REPORT RESUMESED 011 988

JC 670 S1AN INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES.AMERICAN ASSN. OF JUNIOR COLLEGES, WASHINGTONID.C.AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C.

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DESCRIPTORS- *JUNIOR COLLEGES, COMMUNITY COLLEGES-, *COLLEGEROLE, COLLEGE PROGRAMS, *EDUCATIONAL TRENDS, TECHNICALEDUCATION, VOCATIONAL EDUCATION,

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THIS DOCUMENT IS A REPRODUCTION OF THE FIRST TWOCHAPTERS OF AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES, SEVENTH EDITION. INCHAPTER 1, "TRENDS IN JUNIOR COLLEGE EDUCATION, THE AUTHORSGIVE ATTENTION TO SIZE, STATE AND NATIONAL PLANNING,ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL, FINANCE, FEDERAL AID, PROGRAMS OFSTUDY, ACCREDITATION, STUDENT ACTIVITIES, TEACHERS, ANDFACILITIES. "OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION. THE SECOND CHAPTER,INCLUDES SECTIONS ON (2) PLANNING OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION, (2)TYPES OF OCCUPATIONAL PROGRAMS, INCLUDING PREPARATION FORBUSINESS, INDUSTRY, AND HEALTH FIELDS, AND SERVICEOCCUPATIONS, AND (3) PROBLEMS AND REWARDS IN OCCUPATIONALEDUCATION. THIS DOCUMENT IS ALSO AVAILABLE FROM AMERICANASSOCIATION OF JUNIOR COLLEGES, 1315 SIXTEENTH STREET, N.W.,WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036. SINGLE COPIES ARE FREE, AND 10 COPIESOR MORE ARE 50 CENTS EACH. (WO)

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ERIC': AN INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

CEEKE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

ka.LSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL orna OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIF.

LOS ANGELES

OCT 1 2 1967

CLEARINGHOUSE FORJUNIOR COLLEGE

INFORMATION

ANIERIC.N ASSOCIATION OF JUNIOR COLLEGEi 1315 SIXTEENTH STREET, N.W., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036

670 toy

An Introduction

to

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

Reprinted, with permission, from American Junior Colleges, Seventh Edition, published byAmerican Council on Education, 1785 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF JUNIOR COLI.EGES

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CHAPTER ONE: TRENDS IN JUNIOR COLLEGE EDUCATION

I. Past and Present

No type of collegiate institution figures more importantly in society'sgoal to educate the many as well as the few than the American juniorcollege. By a variety of means, the junior college is expanding and ex-tending opportunity for education beyond the high school. Availabilityof at least two years of higher educationas demanded by educationalgroups, two U.S. presidents, and citizens themselvesis coming closerto reality.

Planners of two-year institutions have come to realize that collegemay mean many things to many people, that if all those who canbenefit from academic study are to be accommodated they must beprovided with study and training appropriate to their needs, interests,abilities, and aspirations.

This philosophy has evolved over the little more than half centurythat the junior college has existed in this country. Some of its earlysupporterssuch men as Henry Tappan, president of the University ofMichigan, and William Rainey Harper, the first president cf the Uni-versity of Chicagosaw the role of the junior college as limited to pro-viding the first two years of a baccalaureate program, thus relievingthe universities of the responsibility of offering the freshman and soph-omore years. Many things have happened, however, to alter the natureand aims of a majority of the country's junior colleges. The populationhas grown rapidly, and the demand for college opportunity has in-creased in the face of new social and economic needs. Aspirations ofAmericans have risen as society has become more complex, and as theadvantages of education in terms of employment and advancement onthe job have become more evident. While the conventional liberal artsand general education programs leading to transfer are still a vitalpart of the two-year college endeavor, most of the institutions nowalso emphasize courses of study that will prepare men and women tofill positions immediately in business and industry, government, 5ocial

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3

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

service, and other areas essential to the development of the nation.The importance of education to the fulfillment of the individual hasalso been recognized in the changing pattern of junior college education.

This change in philosophy is most dramatically reflected in the publiccommunity junior college field, though there have also been changesin the objectives of independent and church-related junior colleges,pioneers in two-year college education. The first junior colleges, estab-lished in the late 1800's, were privately supported and operated. By1900, there were about eight junior collegesall privatewith an en-rollment of about 100.

According to historians of the two-year college movement, the eldestpublicly supported junior college still in existence was established in1901 at Joliet, Illinois. Within 30 years, there were 400 junior collegesin existence, and by 1952 there were 597.

Since 1952, the expansion and growth of the junior college idea havebeen nothing short of startling. More than 200 new institutions havebeen established since that time, bringing the total by 1967 to wellover 800 colleges. Between 1955 and the early 1960's, institutions wereestablished at the rate of about 25 to 30 each year, and the years 1965and 1966 saw the opening of 50 annually. This rate is expected to con-tinue as communities and states seek to put two years of college withinthe commuting and financial reach of all the people. (See page 5.)

That Americans are taking advantage of the opportunities offered byjunior colleges is reflected in the story of enrollments. Total enroll-mints stand at one and one-half million students in 1967. The numbershave increased by more than 100,000 each year during the recent "ex-plosion" period. Most experts believe that by 1970 America's two-yearcolleges will be enrolling more than two million students.

More than 10 years ago, James B. Conant wrote that it would not beinconsistent with our ideal of equal educational opportunity if localtwo-year colleges were to enroll as many as half of the young peoplewho wished to engage in formal studies beyond the high school.1 In1967, California junior colleges are enrolling far more than half of allstudents who begin college; nationally, one in three are beginning inthe two-year college.

The expansion of the junior college has helped to alleviate the fear-

1 J. B. Conant, The Citadel of Learning, Yale University Press, New Haven,Conn., 1956, p. 70.

1,000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

100

100

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GROWTH IN NUMBER OF COLLEGES

1900

2,000

1,000

S 800

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1930 1940 1950 1960 1962 1964 19701931 1941 1951 1961 1963

GROWTH IN ENROLLMENTS

200

100

MN

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1962 1963 1964 1970

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AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

some crush that at one time threatened to strain the facilities of thecountry's colleges and universities beyond capacity. Many young menand women who might never have seen the inside of a college class-room now have that opportunity.

In addition to the fact that the two-year college represents perhapsthe only avenue to education beyond the high school for many youngpeople, and adults as well, the institution has a number of features thatwould attract many persons regardless of other educational opportuni-ties that might be available. Teaching, for example, is emphasized inthe junior college. Masterful classroom instruction is a major institu-tional objective. While faculty are not discouraged from engaging inresearch and other scholarly pursuits, they are expected to put goodteaching ahead of other possible activities.

Junior colleges offer a wide range of learning experiences to studentswho themselves represent a wide range of interests, objectives, and ca-pacities. They are often called great distributing agencies because theyoffer opportunity for sampling many fields of knowledge and testingabilities with the assistance of counseling and guidance personnel.Some graduates will go on to other colleges and universities for ad-vanced work; some will enter specialized training institutions; manyothers will move directly into vocations.

TYPES OF JUNIOR COLLEGES

Although junior colleges are frequently categorized as either publicor private, there are actually three general categories of junior collegesaccording to type of sponsorship: church-related, independent, andpublic institutions. Most of the public colleges are identified as com-munity junior colleges or community colleges.

Church-related Junior Colleges. Historically, religious denomina-tions have figured significantly in the development of all higher edu-cation. Church bodies were among pioneers in establishing juniorcolleges, offering college opportunity in a Christian atmosphere whichtheir founders believed was not available in other types of institutions.Religious denominations continue to figure importantly in junior col-lege education. There are some 170 junior colleges that are affiliatedwith church groups.

Most of the church-related colleges offer liberal arts and generaleducation programs that lead to transfer to four-year colleges and

I

TRENDS

universities. But many also offer programs that prepare men andwomen for work within the churches. There is an increasing trendamong many of the church-related colleges, particularly those that areaffiliated with denominations that operate hospitals and schools, tooffer semiprofessional and technical courses of study in health andother fields.

St. Mary's Junior College in Minneapolis, Minnesota, affiliated withthe Roman Catholic Church, offers educational programs in sevenhealth technologies. The programs include:

(1) medical laboratory assistance(2) medical records technology(3) medical secretary(4) nurse-technician(5) occupational therapy(6) radiologic technology(7) food service supervision.

The Roman Catholic Church operates by far the largest number ofjunior colleges among the various denominations, some 75 institutions.Other church denominations that maintain a sizeable number of col-leges include Baptist, Church of Christ, Lutheran, Methodist, andPresbyterian. Approximately 20 denominations are involved in juniorcollege education, most of them with only one or two institutionseach. The degree of control varies from denomination to denomina-tion, but the trend seems to be toward less control and involvementin the work of the colleges than in earlier years.

Church-related junior colleges characteristically are small institu-tions, and they usually maintain residence facilities. They generallyattract students from a wide geographic area. Costs for attending theinstitutions vary widely according to locaticia, but would average about$1,000 yearly.

With the increa sing numbers of high school graduates who wish togo to college, some of the denominations are looking with added favortoward the junior college as a means of accommodating these greaternumbers. Moreover, there is evidence that some denominations find itmore economical, both for the student and the institution, to operatejunior colleges than to engage in establishment of four-year collegesand universities.

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AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

As a rule, young people choose church-related colleges because theywant to continue their education in an atmosphere which emphasizesChristian idealism. This type of college is free to choose its studentsand faculty in relation to their attitudes toward religious values. In thisenvironment, many students make the transition from adolescence toadulthood, determining in the process spiritual and social objectives.The students establish high goals and learn the disciplined ways essen-tial to achieving these goals. As a result of their college experiences,they are frequently moved to devote themselves to lives of service to

society.Independent Junior Colleges. The independent junior colleges total

some 100 institutions, of which about half are coeducational. These in-stitutions are nonprofit but independently supported and usually oper-ate under the control of self-perpetuating boards of trustees. For themost part, their financial support mes from tuition, endowments,and the gifts of alumni and friends. The majority are residential col-leges, providing housing and attracting students from beyond the localcommunity.

