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Federal Department of Foreign Affairs Embassy of Switzerland in China Science, Education, and Health section

Higher Education and Research in China

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Contents

1. Aim and Objectives.........................................................................................................4 2. Higher Education in China..............................................................................................5

2.1. Overview.................................................................................................................5 2.1.1. Higher Education System................................................................................5 2.1.2. Entrance examinations and admission criteria ................................................7 2.1.3. Scholarship and loan system ..........................................................................8 2.1.4. Study abroad...................................................................................................8

2.2. Policy......................................................................................................................9 2.2.1. Major Changes in Recent Years......................................................................9 2.2.2. “Project 211” & “Project 985”.........................................................................10

2.3. Comparison between China and the West ............................................................10 2.4. International Cooperation between China and Other Countries ............................11

3. S & T Research in China ..............................................................................................12 3.1. Overview of the S & T system in China.................................................................12 3.2. Structure...............................................................................................................14 3.3. National Programmes ...........................................................................................15

3.3.1. Key Technologies Research and Development Program ..............................15 3.3.2. 863 Program .................................................................................................15 3.3.3. 973 Program .................................................................................................15 3.3.4. Torch Program..............................................................................................16 3.3.5. Spark Program..............................................................................................16

3.4. Protection of Intellectual Property Rights ..............................................................16 3.5. Comparison between China and the West ............................................................16 3.6. International Cooperation between China and Other Countries in S & T...............17

4. Sino – Swiss Cooperation in Higher Education and Research......................................18 4.1. Status Quo............................................................................................................18 4.2. Opportunities for the Future ..................................................................................18

Appendices ..........................................................................................................................19 Appendix I - “211 Project” Universities..............................................................................19 Appendix II - “985 Project” Universities.............................................................................24 Appendix III - Top 100 Chinese Universities Ranked By Achievements in Scientific Research..........................................................................................................................25 Appendix IV – Fact sheet - National High-tech R&D Program (863 Program)...................28 Appendix IV – Fact sheet “973 Program”..........................................................................30 Appendix V - List of Chinese Research Institutes .............................................................31

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Abstract

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1. Aim and Objectives This report aims to support the Swiss S & T community on strategic planning in Sino-Swiss cooperation, by shining some light on higher education and research in China with the following contents:

• General knowledge on higher education and research in China • Comparison of China and the West in Education and Research • International cooperation between China and other countries in S & T • To identify opportunities for Switzerland in developing higher education and research links

with China

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2. Higher Education in China

2.1. Overview

2.1.1. Higher Education System1 The higher education segment of the Chinese education system carries aspects both of the US and the UK systems with a stronger affiliation to the US system. Two- and three-year colleges which are also referred to as short-cycle colleges (in Chinese 专 科院校 / 專科院校 or zhuānkēyuànxiào), typically awarding associate degrees (in Chinese 大专文凭 / 大專文憑 or dàzhuānwénping), exist next to typical four-year colleges and universities which offer academic as well as vocational courses leading to bachelor degrees (in Chinese 本科文凭 / 本科文凭 or běnkē wénping) or higher. Master’s degrees and PhDs are offered by universities and research institutions which are accredited by the State Council (MoE 2005).2

Source: Higher Education in China in the light of massification and demographic change, Zhu, 2007.

1 www.wikipedia.org 2 Higher Education in China in the light of massification and demographic change, Zhu, 2007.

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Most universities in China are run by either the central or local government. Privatization appears often in vocational training and adult education.

