphro, Sadistik, Sam Blacketer, SchreiberBike, Segv11, Senjuto, Shaded0, SimonP, Sky4t0k, Sodacan, Srikeit, Srnec, Str1977, Sundostund, Susvolans,T56b, TGC55, TRAJAN 117, Tahir mq, Takabeg, Tar-Elenion, Tbowler, Tbvdm, Teodorico, Tharnton345, TheLongTone, Thewanderer, ThomasPusch, Tpbradbury, Trovatore, Tttom, Unyoyega,Ushanka, Vanjagenije, Venicescapes, Venske, Viator slovenicus, Visitante22, Volorik, WHEELER, Wastingmytime, WhyNotFreedom, Wilfried Derksen, Woohookitty, Wwoods, Xaliqen,Xenonice, Yakolev, Yamamoto Ichiro, Zello, Zenswashbuckler, Александър, 293 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Simple Labarum.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_Labarum.svg  License: Public domain  Contributors: AethralisFile:Flag of the Repubblica Cisalpina.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Repubblica_Cisalpina.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike3.0 Unported  Contributors: PavelDFile:Flag of Austria.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Austria.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Most Serene Republic of Venice.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Most_Serene_Republic_of_Venice.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: F l a n k e rFile:Coat of Arms of the Republic of Venice.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Republic_of_Venice.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: SodacanFile:Venezianische Kolonien.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venezianische_Kolonien.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Maximilian Dörrbecker (Chumwa)File:Republik Venedig.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Republik_Venedig.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Brianski, Electionworld,G.dallorto, SémhurFile:MZK 001 Nr 09 Eine Ansicht des Dogenpalastes - Fig. 01 Ende 14. Jhdt.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MZK_001_Nr_09_Eine_Ansicht_des_Dogenpalastes_-_Fig._01_Ende_14._Jhdt.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Herausgeber: Karl Freiherrvon CzoernigFile:San Marco horses.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Marco_horses.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Errabee, G.dallorto, GveretTered, Mac9, Man vyi, Olivier2, ThuressonFile:Venitian ford at Navlion.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venitian_ford_at_Navlion.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Originaluploader was Mierlo at en.wikipediaFile:Repubblica di Venezia.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Repubblica_di_Venezia.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Original uploader was -kayac- at it.wikipediaFile:Eastern Mediterranean 1450 .svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eastern_Mediterranean_1450_.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Bratislav, Elonka, G.dallorto, JMCC1, Kimdime, Kuara, Lizrael, Lokiseinchef, MARKELLOS, MapMaster, Odedee, Stegop, Takabeg, Warburg, Xander89, Yodaspirine, 4anonymous editsFile:1496 Gentile Bellini, Procession in St. Mark's Square Tempera on canvas, 367x745cm, Galleria dell'Accademia, Venice.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1496_Gentile_Bellini,_Procession_in_St._Mark's_Square_Tempera_on_canvas,_367x745cm,_Galleria_dell'Accademia,_Venice.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Luestling at de.wikipediaFile:Giovanni Battista Tiepolo 080.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo_080.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: G.dallorto, Mattes,Oursana, Sturm, Warburg, Wst, 1 anonymous editsFile:The Republic of Venice in the mid-18th century.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Republic_of_Venice_in_the_mid-18th_century.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:LubiesqueFile:Venice-government.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Venice-government.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nstenberg (talk)File:Francesco Guardi 034.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francesco_Guardi_034.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Bub's, Bukk,EDUCA33E, G.dallorto, Hans-Jürgen Hübner, James Aylett, Miniwark, Oursana, Warburg, Zolo

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