Costs for attending an independent college may run as high as$3,000 per year, though the average is closer to about $2,000 annually.These costs include dormitory expenses as well as tuition and otherbasic charges. To help the aspiring but financially needy student,many of the independent colleges offer scholarships and other forms ofassistance.

Independent two-year colleges have been free to experiment and in-

novate in the classroom and to shape their offerings to fit each stu-dent's specific needs. They have been among the leading institutionsin trying new methods of teaching, new ways of counseling, and newways of contributing to the welfare and growth of each student. Whilethey frequently tend to emphasize general education and liberal artstraining, in recent years many of the independent colleges have inau-gurated programs to prepare men and women for jobs at the end oftwo years. In addition, many have created international study pro-grams and other cultural activities to broaden the horizons of theirstudents. Included in this last group are the many private junior col-leges that have taken advantage of their locations or special situationsto provide unusual, provocative experiences for students. For example.Mount Vernon College, located in Washington, D.C., took advantag3

TRENDS

of its unique community resources to inaugurate a summer program inAmerican politics and government.

The credit program brought students from sixteen states to the cam-pus for six weeks. Those enrolled can earn up to six credit hours, witheight courses offered in the study areas of American history, Americanstudies, political science, and foreign relations. Prominent governmentofficials and congressmen serve as supplementary faculty for the pro-gram. Students are given an opportunity to see government in actionthrough field trips to various capital city locations.

Christian College, a college for women in Columbia, Missouri, estab-lished a French Language House, a language-living experience for stu-dent residents. American girls participating in the program live in theFrench house where they study the culture of France. The same col-lege also pioneered in a Campus Community Program in which a staffof young student personnel assistants, all having completed baccalau-reate programs, live in residence halls with the students, thus provid-ing a vital link between the formal academic and counseling programand the dormitory life of the students.

Many private institutions have found that smallness in size can be avirtue for it offers greater opportunity to work closely with individualstudents and to develop special programs for them. Size imposes someproblems, however, in terms of the resources available to a small col-lege. Many of the smaller independent and church-related institutionshave compensated for the lack of the resources that might be found ina much larger college by cooperative action. Clusters of colleges ex-change teachers and hold symposia and workshops to increase theknowledge of both faculty and students.

For private junior college administrators, the role of this type of in-stitution in American education is a vital and significant one. Theyfeel, and have expressed themselves accordingly, that the private jun-ior college has a teaching commitment, the pursuit of teaching excel-lence; that these institutions can provide a strong program in liberaleducation that w'll furnish the student with an intellectual experienceencompassing studies in the humanities, the social sciences, and thenatural sciences.

They also feel that there may be an even broader role for this kindof institution. Many, in fact, have demonstrated their interest and will-ingness to expand programs to meet new needs of society. Some of the

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

aforementioned programs are examples. In addition, many administra-tors plan to offer additional services to the communities in which theylivespecial programs in adult education, college courses for younghousewives, cultural events for the public, and assistance and partici-pation in community projects.

The case for private junior colleges is most persuasive when the educa-tkmal objectives to which they have dedicated their efforts can be shown tohave been largely achieved. For example, in claiming to motivate freshmenand sophomores more quickly and effectively than other sectors of highereducation, the private junior cr ".ege is most persuasive when it points to thesuccessful transfer records and employment achievements of its graduates.When claiming top-grade teaching, the private junior college is most per-suasive when its faculty members, individually and as a group, demonstrateleadership in new instructional experimentation, devise new and moreviable course patterns, and publish the results of useful discoveries and/ormethods that increase the effectiveness of the teaching-learning transaction.2

Public Junior Colleges. About 85 percent of students enrolled intwo-year colleges are those attending the public institutions. These in-stitutions attempt to place higher education within the geographicand financial reach of the many as well as the few. Their tuition costsare lowaveraging about $250 annually across the countryand theyare located close to the populations they serve.

Moreover, to accommodate all those who can benefit from at least twoyears of educational experience in a higher institution, the communitycolleges maintain admissions policies which permit entry of studentswhe may have the potential for success, though perhaps not the scholas-tic background that would allow entry into some other types of collegesand universities.

These colleges recognize that if they are to broaden opportunity forcollege experience, programs must relate to the needs, aspirations, abil-ities, and interests of large numbers of people. Thus, the public juniorcolleges offer a wide spectrum of courses of studyranging from thosethat prepare young people to eventually complete baccalaureate pro-grams to those that provide education and training for positions of asemiprofessional and technical nature.

'The Privately Supported Junior College: A Place and Purpose in HigherEducation, based on a conference of representatives of private junior colleges,American Association of Junior Colleges, Washington, D.C., 1963, p. 57.

TRENDS

Community colleges are oriented to the needs of the areas theyserve. Most of them are locally controlled in separate college districts.Some are part of a local public school district. Financial support is pro-vided in a variety of ways: some colleges are supported entirely by di-feet state appropriations; some receive partial support from statesources; some depend wholly upon income from local tax sources andfrom student tuitions.

There are nearly 600 community colleges in the nation, enrollingmere than one million students. During the past decade, state aftersta 1 has included the community college in plans for higher educa-tion. Institutions of this type are changing the patterns of college-going in many parts of the country. In areas where only a small per-centage of high school graduates went on to college, establishing acommunity college has resulted in dramatically increased college at-tendance on the part of high school graduates.

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ii. State and National Planning

Where once there was little emphasis on organization and systematicdevelopment of the two-year institutions, particularly in relation toother types of educational systems, today states and local communitiesconsider it important to look at the total education picture instead ofeach small part in organizing for the tasks that face both education andsociety.

Thus, many states are engaged in what has come to be called masterplanning for higher education; that is, they allocate various functionsto the myriad institutions that make up the structure for educationafter high school. Through such planning, the states are able to utilizemore effectively resources available for education and thus to expandopportunities for college experience.

STATE PLANNING

The movement toward making public junior colleges a clear-cut partof the structure of public education above the high school level in eachof the 50 states is rapidly being completed. A majority of the statesnow have general enabling legislation for the establishment of juniorcolleges, which include public two-year collegiate institutions, wheth-er designed as junior colleges, community colleges, technical institutes,or two-year branches of state colleges and universities.

California provides one of the best examples of long-range masterplanning for higher education that clearly spells out the role of thejunior college as well as other institutions. A pioneer in junior collegedevelopment, the state, through the master plan created by the 1960Donahoe Higher Education Act, declares that junior colleges are pitof the tripartite structure of higher education in which the state col-leges and the University of California are the other components.

The success of such planning is clearly reflected in the growth anddevelopment of California's public junior college system. There are 79

-vs".ore.. esreff,

TRENDS

now operating, enrolling about one-half million students. Two out ofevery five students in college in that state are in junior colleges.

Florida has established 28 two-year colleges. The state aims to putcollege opportunity within commuting distance of all its people andnow covers about 90 percent of the population. The state has also pio-neered in establishing two universities that offer only the upper twoyearsjunior and seniorof a four-year program, plus graduate work.These institutions are especially concerned with accommodating trans-fer students from the state's junior colleges. The universities are FloridaAtlantic at Boca Raton and the University of West Florida at Pensacola.

Though the "upper division university" does not necessarily repre-sent a trend in higher education, the role of this type of institutionmight be reviewed here in more detail. In this regard, the plans of thenew University of West Florida, though still to be completed, are ofinterest.

The University of West Florida will provide the junior and senioryears of a four-year college program, plus graduate studies in a num-ber of fields. Its officers maintain that any student with an associatedegree from a junior college will be admitted, that the university itselfwill not offer any courses of freshman and sophomore stanclil. Itspurpose will be to meet the needs of the flourishing junior colleges inits immediate area, as well as junior colleges in other parts of the stateand even from outside the state.

The University has recognized the role of the junior college in pro-viding the first two years of a four-year college education. Its p!annersfeel that by concentrating on upper division work, the university itselfcan do a more effective job in higher education. Moreover, this patternsuggests to the university planners that they may be able to developprograms at the graduate level to train junior college teachers.

Illinois, the birthplace of the public community junior college,represents another excellent example of recent master planning forhigher education. Adopted in 1965, the Master Plan for Higher Educa-tion in Illinois provides a prescribed and significant role for compre-hensive junior colleges throughout the state. It has created an IllinoisJunior College Board which has taken over the functions formerly car-ried out by the junior college division of the Office of the Super-intendent of Public Instruction. The Illinois plan designates the juniorcollege as part of higher education in contrast to its former status aspart of the common schools. In addition, it encourages development

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

of separate junior college boards by allowing the districts with suchboards to qualify for increased state aid at the rate of $11.50 persemester hour and by providing state funds for site, site improvements,and construction in the amount of t'iree-fourths of approved projectcosts up to 1971 and 50 percent of *ti'tS.! costs thereafter. It allows stu-dents residing in districts without a junior college to attend Illinoispublic junior colleges and receive tuition assistance from their ownlocal districts. Discussing the plan, Clifford G. Ee.ckson, an Illinois ju-nior college leader, notes:

The stage is now set for an unprecedented development of junior collegesin the state of Illinois in the years immediately ahead. Whereas presentlyone college student in five is enrolled in a junior college, it can be con-fidently expected that in the years ahead a much larger percentage of col-lege-level students will be enrolled in community colleges. Unit and highschool district boards will undoubtedly divest themselves of junior collegesand encourage the establishment of separate junior college districts in or-der that the benefits to be derived from increased state funds for operationand for construction can be made available to local communities.3

Thus, Illinois joins more than a score of other states that have in re-cent years charted orderly systems and patterns of public junior col-lege development.

ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL

Patterns of organization and control of public junior colleges varysomewhat from state to state and even from community to community.Three organizational systems, however, predominate: (1) the juniorcollege district; (2) the junior college operating in a unified school dis-trict; (3) state organization and control. In addition, some states oper-ate junior colleges as branches of state colleges and universities.

While each of the public systems represents a somewhat differentapproach to college expansion, they are alike in terms of aims and pur-poses and the people they will serve. Three situations illustrate thepredominant patterns of organization.

The Unified System. Florida's public junior colleges are organized asparts of the county school systems. The colleges serve the same geo-

2 Clifford G. Erickson, "Rebirth in Illinois," Junior Colleges: 20 States. AmericanAssociation of Junior Colleges, Washington, D.C., 1966, p. 157.

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graphic district as do county schools, and they are controlled by thesame boards of education. In some cases, the colleges may serve morethan one county but are operated by the counties in which they arelocated. In such instances, a committee of citizens from the othercounties may advise on policy.

The chief school administrators in the counties have final adminis-trative authority over the community colleges, as they do over theschools. Each college, however, has its own president and administra-tive staff who are in charge of day-to-day operations. Advisory com-mittees from the community also participate in college planning.

Junior college development is coordinated on a statewide basis bythe state department of education. The community junior college divi-sion of the state department of education is specifically responsible forproviding advice and coordination at the state level and recom-mending standards and criteria for campus development.

District Pattern. Newly established Dallas Junior College providesan excellent example of the junior college district pattern in operation.Here, the district includes the county and city of Dallas, with the col-lege establishing campuses throughout the area in order to serve theentire population.

The college has its own board of trustees elected by the people; itschief administrative officer is the president. Primary funding for capi-tal outlay is provided by the residents of the district through tax sup-port, though the college also receives substantial state aid and is eli-gible for federal support.

State Organization and Control. Less common than the unified dis-trict and the junior college district patterns is . at of state control andorganization. An example of this type of control is to be found in thecommonwealth of Massachusetts.

New public two-year colleges in Massachusetts are organized as re-gional community colleges. There are 11 such institutions in existencenow. They are controlled by the Massachusetts Board of RegionalCommunity Colleges, and their support comes primarily from thestate.

Alabama is another example of such an approach to junior collegedevelopment. The state has established ten new junior colleges, withothers planned, to receive full support and direction from the state.Connecticut and Rhode Island also establish community junior col-leges .vith state control.

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A number of other states have state junior college boards or depart-ments, but organization and control are maintained at the local level.In a few states, the community junior college idea is given expressionthrough the establishment of two-year branches of four-year collegesand universities. The University of Kentucky, for example, has sevenbranches designated as community colleges. The administrative headof each college is a dean who is responsible directly to the Universitythrough a dean for community colleges.

FINANCING JUNIOR COLLEGES

As in other aspects of junior college development, financing variesfrom community to community, from state to state, and even from in-stitution to institution. It is important, however, to recognize thatthere is a growing tendency among states and communities to providefunding that will ensure that two-year colleges operate at maximumefficiency. Such plans help them to provide the variety of programsthat will make it possible to accommodate all those who can benefitfrom at least two years of college experience.

Private Junior Colleges. Church-related and independent junior col-leges depend largely on tuitions and other fees, support from constitu-ent bodies (in the case of the church-related colleges), gifts andgrants, and alumni. In their development programs, private collegeshave the advantage of being able to draw upon a broad base for sup-port. They are not restricted to any particular community, state, or re-gion. However, financing is a major problem for the private colleges asthey compete for support in the academic marketplace.

Public Junior Colleges. The most commonly accepted way to financethe operation of local public junior colleges is through state and localpublic funds. Usually, laws providing for local financial support by thejunior college district authorize the college's governing board to levy atax on the property in the district. Colleges operating as a part of aunified school or county school district share in the funds raisedthrough taxes by the county or school district. When tuition ischarged, it accounts for a small percentage of operating income.

A majority of the states with statutes related to junior college estab-lishment provide some financial aid for college operations. Frequently,state aid is determined by means of a formula, generally based on aunit of student attendance. Some states provide funds through the sim-ple procedure of lump-sum appropriations.

TRENDS

In addition to operating costs, support is required by junior collegesto provide adequate buildings and equipment. While there has been atendency in the past for colleges to depend almost entirely on local taxmonies for capital construction, states are becoming increasingly inter-ested in providing assistance for campus development. Many statesnow provide state tax funds for capital facilities of junior colleges.Among these, Florida is especially notable in that it provides for thetotal cost of building county community junior colleges.

FEDERAL Aw TO JUNIOR COLLEGES

Junior colleges have benefited from the education-minded adminis-trations and congresses of recent years, recognition that was consid-ered long overdue by many. The first major federal attention given totwo-year colleges was in 1963 with the passage of the Higher Educa-tion Facilities Act. Title I of the Act provided for grants for construc-tion of undergraduate academic facilities for all institutions of highereducation. What was significant for junior colleges was that the Actspecified that 22 percent of the construction funds appropriated byCongress should be allotted for the use of public community collegesand technical institutions for construction of facilities.

The proportion of 'lotments to junior colleges was increased in 1966through amendments to the 1963 law which continue the facilities pro-gram for five years. Under the amendments, the junior college allot-ment was raised to 23 percent in 1968, and to 24 percent in 1969.Therefore, through action of the 89th Congress in late 1966, nearly$500 million was authorized for public junior colleges for the years1967, 1968, and 1969.

A loan provision of the Higher Education Facilities Act allows pub-lic community colleges and technical institutes to apply for loans tohelp finance academic facilities.

The sources for federal aid to institutions that offer education be-yond high school but do not grant baccalaureate degrees are oftenhidden in statutes, the primary concern of which is to provide assis-tance for other types of institutions. Thus, in discussing aid to juniorcolleges, it is necessary to report on types of assistance rather than onstatutes or laws in many instances. The fact that junior college partici-pation in some federal aid programs has not always been clearlyspelled out has led to some difficulty for colleges interested in takingadvantage of opportunities under various programs.

44, to?:-

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Another major education bill that came from the 89th Congress inlate 1966 and that holds promise for two-year colleges is the AlliedHealth Professions Act, which clearly includes junior colleges. The Actprovides $500 per student to colleges for the operating costs of healthtechnology programs in which the students are enrolled. It also pro-vides funds for construction of health education facilities and otherbenefits. since education and training needs in the health fields areamong CI- - most critical in the nation, the Allied Health Act has con-siderable implications for two-year colleges that have invested heavilyin the field.

Also passed in 1963 was the Vocational Education Act. Under thislaw, funds were made available to technical and vocational schoolsand vocational divisions of community colleges. Federal grants in allcases were to be matched with state or local funds, with the federalshare not to exceed 50 percent.

As with other important national legislation, the Vocational Educa-tion Act is administered through the state vocational agencies. Themachinery of administration has hindered participation by junior col-leges. In some states, little or no funds have gone to two-year institu-tions.

Another vital aspect of federal aid to education in which all institu-tions of higher education share is that of student assistance. Junior col-leges, for example, have participated from the beginning in Title II ofthe National Defense Education Act of 1958 which provides for fed-eral grants to colleges to be used for loans to needy students. The Actwas amended in late 1965 to provide for participation by schools ofnursing as well as any school that "provides not less than one year oftraining to prepare students for gainful employment in a recognizedoccupation" and that meets certain other provisions. This amendmentposed obvious advantages for two-year colleges.

Students eligible for loans may borrow up to $1,000 a year, but themaximum loan under the 1961 amendment was approximately $484.The loan program is a joint arrangementwith the institution contrib-uting 10 percent and the federal government 90 percent. Participatingschools approve student applications for loans, make the loans, and areresponsible for collection.

The Higher Education Act of 1965, which contained several titlesthat allowed participation by junior colleges, includes one provisionfor Educational Opportunity Grants of from $200 to $800 to make newaid available to needy students from low-income families. To be eligi-

TRENDS

ble a student must be in exceptional financial need and unable, exceptfor the Educational Opportunity Grant, to engage in full-time study.By May 1966, the U.S. Office of Education had approved proposals forgrants from over 1,400 institutions of higher education, including anestimated 200 junior colleges and 50 technical schools. The averagegrant for all institutions was $435, and for technical schools $233. Thesegrants can continue through undergraduate study for a maximum offour years if the financial need continues.

To qualify for participation in the program, colleges and schoolsmust match the federal grants with an equal amount of assistancefrom other sources such as tuition waivers, scholarships, or loans. Low-income students receiving Educational Opportunity Grants may earnadded money through part-time employment, may be employed underthe work-study program, or may receive loans or other assistance fromtheir college.

Junior colleges also participate in low-interest insured loans underthe Higher Education Act. This assistance program is especially aimedat middle- and upper-income families interested in obtaining long-term, low-interest loans from eligible lending institutions. The provi-sion takes into account the fact that education for young people fromsuch families often places a financial burden on their families, particu-larly if there are a number of children who want to go to college. Inmany cases, these students cannot. qualify for student employment ora student loan. The program provides that the federal governmentpay interest during study years on a loan made to a student from afamily with an adjusted income of less than $15,000 a year, and halfthe interest during the loan repayment period, which begins ninemonths following college graduation. A student from a family with anadjusted income higher than $15,000 a year pays the entire interest onthe loan, but he may borrow under the guaranteed loan program at 6percent simple interest. An undergraduate may borrow as much as$1,000 a year up to $5,000, and a graduate student up to $7,500.