Source: Finnish National Board of Education 2007

There were 1,867 universities and institutions of higher education in China in 2006, up from 1,041 in 2000, with a total student enrolment figure of 17.4m, up from the 2000 level of 5.6m. Engineering and management are the two most popular courses. The rapid rise in enrolment has been accompanied by a sharp rise in the student-teacher ratio. This stood at 16.2:1 in 2006, compared with 4.2:1 in 1978 at the beginning of the reform period. University entrance is generally on a meritocratic basis and highly competitive—a national university entrance examination ranks all students. Students with poor scores can end up studying unexpected subjects in remote institutions. China had 1.1m students enrolled in postgraduate courses in 2006 (up from 301,000 in 2000), and there were a record 134,000 students studying abroad, typically on postgraduate programmes in the US and other developed countries, massively up on the 39,000 who left the country to study in 2000. Students studying abroad often choose to find work overseas, but a range of incentives are in place to entice them back. A total of 42,000 such students returned to China in 2006. In addition, China is attracting a rising number of foreign students—some 82,000 in 2006, according to the Ministry of Education. The bulk of these students are from other Asian countries such as South Korea and Japan. Medicine, agriculture and Chinese culture, history and language are the most popular courses. However, many of the courses followed by foreign students do not lead to full degrees: in 2006 only 4,782 degrees were conferred on foreign students.3 Particular attention has been paid to improving systems in recent reforms. Many industrial multiversities and specialist colleges have been established, strengthening some incomplete subjects and establishing new specialties, e.g., automation, atomic energy, energy resources, oceanography, nuclear physics, computer science, polymer chemistry, polymer physics, radiochemistry, physical chemistry and biophysics. A project for creating 100 world class universities began in 1993, which has merged 708 schools of higher learning into 302 universities. Merging schools of higher learning has produced far-reaching reform of higher education management, optimizing of educational resources allocation, and further improving teaching quality and school standards. More than 30 universities have received help from a special national fund to support their attainment of world elite class. 3 Country Profile 2008, © The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2008.

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The contribution to China's economic construction and social development made by research in the higher education sector is becoming ever more evident. By strengthening cooperation among their production, teaching and research, schools of higher learning are speeding up the process in turning sci-tech research results into products, giving rise to many new and hi-tech enterprises and important innovations. Forty-three national university sci-tech parks have been started or approved, some of which have become important bases for commercializing research. The authorities approved more than 3400 research laboratories and institutes that belong to Chinese universities. There are nearly 500 State Key Research Programmes already running or being planed. There are about 150 State Key Labs and a further numbers of engineering centres are under construction. The participation of big investors in online education has made it a new hotspot for investment in the education industry. Students of remote and under-developed areas are the biggest beneficiaries of online education, but online universities offer students who failed university entrance examinations and working people the chance of lifelong education and learning. The Ministry of Education has approved 68 ordinary schools of higher learning and the Central Radio and TV University to pilot modern distance education. By the end of 2003, these schools had established 2,027 off-campus learning centers around China, offering 140 majors in ten disciplines, and had a total enrollment of 1.373 million. The gradual spread of broadband technology has also helped online education. The China Education and Research Network (CERNET), started in 1994, is now China's second largest Internet network, covering all major cities of China. The high-speed connection between it and the China Education Broadband Satellite Net, opened in 2000, established a "space to earth" transmission platform for modern distance education, and provided an all-round network supporting environment for distance education. Adult education is both dynamic and diverse. Schools of higher learning for adults include radio and TV, worker, farmer, correspondence and evening universities, management and education colleges; adult secondary schools include vocational, high and skills training schools; worker elementary and farmer elementary schools comprise the adult elementary sector.

2.1.2. Entrance examinations and admission criteria4 In 1990, less than 4% of the 18-22 year olds enrolled as students in higher education institutions compared to 22% in 2005 (MoE Age Group 2007). The total number of students in 2005 exceeded 23 million. National examinations to select students for higher education (and positions of leadership) were an important part of the Chinese culture. Traditionally, entrance to a higher education institution was considered prestigious. Although the examination system for admission to colleges and universities has undergone many changes since the Cultural Revolution, it remains the basis for recruiting academically able students. When higher education institutions were reopened in early 1970s, candidates for entrance examinations had to be senior-middle-school graduates or the equivalent, generally below twenty-six years of age. Work experience requirements were eliminated, but workers and staff members needed permission from their enterprises to take the examinations. Each provincial-level unit was assigned a quota of students to be admitted to key universities, a second quota of students for regular universities within that administrative division, and a third quota of students from other provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities who would be admitted to institutions operated at the provincial level. Provincial-level administrative units selected students with outstanding records to take the examinations. Additionally, preselection examinations were organized by the provinces, autonomous regions, and special municipalities for potential students (from three to five times the number of places allotted). These candidates were actively encouraged to 4 www.wikipedia.org