Another loan program, the National Vocational Student Loan In-surance Act of 1965, sets up a program to assist students desiring train-ing for rewarding careers in business and trade and in other nonpro-fessional job areas requiring specialized or adva- T. ed training. It pro-vides for a program of loan insurance and a companion program of di-rect loans. Under this program, the government may guarantee eitherstate or private nonprofit guaranty agencies at interest rates not to ex-ceed 6 percent on unpaid balances. If funds are not available from

20

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

those sources, the federal government may insure loans, and, if stu-dents are unable to obtain loans under this program, they may applydirectly to the Commissioner of Education. Students may borrow upto $1,000 annually for two academic years, and they may use themoney to pay all legitimate expenses to which loan funds may be put,including books, tuition, and fees. The federal government pays inter-est charges on loans during the period of study, and half of the inter-est charges during the period of loan repayment.

Other assistance programs recently enacted by Congress that allowfor participation by junior colleges include:

College Work-Study Program under the Higher Education Actof 1965 (transferred from the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964).The program is aimed at assisting students from low-income fami-lies by providing opportunity for employment while they are inschool or college.

GI Bill of Rights. This new program provides sums in varyingamounts for eligible veterans to attend colleges or schools of theirchoice. Under the bill, monthly allowances are paid to eligible vet-erans who study full or part time. For full-time study, a veteran withno dependents shall be paid $100, one with one dependent $125,and one with two or more dependents $150. (A "full-time collegecourse load" is 14 semester hours or more.) For three-quarter-timestudy, comparable amounts are $75, $95, and $115. For a half-timeprogram, the amounts are $50, $65, and $75. Eligible veterans areentitled to one month of educational assistance for each month ofservice, up to a total of 36 calendar months. They may choose theeducational institution they wish to attend, and it may be a publicor private college or university, a professional or vocational school,or other institution that furnishes education at the secondary schoollevel or above. Certain courses are prohibited (for example, appren-tice training, farm training, and avocational or recreational courses).

In addition to provisions of the Higher Education Act of 1965, citedabove, junior colleges are eligible with other institutions for supportunder a number of other titles. These include:

Community Services and Continuing Education. This is a five-year program to aid institutions of higher education in undertaking

TRENDS

programs of community services and expanding continuing educ-tion. The program is cz:Lied out by a designated state agency.

College Library Assistance. This title authorizes a three-yearprogram of assistance to institutions of higher education to developlibrary resources, train librarians, and conduct research in libraryscience.

Strengthening Developing Institutions. This program aims at as-sisting small institutions that are besot with a number of problemss'ich as limited firia-,:cial support. The title takes two approaches tothe problem: (1) provision of a "big brother" system whereby a"developing" institution can work in concert with established colleges and universities to solve its problems and (2) a national teach-ing fellowship program which will permit graduate students andjunior faculty members from established colleges and universities tojoin the faculties of developing institutions in order to augment theirteaching resources. The maximum stipend for fellows is $6,500 peryear plus $400 for each dependent. Fellowships may not exceed twoacademic years. Twenty-two percent of the monies available underthe program have been set aside for both public and private juniorcolleges.

Financial Assistance for the Improvement of Instruction. Fundsunder this title may be used to acquire instructional materials to im-prove the teaching of science, mathematics, foreign languages, his-tory, geography, government, education, the arts, English, and otherhumanities. Federal funds, which are matched by the institutionsparticipating, are used to supply classrooms, libraries, or audio-vis-ual centers with equipment, materials, published materials otherthan textbooks, and closed-circuit television.

In addition to legislative programs that include support for juniorcolleges, the two-year institutions are also increasingly being invitedto participate in educational programs of various government agencies.The National Science Foundation, for example, seeks participation byjunior college faculty in summer institute programs, and NSF makesequipment grants to many colleges.

There is growing interest, however, in looking at the special aimsand purposes of the junior colleges in relationship to possible majorsupport programs at the federal level.

""

21

III. Programs, Services, and People

The men and women who find opportunity for education beyond thehigh school in the junior colleges represent every social and economicstratum, every age group, and myriad interests, abilities, and aspirations.

Studies have shown that many young people entering public com-munity junior colleges are among the first in their families to take col-lege-level work. Many are sons and daughters of low-income families,taking advantage of low-cost, accessible education that was not avail-able to their parents. Yet, many young people from high or medium-income families may wish for a variety of reasons to attend the localtwo-year college.

The junior college may serve a "rescue" function for many studentsby providing opportunity to develop latent skills or by providing ap-propriate programs for those students whose achievements in highschool may not meet the requirements usually considered necessaryfor entry into college.

Two-year community junior colleges also offer programs to retrainor upgrade men and women in their jobs. Moveover, through eveningprograms, the colleges offer opportunities for cultural enrichment andavocational activities for adults. In addition, many junior colleges offershort courses, symposia, and other intensive services for professionaland vocational groups in their communities. In some communities, thejunior college serves as a focal point for meetings, drama, music, andother cultural affairs of community-wide interest.

PROGRAMS OF STUDY

Transfer Programs. Lower division, university-parallel courses intwo-year colleges require a high level of intellectual performance.They emphasize abstract thinking and duplicate to a large extent thestandards of similar courses in universities.

In recent years, two-year and four-year colleges, as well as those na-tional organizations representing the institutions, have made a coordi-

TRENDS

nated effort to bring about better articulation in regard to the transferprocess. Studies at the Center for Higher Education, University of Cal-ifornia, Berkeley, indicated that lack of planning for transfer studentsby junior and senior colleges often retarded progress of the student ashe moved from the junior college into and through upper divisionwork. With evidence that increasing numbers of students will be en-tering college at the junior college level, new attention has been fo-cused on the transfer process with the result that many junior collegesand universities are following recently developed guidelines that willfacilitate movement from one institution to another.

Guidelines for Improving Articulation Between Junior and SeniorColleges suggest that a number of important steps, when implement-ed, will be of tremendous significance to thousands of students enter-ing college during coming years.'

In the area of admissions, for example, public four-year colleges anduniversities subscribing to the guidelines are called upon to adopt anoverall C average as the standard for admission from junior college.They will weigh the student's performance in the junior college transferprogram as the best single predictor of success in a tour-year institutionand therefore will count that performance most heavily in the admis-sions decision.

Under the guidelines, university admissions standards would bestated in such a way that junior college students could know at anytime whether they would be eligible to transfer when they completedtheir lower division program. With scores of new colleges opening, thequestion of admitting students from colleges without regional accredi-tation is an important one. Four-year colleges and universities areasked to accept students from these institutions on the same basis asthey do students from colleges that are regionally accredited, allowingtime for the newer institutions to obtain the necessary recognition.

The satisfactory completion of an associate degree transfer programshould guarantee upper division standing for the student who trans-fers. Normally, no maximum should be placed on the amount of creditwhich may be transferred from junior colleges.

The Guidelines statement also calls for more careful articti!ationGuidelines for Improving Articulation Between Junior and Senior Colleges.

Statement by the Joint Committee on junior and Senior Colleges of the AmericanAssociation of Junior Colleges, Association of American Colleges, and AmericanAssociation of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. American Council onEducation, Washington, D.C., 1966.

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

between junior colleges on curriculum planning. Transfer students, forexample, should be given the option of satisfying graduation require-ments that were in effect in senior colleges at the time they enrolled asfreshmen, subject to conditions or qualifications which apply to the se-nior college students.

The goal of equality of opportunity in higher education can most cer-tainly be approached by present efforts to expand and strengthen the publiccommunity college. However, it will not be enough merely to offer op-portunity in these new institutions. Better means must be found to assiststudents to take maximum advantage of this increased opportunity. Thiscan be done by improving counseling services at all levels; broadening finan-cial aid programs; impro ting communication among the various types ofcolleges, between the colleges and the students and their parents, and withthe general public; building an even better bridge with the high school andthe university; and creating additional transfer opportunities in the four-yearcolleges. Above all there is need to develop better voluntary means forsolving articulation problems involving both high schools and the variouscolleges, to complement the formal machinery which is now being createdin many states.5

Occupational Programs. Occupational programsalso known as vo-cational-technical courses of studycan be found for virtually the en-tire range of semiprofessional and technical jobs now extant in busi-ness, industry, government, and the service fields. Moreover, new pro-grams are created as new kinds of manpower needs emerge.

Description of these curricula is complicated by the variety of titlesgiven them. Such titles as merchandising, retailing, and distributiveeducation may refer to quite similar programs, while electronic tech-nology may include programs varying greatly in difficulty, content,and applicability. Catalog descriptions of vocational-technical pro-grams usually enable one to identify both the scope and the nature ofthe programs.

While it is difficult to categorize some of the newer programs thathave arisen in recent years, perhaps it is enough to indicate that thelargest percentage of the occupational programs would fit into the fol-lowing categories: agriculture; applied arts; business; engineering andindustrial technology; trade and industrial programs; health fields; andapparel, culinary, and homemaking arts. Within each of these cate-gories are found scores of occupational areas.

s Dorothy M. Knoell, "Focus on the Transfer Program," Junior College Journal,Vol. 35, no. 8, May /965, p. 9.

u

I

TRENDS

For example, business would include the following areas:

accountingadvertising and displaybankingbusiness supervision and

management

clerical workdata processinginsurancereal estate salesreceptionist

secretarial science

The health fields offer another example:

dental assistant medical secretarydental hygienist medical techniciandental secretary nursingdental technician optical technicianmedical librarian psychiatric technician

sanitation technician

Evening Programs. Two-year college evening programs includemost of the regular day courses and in addition many courses designedespecially for employed adults. Some students who enroll in eveningprograms follow a program which will eventually lead to an associatedegree. Many more, however, enroll in courses of study as a means ofkeeping informed about recent developments in their fields of employ-ment. Still others develop improved personal, social, and civic compe-tence from the wide array of courses from which they may choose.