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take the examination to ensure that a sufficient number of good applicants would be available. Cadres with at least two years of work experience were recruited for selected departments in a small number of universities on an experimental basis. Preferential admission treatment (in spite of lower test scores) was given to minority candidates, students from disadvantaged areas, and those who agreed in advance to work in less developed regions after graduation. The student enrollment and graduate assignment system also was changed to reflect more closely the personnel needs of modernization. By 1986 the state was responsible for drafting the enrollment plan, which took into account future personnel demands, the need to recruit students from outlying regions, and the needs of trades and professions with adverse working conditions. Moreover, a certain number of graduates to be trained for the People's Liberation Army were included in the state enrollment plan. In most cases, enrollment in higher education institutions at the employers' request was extended as a supplement to the state student enrollment plan. Employers were to pay a percentage of training fees, and students were to fulfill contractual obligations to the employers after graduation. The small number of students who attended colleges and universities at their own expense could be enrolled in addition to those in the state plan. Accompanying the changes in enrollment practices were reforms, adopted in 1986, in the faculty appointment system, which ended the "iron rice bowl" employment system and gave colleges and universities freedom to decide what departments, majors, and numbers of teachers they needed. Teachers in institutions of higher learning were hired on a renewable contract basis, usually for two to four years at a time. The teaching positions available on basis were teaching assistant, lecturer, associate professor, and professor. The system was tested in eight major universities in Beijing and Shanghai before it was instituted nationwide at the end of 1985. University presidents headed groups in charge of appointing professors, lecturers, and teaching assistants according to their academic levels and teaching abilities, and a more rational wage system, geared to different job levels, was inaugurated. Universities and colleges with surplus professors and researchers were advised to grant them appropriate academic titles and encourage them to work for their current pay in schools of higher learning where they were needed. The new system was to be extended to schools of all kinds and other education departments within two years.

2.1.3. Scholarship and loan system5 In July 1986 the State Council announced that the stipend system for university and college students would be replaced with a new scholarship and loan system. The new system, tested in selected institutions during the 1986-87 academic years, was designed to help students who could not cover their own living expenses but who studied hard, obeyed state laws, and observed discipline codes. Students eligible for financial aid were to apply to the schools and the China Industrial and Commercial Bank for low-interest loans. Three categories of students eligible for aid were established: top students encouraged to attain all-around excellence; students specializing in education, agriculture, forestry, sports, and marine navigation; and students willing to work in poor, remote, and border regions or under harsh conditions, such as in mining and engineering. In addition, free tuition and board were to be offered at teachers' colleges, and the graduates were required to teach at least five years in primary and middle schools. After graduation, a student's loans were to be paid off by his or her employer in a lump sum, and the money was to be repaid to the employer by the student through five years of payroll deductions.

2.1.4. Study abroad6 In addition to loans, another means of raising educational quality, particularly in science, was to send students abroad to study. A large number of Chinese students studied in the Soviet Union before educational links and other cooperative programs with the Soviet Union were severed in the late 1950s (see Sino-Soviet split). In the 1960s and 1970s, China continued to send a small number of 5 www.wikipedia.org 6 www.wikipedia.org

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students abroad, primarily to European universities. In October 1978 Chinese students began to arrive in the United States; their numbers accelerated after normalization of relations between the two countries in January 1979, a policy consistent with modernization needs. Although figures vary, more than 36,000 students, including 7,000 self-supporting students (those who paid their own way, received scholarships from host institutions, or received help from relatives and "foreign friends"), studied in 14 countries between 1978 and 1984. Of this total, 78 percent were technical personnel sent abroad for advanced study. As of mid-1986 there were 15,000 Chinese scholars and graduates in American universities, compared with the total of 19,000 scholars sent between 1979 and 1983. Chinese students sent to the United States generally were not typical undergraduates or graduate students but were mid-career scientists, often thirty-five to forty-five years of age, seeking advanced training in their areas of specialization. Often they were individuals of exceptional ability who occupied responsible positions in Chinese universities and research institutions. Fewer than 15 percent of the earliest arrivals were degree candidates. Nearly all the visiting scholars were in scientific fields.

2.2. Policy

2.2.1. Major Changes in Recent Years7 According to the CIGI Policy Brief June 2008 issue, a major transformation of higher education has been underway in China since 1999 and will have potential impacts for the global educational structure. Reflecting China’s commitment to continued high growth through quality upgrading and the production of ideas and intellectual property as set out in both the 10th (2001-2005) and 11th (2006-2010) five-year plans, this transformation focuses on major new resource commitments to tertiary education and also embodies significant changes in organizational form. The number of undergraduate and graduate students in China has been growing at approximately 30% per year since 1999, and the number of graduates at all levels of higher education in China has approximately quadrupled in the last six years. The size of entering classes of new students and total student enrolments have risen even faster, and have approximately quintupled. It is widely recognized that there will be substantially more PhD engineers and scientists in China in 2010 than in the United States, since on a flow basis China produces three times the number of engineers compared to the US. Skilled labour supply in China now equals around 40 percent of that in all OECD countries. These higher education changes have also been accompanied by a change in focus from quantity flow-through in education in the pre-1999 period, to an elevated emphasis on quality post-1999. Educational attainment in China is now subject to firm quantity indicators that are designed to drive continued improvement of educational quality by participating institutions. Funding is no longer simply a matter of increasing the numbers of students enrolled; universities and institutions of high education in China are now subject to extraordinary pressures to upgrade themselves in terms of objective rankings. High priority is placed on international rankings taken as publications in international journals, citations, and international cooperation. These are used as demonstrations of elevation of attainment for each educational institution and funding is directly linked to these indicators. A further feature of recent Chinese higher education policy has been both to promote so-called “elite” universities and also to consolidate other universities and reduce their numbers. Elite universities are the top ten universities in China, which receive the largest education funds from central and local governments. They have priority in selecting students through national entrance exams and have the best faculty and research resources in China. The focus of policy is to elevate a small number of Chinese universities to world-class status, and both strengthen them and make them bigger. All universities in China have in recent years been subject to directives from central ministries to substantially increase their numbers of undergraduate students, even if significant increases in infrastructure to handle this increase in student numbers lags. Increases in undergraduates of 30 percent a year have been common in many universities are as a result of this policy. 7 Higher Educational Transformation in China and Its Global Implications, © CIGI Policy Briefs June 2008.

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2.2.2. “Project 211” & “Project 985” 8 “Project 211” was established in the 1990’s by the Central Government of the People's Republic China according to the national higher education strategic policy. “211” means “100 Priority Universities in the 21st century”. At present “Project 211” has a total of 107 “state-level” and “provincial level” universities, of which 104 are non-military ones and 3 are military academies. (Please see appendix for a list of “211 Project universities”.) The numbers of “Priority Universities” in various provinces and municipalities are as follows: Beijing 23 Tianjin 3 Hebei 1 Shanxi 1 Inner Mongolia 1 Liaoning 4 Henan 1 Jilin 3 Shanghai 10 Heilongjiang 4 Jiangsu 11 Zhejiang 1 Anhui 3 Fujian 2 Jiangxi 1 Shandong 3 Hubei 7 Hunan 4 Guangdong 5 Guangxi 1 Hainan 0 Chongqing 2 Sichuan 5 Guizhou 1 Yunnan 1 Tibet 0 Qinghai 0 Shanxi 7 Gansu 1 Ningxia 0 Xinjiang 1 During the “9th 5-year plan” period, 602 priority subjects will be funded by “Project 211”: Subject area Number of programs % of total funding Social sciences 62 10% Economics, politics and law 57 10% Basic sciences 89 15% Environmental studies 42 7% Traditional and high-tech 255 42% Medicine 66 11% Agricultural 31 5% About RMB18.3 billion was allocated to “Project 211” during the “9th 5-year plan” period. Funding Area RMB in Millions % of Total Funding Subject Funds 6,388 35% Collective Services System Funds 3,500 19% Infrastructural Facilities Funds 1,006 6% Matching Facilities Construction Funds 7,332 40% Total 18,300 100% On 4 May 1998, ex-General Secretary of Jiang Zemin, in celebration of the 100th anniversary of Peking University, announced that in order to achieve China’s modernization, the country must have world-class Universities. Based on that, the Ministry of Education planned the “985” project to support top Chinese universities such as Tsinghua and Beida. (Please see appendix for a list of “985 Project universities”.)