ACCREDITATION

Junior colleges lookas do other institutions of higher educationtothe six regional accrediting agencies for approval of their programs. Amajority of the two-year colleges are accredited or are in the process ofbeing accredited by one of these agencies: the New England Associa-tion of Colleges and Secondary Schools, the Middle States Associationof Colleges and Secondary Schools, the North Central Association ofColleges and Secondary Schools, the Northwest Association of Secon-dary and Higher Schools, the Southern Association of Colleges andSchools, and the Western Association of Schools and Colleges.

Obviously, these voluntary accrediting agencies, formed by highereducation institutions, exert a major influence upon higher education,and thereby upon individual and national welfare. Accreditationmeans the procedure whereby a junior college or other educational in-stitution is evaluated and is accorded recognition or accreditation ifthe evaluation is favorable.

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

Such accreditation is important in terms of the status of the institu-tion, and for the junior college, affects the transferability of credits tosome universities. In the case of public junior colleges, however, par-ticularly the many newer institutions, recognition by an authorizedstate agency may be another means of accreditation, at least withinthe state where the college is located. For new institutions, the accredi-tation agencies have provisions that allow them to become candidates.Some specialized programs are accredited by professional agencie.;.

All accrediting agencies follow much the same general plan in evalu-26 acing the quality of an institution's performance. They develop a set of

criteria or standards which the individual institutions are expected tomeet. They examine curricular offerings; instructional effectiveness;student personnel services; faculty training, experience, and compe-tence; adequacy of the college physical plant; adequacy of the library;and the soundness of the financial structure of the college.

Accreditation furnishes the simplest and the most convenient guidefor students, parents, and others to the academic quality of a juniorcollege or other institution of higher education; and, when properlyunderstood, it is one of the best means available for this purpose.

STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

At the core of the junior college program are student personnel ser-vices. As the description of people and programs would indicate, thereis a necessity for helping students to adjust to college living and tochoose the best program for their needs and interests.

This service has often been described as a distributing function.That is, through expert counseling and guidance, students are assistedin choosing programs of study where they stand the best chance ofsuccess and which may ultimately provide fulfillment in job and com-munity life.

Student personnel services do not end with assistance in programplanning. They involve counseling on economic and health problems,record keeping and study of student characteristics, ;ob placement,and follow-up of the student after he leaves the college campus. Ac-cording to Max Raines, the student personnel program in the juniorcollege consists of a series of related functions designed to support theinstructional program, respond to student needs, and foster institu-tional development. These functions include:

' Max R. Raines, "The Student Personnel Situation," Junior College Journal, vol.36, no. 5, February 1966, pp. 6-8.

TRENDS

1. Orientation to college and career opportunities and requirements.2. Appraisal of individual potentialities and limitations.3. Consultation with students about their plans, progress, and problems.4. Participation of students in activities that supplement classroom ex-

periences.5. Regulation to provide an optimal climate for social and academic de-

velopment.6. Services that facilitate college attendance through a program of financial

assistance, and facilitate transition to further education or employment.7. Organization that provides for continuing articulation, evaluation, and

improvement of the student personnel program.

Thus, in addition to providing the course work, the instruction, andthe environment for college study, the junior colleges attempt to pro-vide expert assistance to help students take full advantage of the re-sources of the college and of the community.

STUDENT ACTIVITIES

Junior colleges provide ample opportunity for extracurricular ac-tivities, including those of a cultural, social, and athletic nature. Manyactivities at the smaller private colleges may be centered in residencehalls.

The public community colleges, which do not usually have dormi-tories, base activity programs in modern student centers which mayalso house dining facilities. Offices are provided for student govern-ment organizations, which actively campaign for campus programsand improvements.

Most public junior colleges also donate their auditorium facilities tocommunity groups for lectures, stage productions, and meetings. Suchcooperation is in keeping with the concept of tl- - junior college as acultural center.

While athletic programs vary in type across the country, most juniorcolleges maintain intramural sports programs in such sports as base-ball, football, basketball, track, soccer, and swimming. In most partsof the country, junior college teams participate in intercollegiatesports.

Newspapers are published by junior college students, either as apart of English or journalism classwork or as a student activity. Forthose interested in creative writing, many colleges publish literaryjournals and magazines. They also produce, largely as student projects,

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

colorful yearbooks dramatizing the colleges, their programs, and mem-bers of the faculty and student body.

TEACHER NEEDS AND CHARACTERISTICS

Good teaching, of course, is the most important contribution thatthe junior college has to make to its students.

Junior colleges tend to seek men and women for faculty positionswho place priority on teaching. While research and publishing is notdiscouraged, this kind of activity usually takes second place to class-

28 room instruction and extracurricular leadership.Generally, junior colleges employ teachers who have at least a mas-

ter's degree. Increasingly, the colleges seek to recruit men and womenwith special preparation for teaching liberal arts and general educationcourses. In the occupational fields, however, practical experience in aspecialty may be substituted to some extent for advanced degrees.

The National Education Association's latest study on teacher sup-ply and demand for institutions of higher education shows that juniorcolleges rely heavily on four major sources of supply for personnel en-tering junior college teaching for the first time. These include highschools, graduate schools, four-year colleges and universities, and busi-ness occupations.' The fact that many public junior colleges are closelyrelated to school operations is perhaps an indication of why the ranksof high school teachers provide a major source of personnel.

Salaries for junior college teachers have risen steadily in recentyears, a factor which has helped to attract well-qualified men andwomen to the field. The median nine-month salary of 22,166 full-timeteachers in 401 public junior colleges during 1965-66 was $8,361, anincrease of 6.8 percent over the median of $7,828 in 1963-64. Salariesrange from more than $15,000 down to less than $3,000.8

With the increase in junior colleges and students served, thousandsof new teachers will be needed in the foreseeable future. Moreover,many leaders in higher education are convinced that new sources ofsupply must be found, that programs of preparation specifically forjunior college teaching must be expanded. Already, a number of ma-

7 Teacher Supply and Demand in Universities, Colleges, and Junior Colleges,1963-64 and 1964-65, Research Report 1965 R-4, National Education Association,Washington, D.C., April 1965, pp. 43-45.

' William S. Graybeal, "Salaries in Junior Colleges-1965-66," The NEA SixthBiennial Salary Survey, Junior College Journal, vol. 36, no. 8, May 1966, p. 12.

TRENDS

jor universities have instituted teacher-preparation programs with thejunior college in mind, for it is not merely a question of meeting de-mand in terms of numbers, but one of producing teachers who under-stand the role of the junior college and accept the challenge of work-ing in institutions with students having a wide variety of interests,abilities, and aspirations. The contribution that junior colleges aremaking to higher education is directly related to the talent that occu-pies the classrooms of these institutions.

FACILITIES DEVELOPMENT

All too often in the past, junior colleges, especially community col-leges, started and remained in unused high school buildings or othertemporary facilities. The lack of buildings and equipment especiallydesigned for college work tended to inhibit the role of these institu-tions in higher education, often obscured their identity, and hinderedproper development.

Today, there is a new look. While many institutions, because of theurgency of educational needs, may start in temporary facilities, theydo not stay long in such makeshift campuses. In many places, two andthree campuses are being built simultaneously as the colleges seek toput classrooms and the best teaching equipment within reach of thepopulations they serve.

Facilities being planned and built for new junior colleges, as well asfor many older institutions expanding or renovating plants, tend to bemodern in design with maximum utility built in. For those that arenow being constructed there is tremendous opportunity to includemodern teaching equipment at less cost than would he required to re-model an older structure.

The U.S. Office of Education estimated that between 1960 and 1965community colleges would spend $500 million for new facilities. Thatwas a conservative figure; more than $212 million was made avail-able for California junior colleges alone during that period. From 1965to 1970, experts estimate that $1.5 billion will be spent on construction.

The new look in junior college facilities development entails thecareful planning of campuses to meet the functional, aesthetic, andinstructional needs of students and staff. This new look is reflected inthe 1966 Design Award Program sponsored by the U.S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare in collaboration with the AmericanInstitute of Architects and the Educational Facilities Laboratories,

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

Inc. The program contained five categories of awards for facilities de-sign and development.

In the category of "Campus Planning," which covered the design ofentire campuses rather than a specific building or facility, threeawards were given for the planning of the campuses of Jefferson DavisJunior College, Gulfport-Biloxi, Mississippi; Cuyahoga CommunityCollege, Cleveland, Ohio; and the Canada Campus of the San MateoJunior College District in California.

Some of the philosophy and vision required in planning junior col-

30 lege campuses is contained in a statement by J. Philip Dalby, Deanof Planning and Development at Cuyahoga Community C011ege. Henotes:

A comprehensive community college offers a wide variety of courses andprograms, many of which draw upon technical and scientific subject matterwhich is dynamic and fluid. Obsolescence within the next two or three dec-ades of the physical plant which houses these programs cannot be afforded.Although the present curriculum has been used as a basis for determiningfurther needs, it is expected that some courses will be recast, others will bedropped, and many new ones addedespecially in the technical-occupationalareas. Also, we cannot be entirely sure of the number of clock hours per weekstudents in the future will be required to attend class sessions to insure maxi-mum learning. Because of this somewhat fluid situation, it is necessary to planspace for certain programs not presently in existence.9

Facilities planning in the future will be characterized, as it is inmany places now, by efforts to design buildings and campuses that fitinto the surroundings, whether the location be suburban, rural, or ur-ban. There will be skyscraper colleges as well as campuses that fit intorolling hills or into modern suburban residential communities. Mostnew colleges are designed in the context of the needs of the total com-munity. Theaters, auditoriums, and physical recreation facilities areplanned with the community in mind as well as the student and fac-ulty populations of the institutions.

The upsurge in facilities development is not confined to the publicsector. Private junior colleges, too, have put creative planning to workin bringing about the establishment of facilities and equipment tomeet the needs of students and community. For example, Monticello

1966 Design Award Program, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel-fare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C., 1966 (pages are not numbered)

_.,

TRENDS

College in Alton, Illinois has designed and built a theatron, a 1,000 -seat theatre for college and community use.