2.3. Comparison between China and the West Chinese universities have very different administrative power structures management styles to the West, such as the UK. According to Prof. Sun from Huazhong University, higher education institutions in China uses a direct control system that runs right through from the State Council to individual departments in a university, while the West tend to have less government intervention and give a lot 8 www.moe.edu.cn

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more autonomy to the Chancellors in individual universities. Nevertheless, this situation is changing in China due to recent education reforms whereas a more market focused approach is required.

2.4. International Cooperation between China and Other Countries

With the return of Hong Kong in 1997, a strong movement of cooperation between Chinese universities and Western universities began. Today, China has established educational relationships with countries across Europe, Central, North and South America, Oceania, Africa and the rest of Asia. Agreements on mutual recognition of academic degrees have been signed between China and, e.g., Germany, the UK, France and New Zealand. In the meanwhile, international educational cooperation agreements and memoranda of understanding on educational cooperation have been signed with, e.g., the USA, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand (MoE 2007). Countries which signed agreements on mutual recognition of academic degrees with China Year Country Year Country 1988 Sri Lanka 1998 Belarus 1990 Bulgaria 1998 Ukraine 1991 Algeria 1998 Mongolia 1991 Peru 2000 Belarus 1992 Mauritius 2002 Kyrgyzistan 1993 Uzbekistan 2002 Germany 1994 Cameroon 2003 United Kingdom 1995 Romania 2003 France 1995 Russia 2003 Australia 1997 Egypt 2003 New Zealand 1997 Hungary Source: MoE (in Chinese) 2007

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3. S & T Research in China

3.1. Overview of the S & T system in China The Communist Party of China Central Committee and the State Council, on May 6, 1995 issued the 'Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on the Acceleration of Progress in Science and Technology'. The 'Decision' set the goal of overall (both public and private) to attain Chinese R&D spending equivalent to 1.5% of GDP by the year 2000. It urged scientific academies and institutes of higher education to set up high tech companies. The 'Decision' noted that science and technology are the chief forces of social and economic development. The leadership directed Chinese science and technology problems such as population control, feeding the population, the environment (including pollution abatement technologies), and public health (such as pharmaceuticals development). The 'Decision' called for a reform of the Chinese science and technology structure to meet the needs of the socialist market economy. Science should move out of the institutes into private enterprises. Government research institutes should enter into cooperative ventures with Chinese and foreign companies, decide by themselves what direction their research should take, and become responsible for whatever profits or losses they incur. The flow of personnel, information, and capital must become faster and smoother so that companies (as well as government research institutes and universities which have created their own high tech companies) can orient their research programs according to market needs (and consequently to what the market is willing to fund).9 The state expenditure on S &T has increased at higher rates after Year 2000 as shown in the following charts. R&D Expenditure (2000-2005)

Source: MOST 2006. Since 1999, China’s spending on research has increased by more than 20% each year. In 2005, it reached 1.5% of GDP, up from 0.7% in 1998.10 In 2005, China became the third R&D spender world wide (in purchasing power parity terms) after the United States and Japan.11 9 www.wikipedia.org 10 The New Geography of Science: UK Research and International Collaboration, © Evidence Ltd., September 2006. 11 OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007 © OECD 2007

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Patent applications filed and patents granted by SIPO

Source: MOST 2006. China ranks sixth world wide in terms of publications and has raised its share in triadic patents from close to zero in 1995 to 0.8% in 2005. 12