Pine Manor Junior College moved its campus from one location toanother after new facilities were designed with the students of thissmall college in mind. The college moved from Wellesley, Massachu-setts to a campus in Chestnut Hill, seven and one-half miles closer tothe center of Boston. The new campus was organized in terms of resi-dential villages with quiet courtyards surrounded by two-story brickbuildings. The traditions of the college were preserved in the resultingarchitecture.

In Florida, most of the recently established public junior collegeshave new campuses. Others are building. The same can be said aboutsuch states as California, New York, and Michigan. In fact, in mostareas where there has been considerable junior college development,facilities planning is high on the list of priorities.

Corning Community College, located in the hills of western NewYork, provides an illustration of the way a community college buildsfor the future. Because of the pressures and needs for college opportu-nity in the Corning area, the institution opened in temporary facilities.Meanwhile, planners designed a new campus from the ground up. Thearchitecture is modern and the low-slung buildings contain the latestteaching equipment and laboratory facilities. None of the five majorbuildings is more than a five-minute walk apart. The commons build-ing in the center of the campus provides a student office and study andlounge areasboth important to a campus where most students arecommuters.

Many of the new junior colleges have had an opportunity to experi-ment with the latest audio-visual and programmed learning devices.Data processing equipment has become almost standard in the largerjunior colleges and serves as a device for teaching, as a means of pro-cessing important college data, and as an important way of trainingstudents in the methods and techniques of operating the equipment.In many areas, the computer college has become a reality.

1

iv. Trends and Projections

32 Not only will there be many more community and junior colleges inthe years ahead, but these institutions will be broader in their servicesthan at present. If the rest of the nation provides junior college ser-vices on the scale now achieved by states like California and Florida,there will be more than 850 public community colleges by 1970 ascompared with just over 500 in 1965. These institutions will enroll ap-proximately two million students.

For example, there will be rapid expansion of the concept that thecommunity college is an educational resources center for the adult citi-zenry of the community. Provisions will be made for ready access tothe college, and the notion that a student will enroll for a two-yearprogram which he will complete in two years and then sever contactwith the institution will change markedly. Instead, students who havecompleted their high school work and others who can give evidencethat they can benefit by a program of the college will avail themselvesof the services of the institution many times and in many ways. Thecommunity college may well become the center for continuing educa-tion in its area. Elementary and secondary educational programs, whichhave in the past been the dominant offerings at the community level,will be joined by educational opportunities and services designed tomeet the needs and interests of the adult community throughout theirlives. Obviously, the society of this next generation will develop insti-tutions of this kind just as a previous generation built secondaryschools to match the educational requirements of that day.

Less than ten years from now, most citizens of most of the cities inthis country will have some contact with their local community col-leges. Most states will have put a junior college within commuting dis-tance of a majority of their citizens. In fact, in many communities, thecollege will be a focal point for citizen interests and activities.

TRENDS

In urban centers the trend toward establishing multicampus collegesis likely to continue in order that educational avenues in the largecities are kept open and accessible. Some of the nation's largest citiesLos Angeles, Chicago, Miami, New York, and Dallasare already set-ting the pattern for this kind of development. The multicampus collegeis one in which the institution establishes branches throughout a met-ropolitan area in order to put educational opportunity within commut-ing reach of the entire population.

The cluster college concept, particularly among independent andchurch-related colleges, is also likely to develop more fully duringcoming years. Already colleges in the Midwest and in New Englandhave banded together for the sharing of facilities, faculties, and ideasfor certain types of programs.

Clearly, a remarkable and inviting future is ahead for those whoprepare professionally to have a part in the most noteworthy educa-tional development of this century. Expertise of the highest order willbe required upon the part of the faculties, the administrators, and theboard members of this new kind of college to assure that it will fash-ion its own way in response to identified societal needs and that it willdo so with purpose and judgment. Cooperative arrangements arecalled for between these colleges and other colleges and universities,the elementary and secondary schools, as well as the agencies and or-ganizations of the community.

The junior college should also play a key role in this country's effortsin the field of international education. Studies have indicated that thejunior college idea may be adaptable to situations in other countries,particularly in developing nations where there is an increased demandfor education. In addition, there will be increased exchange of stu-dents and teachers between junior colleges in this country and insti-tutions of higher education in other countries.

The junior college is only beginning to realize its potential for ad-vancing opportunity for higher education. It is clear that its role willcontinue to grow, and that society will benefit from the expansion thatlies ahead.

As has already been indicated, junior colleges of the future will becharacterized by well-designed campuses, advanced teaching equip-ment, and other facilities that in and of themselves contribute to thelearning process and atmosphere. The places of learning will be

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

designed to effect better learning. Colleges of the future will be morethan just "stopping off" places. They will be integral to the daily liv-ing of the people whom they serve.

Curricula of junior colleges will be characterized by change. Presentcourses of study will be altered and revised to meet new manpowerrequirements of business, industry, and the professions. Some pro-grams will disappear to be re_ by others as new levels of job so-phistication are achieved in many occupational areas. Program oppor-tunities will expand as science and technology make continued ad-

34 vanes in the years ahead. Coupled with the ever-changing programsof the two-year institutions will be continued refinement in studentpersonnel services that will help to ensure success of students.

CHAPTER TWO: OCCUPATIONAL. EDUCATION

1. Planning for Occupational Education

If a majority of Americans are to have the benefit of educational expe-rience beyond high school, there must be avenues of opportunity dis-tinct from what might be called conventional college preparation.These avenues have already been paved and opened in many commu-nity junior colleges across the country. They constitute a growing seg-ment of the programming of two-year colleges. They are called occu-pational education programs and are designed to prepare men andwomen for sophisticated technical and semiprofessional jobs in busi-ness, industry, the health fields, government, and social service.

The National Advisory Committee on the Junior College has per-haps best expressed the need and the planning required for these pro-grams:

It should be dearly understood by those responsible for education at alllevels that middle-level job education is a legitimate function of highereducation, and that the junior college is an appropriate instrument for thispurpose. Until such understanding is reached, it will be impossible to moveforward rapidly and wisely enough in planning for the future .I

The Committee goes on to explain that most states and local com-munities interested in expanding educational opportunities reviewand study educational patterns in terms of population growth, man-power development, and individual needs and aspirations. Junior col-leges have been established in many areas of the country as the resultof such conscientious review and study.

Most recently established junior colleges have been planned and or-ganized to include programs of occupational education in their cur-ricula Furthermore, the cf.-lieges are planned in terms of accessibility

' A National Resource for Occupational Education, statement by the NationalAdvisory Committee on the Junior College, American Association of Junior Col-leges, Washington, D.C., 1964, p. 8.

35

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

to students, flexible admission policies, appropriate counseling pro-grams, and low cost.

Metropolitan communities have taken special interest in the devel-opment of community-centered junior colleges that will meet occupa-tional needs and contribute to resolution of urban social problems.Colleges are now being planned for the inner cities as well as suburbs.

Increased attention is being given by federal authorities, as well asstate agencies, to the potentiality of the junior college in attacking theroots of poverty and unemployment. Through several recent federal

36 educational aid programs, junior colleges have found ways to improveand increase retraining and vocational programs.

There has been increased interest on the part of business, industry,and labor in cooperating with community junior colleges in planningprograms of education that will adequately meet new manpowerneeds. Work-study programs have been developed in some places, andat least one major company has designed a scholarship program foroccupational manpower in its field.

Increasingly, financial support is being made available from local,state, and federal sources for the equipping of programs for semipro-fessional and technical education in junior colleges.

Universities and four-year colleges are planning with junior collegesft_ the preparation of men and women to teach the new technologies,and for research into problems that may face junior colleges in the fu-ture. It is clear now that thousands of teachers will be needed by ju-nior colleges in coming years. It seems evident also that these teacherswill require special preparation and attention if they are to take on theresponsibility of teaching a heterogeneous junior college population.

Throughout the country, junior colleges are accepting the challengeto establish technical and semiprofessional programs and to expandthem commensurate with manpower requirements. Leadership is be-ing provided by the institutions which have the greatest role to playin this national endeavor.2

In short, there has been evidence of increasing awareness on thepart of society in general of the importance of providing appropriateeducational experiences beyond the high schoolappropriate to theneeds of individuals and to those who will employ them. Yet, the vastpotential of the community junior college in the field of technical

2 Ibid.

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38

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

and semiprofessional education is not fully realized. The low prestigevalue or lack of acceptance of technical education is a major problem.In this country and in many countries abroad, the university with itsbaccalaureate programs is the desired educational objective of mostyoung people. Occupational programs are chosen often reluctantly assecond best options.

Yet, society demands services that can be provided only by abroader spectrum of occupations. To fully comprehend this new kindof education, it is necessary to look at the changing occupational pat-terns and educational requirements.

The chart on page 37, prepared by Norman C. Harris, professor oftechnical education at the University of Michigan, dramatically illus-trates what is taking place in the world of work.3 The three-level edu-cational system of the 1930's roughly sorted young people in the var-ious occupational categories shown. But in 1970, as the chart shows,this three-level educational system will no longer suffice. At one ex-treme, the number of persons with baccalaureate and advanced de-grees will increase by 1970. At the other extreme, few jobs will beavailable for the person with only an eighth grade education. Highschool and/or vocational school education and training will be neces-sary for a much larger percentage of the labor force in 1970 than it wasin the 1930's. The really significant change, however, is in the middleof the two spectra. Managerial, semiprofessional and technical, clericaland sales, and highly skilled jobs will involve about half of the laborforce by 1970. Proper preparation for most of these jobs will requiresome college training, but usually not the baccalaureate degree. Com-munity junior colleges, technical institutes, and business colleges arethe institutions that will educate the middle "fifty percent."

3 Norman C. Harris, Technical Education in the Junior College/New Programsfor New Jobs, American Association of Junior Colleges, Washington, D.C., 1964,p. 27.

ii. Types of Occupational Programs

It is difficult to categorize occupational education programs. Newkinds of jobs are emerging constantly as a result of the rapid changesin technology and science, the growth of services, and the expansion ofindustry into new and untried fields of production.

For purposes of discussion, however, the occupational areas can bedivided into three major categories: business-related, industry, engi-neering-related, and health-related programs. The occupational areasnot fitting into these categories will be reviewed separately.

BUSINESS-RELATED PROGRAMS

The language of business has changed. It has become more sophisti-cated, more complex. Machines are replacing the unskilled clerk andin the process are creating new and more responsible positions inoffices, shops, and the many areas where commerce takes place. Entre-preneurs now look for men and women who can assume greater re-sponsibilityrespcnsibility that requires more than high school train-ing. At least two years of college are becoming essential to the youngperson who wants to get ahead in modem business.

Harris lists the following positions as among those which may nowand in the future require a minimum of two years of college experi-ence:}

BookkeeperBusiness Data ProgrammerBuyer (Retail Store)Data Processing TechnicianDepartment Manager (Retail

Store)Graphic Arts TechnicianInsurance SalesmanLegal Secretary

' Ibid., p. 44.

Library Assistant in a BusinessOffice

Medical SecretaryOffice SupervisorPBX OperatorPrivate SecretaryReal Estate SalesmanStatistical TechnicianTechnical Illustrator

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

Preparation for positions in the business fields, while specialized,does not exclude general education subjects that will help young peo-ple to understand the society in which they live. Moreover, such pro-grams include training in communication, both written and oral, vitalin an age of communications.

For example, a typical program in general business managementwould include courses in mathematics, English, composition, speech,physical science, economics, report writing, American civilization, andAmerican government, as well as the usual business courses such as ac-

40 counting, business correspondence, business organization and manage-ment, and sales fundamentals. With certain variations, the same wouldhold true of programs in business data processing and secretarialwork.

As indicated in a catalog of a leading community college, a programin business data processing would include the following:FRESHMAN YEAR UNITS SOPHOMOFE YEAR UNITS

SECOND FIRST SECONDFIRST

Introduction to Business 3

Business Administration

or Accounting 4

Business Administration

Data Processing

Data Processing Equipment

Systems and Procedures

English 5

Mathematics 3

Physical Education

4

4

4

4

3

Political ScienceAmerican 3

Political ScienceStateand Local Governments 1

Principles of Economics 3Philosophy-Logic and

Scientific MethodsData Processing or

Equipment 4Computer

Programming I 4Computer

Programming IIPhysical Education

3

4

This program would lead to an Associate in Arts degree in BusinessAdministration. To suggest further the spectrum of opportunities inbusiness, the college lists the following specialities in this field:

AccountingActuarial ScienceAdministration and PolicyEconomicsBanking and FinanceBusiness StatisticsForeign Trade

Marketing:RetailingWholesalingSales ManagementIndustrial PurchasingAdvertisingCooperative Marketing

.11.01.111.1.*( -

OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION

Government Foreign ServiceIndustrial Relations and

Personnel ManagementPublic Utilities

inmpltrlarlel,oerr,verwmgew,491e,IPtir7V51.,63chr.

Real Estate and Urban LandEconomics

Transportation and TrafficManagement

Production Management

Many of these courses of study, of course, may offer opportunities fortransfer to four-year programs. But they represent a choicea job atthe end of two years or the possibility of advanced study.

In addition to the regular day programs of occupational educationin business, many colleges have special evening programs for workingmen and women. The College of San Mateo in California, for example,has a business management certificate program. The program is de-signed for persons working at the supervisory level or for those inter-ested in supervisory positions. The certificate is awarded upon comple-tion of four required courses and four elective courses in the businessmanagement curriculum. The courses offered are all general in natureand practical in application.

Required courses in the business management certificate program atthe College of San Mateo include business management, industrialeconomics, organization for management, and techniques of supervi-sion. Among elective courses open to these adult students are industri-al accounting, introduction to data processing, introduction to statisti-cal methods, merchandising, office management and procedures, salesdevelopment, public relations, and statistics.

INDUSTRY, ENGINEERING-RELATED PROGRAMS

With the advance of the scientific and technological age, the man-power needs of industry and the education required to meet thoseneedshave changed dramatically. As Harris' chart on page 37 shows,the semiskilled or unskilled person is becoming less and less a factorin the labor market. Instead, research indicates that industry seeks awide range of technicians usually with education beyond the highschool. Harris goes on to say:

There is a wide range of technical occupations. Many technicians workat highly sophisticated levels in research, design and prototype production.Theoretical knowledge approaching that of the professions, combined withsome practical "know-how" about instruments, tools, and laboratory equip-ment is required for such work. Men and women in these jobs are usually

41

.waswwi4k0

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

called "semiprofessional technical," and college level educational programsare required for their preparation.

At the other end of the technical job spectrum are those occupationswhich demand a high degee of manual skill and ingenuity, but require onlya modest background in science, mathematics, and technical theory. Personswho hold these jobs are usually called "highly skilled technicians." Whilemany persons reach this level through on-the-job or armed services trainingprograms, and a few via technical high schools and vocational schools, themain avenue of the future will probably be through junior colleges and tech-nical institutes since college study will be increasingly more important inthe future.

It is important to remember that there are many degrees and kinds oftechnicians between these two extremes. The gap between the professionsand the skilled worker cannot be filled by one kind or level of techniciana great variety of talents and specialized abilities are needed.5

Harris lists the technical occupations in clusters and maintains thatthe well-prepared technician should be qualified to move in a numberof directions within the various categories.°

MECHANICAL

Air Conditioning/RefrigerationTechnician

Airframe TechnicianAutomotive TechnicianDiesel Technician

TECHNOLOGY

Engineering AideHydraulics TechnicianMachine Drafting TechnicianMissile TechnicianOperating (Building) Engineer

Precision Measurements Technician

ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY

Aviation Electronics TechnicianCommunications TechnicianComputer TechnicianElectrical Power TechnicianElectronic Drafting TechnicianIndustrial Electronics Technician

Microwave TechnicianMissile Electronics TechnicianRadar TechnicianRadio and Television TechnicianSound Systems TechnicianTransmitter Technician

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY

Architectural Draftsman Concrete TechnicianBuilding Construction Technician Estimator

' Ibid., p. 35.' /bid., p. 42.

OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION

Map Draftsman Specification WriterSanitation Technician Structural Testing Technician

Surveyor (Engineering Aide)

ENGINEERING LABORATORY TECHNICIANS

Ceramics Technician Metallurgical TechnicianChemical Technician Optical TechnicianInstrumentation Technician Plastics Technician

Research Technician (many grades)

While the preceding list may provide a starting point for those inter-ested in technical occupations in industry, the changing job picturefluctuates so rapidly that it is impossible to make hard and fast judg-ments about what should be offered. If the junior college is sensitive toneeds of the community upon which it depends for support, it will belooking constantly to the problem of obsolescence as well as new cur-ricular ideas.

When a survey in the district served by Foothill College in Califor-nia showed that there was a need for electro-photo-optics technicians,the college instituted a course of study for work with ultrahigh-speedphotography, lasers, space optics, photogrammetry, and research anddevelopment. In providing such a program, Foothill College wasdemonstrating clearly one of the most important trends in junior andcommunity college development in the United States: response to anew manpower need and opening up a new and intriguing career op-portunity for high school graduates.

It is important in considering programs in the occupational fieldsthat most community colleges require general education courses aswell as courses in the special study. As with the business-related pro-grams, courses of study in engineering-related fields in today's complexsociety call for ability to communicate, to understand something aboutthe nature of human behavior, as well as the economics and politics ofthe country. Lorain Community College in Ohio offers this program incivil technology:

FIRST YEAR CREDITS

Civil Engineering Technology 17Engineering Graphics Technology 2English 6Mathematics 10Physics 4

43

JrTY, Ain 'W.. (-14,7,,m toXr,.KAALlt,4 1445,110,11..0 VW% MAMPON.

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

SECOND YEAR CREDITS

Chemistry 11Economics 12Mechanical Engineering Technology 4Psychology 2

At Lorain, the degree of Associate in Applied Science is awarded tothose who successfully complete programs in the scientific or engineer-ing-related curricula. The degree has recognition among the employ-ers of graduates of these programs. In reviewing the occupational edu-

44 cation offerings of a college like Lorain, it might be well to look at theorganization of the institution itself as described in the college's annualcatalog:

The Lorain County Community College is divided into three major aca-demic divisionstne University Parallel Transfer Division, the Semiprofes-sional/Technical Division (occupational), and the Special Studies Division.

The University Parallel Transfer Division of the Lorain County Com-munity College offers the first two years of a four-year college curriculum andawards the degree Associate in Arts to those who complete it successfully. Inconsultation with college counselors throughout his two years in LorainCounty Community College, the student is guided through a program whichhe selects and which insures his transferability as a third-year student to thecollege of his choice.

The Semiprofessional/Technical Division (occupational) of the LorainCounty Community College offers curricula for the preparation of engineer-ing technicians in the following fields: chemical, civil, electrical, graphics,industrial, and mechanical. For preparation in the field of business the follow-ing curricula are offered: accounting, data processing, general business ad-ministration, mid-management retailing, and secretarial science. For prepa-ration in the field of health careers, three programs will be offered, includingdental assisting, medical assisting, and nursing. A student who completesone of these curricula successfully receives either the degree Associate in Ap-plied Science or Associate in Applied Business.

The Special Studies Division of the college includes in its programs re-fresher and improvement courses in English, mathematics, and chemistry, aswell as courses directed toward development of reading and study skills. Incooperation with representatives from industry, commercial establishments,and public agencies, the Special Studies Division also creates courses to meetthe specialized personal and vocational needs and interests of employees inthese establishments, as well as the general public. A number of the programsin the Special Studies Division are offered on a workshop, short course, orseminar basis.

OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION

In all three divisions of Lorain County Community College, a student mayattend classes days, evenings, or both, as he prefers. The only limitationsupon this privilege are those imposed by the official schedule published eachsemester and summer term.

Since Lorain County Community College is a commuters' college,without dormitory limitations of any kind, any student who satisfiesadmissions requirements is welcome to enter the college.

Organization at Lorain, a relatively new institution, would parallelthat of many other community colleges. It plainly shows the convic-tion of the modern community college that education beyond highschool must be appropriate to the needs and interests of all who enterthe institution.

PARAMEDICAL AND HEALTH-RELATED PROGRAMS

The third major occupational field is related to health. Kenneth G.Skaggs, occupational education specialist with the American Associa-tion of Junior Colleges, cites some of the reasons for increasing concernabout preparing young men and women for supporting roles in thehealth fields:

Tremendous strides are being made in medical and health research.The work of the medical student in our colleges of medicine is far differenttoday from that in the past. In years gore by, there were practicingphysicians who actually had kit little schooling, and medical students fre-quently went directly from high school graduation to medical school. Fewnurses received anything like the normal amount of training expected now,and most of the people on duty in hospitals received their training throughexperience. The midwife and the home nurse were important and busypeople in any community. Paramedical personnel were unknown as wewould identify them today.

Even the diseases and accidents of people have changed during thedecades just past, thus focusing the medical and health concerns in newdirections and bringing about vast changes in the education of physicians,surgeons, nurses, and paramedical personnel. Tuberculosis, pneumonia, anddiabetes are no longer the killers they were at one time. Accidents were ofthe farm variety for the most part. Today, illnesses have increasingly re-sulted from the pressures and tensions of the environments that have beencreated, and accidents from the speeds generated by a new age of machineand transportation. Too, better diagnosis, better knowledge as the result

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

of research has identified illnesses and organic conditions i..mg hidden tothe mciical man. All of these changes and new directions have had animpact and an influence upon educational programs, and the kind of peoplenow needed to care for the haalth needs of society. Preventive medicine isbeing talked about more and more, but to be successfully explored, thefield of preventive medicine requires increasing paramedical support.'

In short, Skaggs and oilier experts agree that the lone practitioner ofmedicine today is an anachroniim, as is his counterpart in otherprofessions. The knowledge explosion has overwhelmed the profession-

46 al and escalated his responsibilities.Technicians and assistants suppor .:_he medical professional in his

work. In medicine and dnitistry, le list of supporting jobs is long.Some of the names are well knownsuch as medical laboratory techni-cians and dental hygienists.

Robert E. Kinsinger, director of public affairs and education for theW. K. Kellogg Foundation, maintains that names for some fast devel-oping technical and semiprcfessional occupations in the health fieldsare lacking.' These occupations not only assist the physician and thedentist, but, in an expanding field of knowledge and service, a needexists for technical assistance for the professional nurse, the physicaland occupational therapist, the medical rec'rds librarian, the dieti-tian, and many others.

While the great bulk of workers are needed in hospitals and nursinghomes, the demand increases for skilled personnel in public health de-partments, social welfare agencies, private medical and dental office:,and even in industry. As Kinsinger explains, the need in terms of num-bers is disconcerting. Complicating the matter further, how- ver, areelusive facts in relation to the kinds of services these technicians willbe called upon to perform and the educational background they willrequire.' In 1960, a committee of the American Medical Associationidentified over 50 allied medical occupations. That number, of course,is growing in a health-conscious society which now receives increasedmedical care through federal health programs.

Kenneth G. Skaggs, Address before the American Hospital Association, An-nual Conventian, Chicago, Ill., August 29, 1966.

' Robert E. Kinsinger, Education for Health TechniciansAn Overview, Amer-ican Association of junior Colleges, Washington, D.C., 1965, p. 11.

i

OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION

A few of the key occupations identified by Norman Harris include:"

Dental AssistantDental Laboratory TechnicianElectrocardiograph TechnicianHistologic TechnicianMedical Laboratory TechnicianMedical Office AssistantMedical Record TechnicianOptical TechnicianPsychiatric TechnicianRadioisotope TechnicianRegistered Nurse (Associate Degree)X-ray Technician

Community junior colleges are assuming an increasing share of theobligation to provide the necessary training for these personnel. Forthe student interested in health fields, the challenge is exciting andthe rewards great. Certainly no segment of the world of work offersmore opportunity for satisfying and rewarding contributions to society.

SERVICE FIELDS

In addition to the three broad categories of occupational fields,there has emerged a concern for more effective educational prepara-tion for men and women who will make :heir contributions to societythrough the service fields. With growing population and urbanizationhas come an increasing emphasis on services to humanity, whetheroffered by governments or by private enterprise. The service industryrequires people with greater understanding of the complexities of liv-ing and working together.

It is estimated that state and local agencies engaged in public ser-vice work were employing about 4 million persons in 1966-67, con-siderably more persons than were employed in wholesale trade or inthe manufacture of both elec.:tic:4i and transportation equipmentin-cluding the automobileor in the manufacture of both food productsand apparel. Public service work also engaged nearly three times asmany persons as did hospitals in the United States.

This statistic has great significance for higher education, expertsfeel, because of the variety of occupations in public service that

" Harris, op. cit., F. 43.

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

require education beyond high school. The types of occupations forwhich specialized training at the college level is required include:"

Public Management Administra-tive Aides

Zoning and SubdivisionTechnicians

Statistical TechniciansComputer TechniciansBuilding InspectorsAssessorsTraffic Engineering AidesUrban Renewal TechniciansHousing Code Enforcement

OfficersSurveyors

Community Organization WorkersPhotogrammetric TechniciansWelfare and Family Assistance

WorkersRecreation SupervisorsPark Operation TechniciansPublic Finance TechniciansPublic Personnel TechniciansPublic Records TechniciansEnvironmental Health TechniciansEngineering AidesDraftsmenCartographers

Public Housing Managers

Many community junior colleges now offer curricula to prepare menfor service with police forces, fire protection bodies, correctional in-stitutions, social work, and education. At least one city requires allits law officers to study for and complete an associate degree programin police science at the local community college. It is likely that in thefuture young people entering junior colleges will find many new pro-grams of study that will prepare them for rewarding service to thecommunity and to society.

" Dennis O'Harrow, "Junior College Training for Public Service," SelectedPapers from the Forty-Sixth Annual Convention, American Association of JuniorColleges, Washington, D.C., 1966, p. 69-70.

41. ZMINI7011MI

iii. Problems and Rewards inOccupational Education

PROBLEMS

In occupational education, planners are carving out curricula and pro-grams where none existed before. Many educational experts and agen-cies representing the specialities to be taught must develop programsnecessary to do the job well. The design of curricula with a degree ofspecialization sufficient to offer a reasonable breadth of opportunitiesfor employment will be a challenge to the educational institutions. Therapid addition, however, of such programs to he community juniorcolleges suggests that this is a prob;em that can be and is being solved.

Tied in with the problem of curriculum planning is that of recruitingand preparing men and women for teaching the new specialities. Tre-mendous numbers will be needed. Special preparation is required.Many who can teach the programs will have to be enticed away fromsubstantial positions in business and industry and in government.Community colleges and other institutions of higher education niustfind ways to prepare them for the job that lies ahead.

Certainly, one of the most crucial concerns of education planners isthat of bringing about better understanding and more interest in re-gard to the semiprofessional and technical programs on the part ofyoung people and their parents. This poses a recruitment problem forthe colleges and blocks alleviation of the growing shortage of man-power for these important occupations.

It is important for studentsand their familiesto realize that theprograms do lead to rewarding positions, that they are essential partsof the spectrum of higher education, that they will achieve growingstatus and importance in the economy. Moreover, technical and semi-professional programs broaden employment and educational opportu-nities rather than restrict them. Completian LP_ f all Occupational educa-

4

mlIONIkMmernmemorempleqmorentirwr__ zeporrn."5.arrisroisk, oievots.m.s.trww.,,..

50

AMERICAN JUNIOR COLLEGES

tion program does not suggest completion of education. The enterpris-ing student may continue his studies while serving on the job, the ear-lier training establishing the foundation for university study at a latertime. And for those who do not choose to continue formal education,the positions available are in themselves fulfilling and challenging.

The occupational education programs of community junior collegeshave become successful and vigorous new arms of higher education.At a time when more and more emphasis is being placed on education,these programs are taking their place as important instruments for so-cial and cultural advancement.

REWARDS

Some of the rewards for men and women who move into technicaland semiprofessional occupations are obviously of an intangible natureservice to society, contribution to the economic system, assistance tothe sick and needy. These are nonetheless vital factors for the personwho chooses a career in industry, in the health world, in the businessfields, or in the service fields.

More tangible rewards are those involving salaries, advancement,and working conditions. Year-end surveys by the American Associationof Junior Colleges have shown that the well-trained technician or semi-professional worker is in tremendous demand, that those who employthem are actively recruiting on community college campuses. There isalso evidence that the two-year college graduate can command goodsalaries. Working conditions in the modern plant, business, or hospitalare generally satisfactory, and are improving with modernization offacilities and equipment.

But perhaps the most important reward may also be the most in-tangible, individual self-fulfillment. These new programs of educationensure that many more Americans can find places in society throughwhich they can fulfill their own aims and ambitions and at the sametime contribute to the good of society as a whole.