China has built up thousands of new and high-tech development zones. In the 53 state-level new and high-tech development zones, a great many sci-tech research results have been put into use in production. By 2004, there had been over 30,000 high-tech enterprises in these zones, 20 of which had annual production values over 10 billion yuan, more than 200 over five billion yuan, and 3,000 over 100 million yuan. In these zones, the average growth in major economic indicators has been maintained at 60 percent per annum for 12 years running, and they have become important engines of national economic growth. Private science and technology enterprises have also made some headway, some becoming group corporations with annual output values of anything from several hundred million up to several billion yuan. Their high-tech products now account for over half of the domestic market for such products. Establishing export bases for new and high-tech products in selected high-tech industrial development zones is an important part of the government's plan for developing trade through science and technology. The first designated export bases, selected because of their rapid overall development, rich talent, excellent equipment, and rapidly growing exports of high-tech products, include the Beijing Zhongguancun Science and Technology Park and high-tech industrial development zones in Tianjin, Shanghai, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, Shandong, Hubei, Guangdong, Shaanxi, Dalian, Xiamen, Qingdao and Shenzhen. The Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta and the Beijing-Tianjin region have the greatest concentration of such export bases, consequently export volumes of new and high-tech products from these areas account for over 80 percent of the national total. 12 OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2007 © OECD 2007

Abbreviations: GDP Gross Domestic Product GERD Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D R&D Research and Development S&T Science and Technology

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3.2. Structure13 China's scientific research system is a cooperative one, comprising the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), schools of higher learning, industrial departments, national defense departments and local scientific research institutes. The over 160 national scientific and academic organizations affiliated to the China Association for Science and Technology, as well as its branches in various large and medium-sized cities, are also important forces in scientific and technological research. The Beijing-based CAS is China's highest academic institute and comprehensive research center in natural sciences. Its academic divisions include mathematics and physics, chemistry, geography, biology, technological sciences, and it has more than 100 research institutes throughout China. Before 2010, the CAS plans to found some 80 national research institutes specializing in scientific and technological innovation and continuous development. There are approximately 700 CAS Academicians -- the highest life-time academic title the government grants in science and technology. The average age of the 58 elected in 2003 was 58.86, the youngest group ever, the two youngest being only 37 years old. The Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) is the highest honorary, consultative institute in engineering science and technology, conducting strategic studies of the state's important engineering-related issues, providing consultation for decision-making, and promoting the development of engineering science and technology. There were 663 CAE academicians, including 62 elected in 2003. The role of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) is to support basic research and some applied research projects using government appropriations in line with the state's guiding principles and sci-tech development policies. Over the past dozen years, the NSFC has subsidized thousands of diverse research projects and about 60,000 scientists working in basic research. Peer review by funding organizations such as the National Science Foundation of China over the past decade has improved the effectiveness of science funding and raised the quality of Chinese science. The NNSFC in 1999 funded 16% of the 20,000 grant applications it receives each year from its annual budget of RMB 800 million (USD 100 million) which has increased nearly 20% annually since the founding of the NNSFC ten years ago. NNSFC now awards more research grants on a competitive basic than does the Ministry of Science and Technology which awards RMB 500 million annually. NNSFC grants often serve as seed money attesting to the quality of a project. Local government money often follows thereafter. The Chinese leadership set the goal of total (central and local government) Chinese spending on basic and applied research to reach 1.5 % of GDP by the year 2000. NNSFC spending is a small but growing fraction of that amount. Shielded from government-wide funding costs, the NNSFC’s budget is becoming an increasingly large part of China’s basic research spending. Grants include neither overhead nor salary but are dedicated to direct research costs. Three types of programs: young scientist, building science in the developing regions of China and new high tech concepts account for 80% of the NNSFC budget. The young scientist program also provides for short-term (up to six months) training overseas and for the support of visiting foreign scientists. Chinese scientists serve for two to four years on a review panel for their field. The process from application to decision on the three year grants takes about six months. The NNSFC funds 60 major projects at 5 million RMB per year and 500 - 600 other projects at 1 million RMB per year as well as a large number of smaller grants at 150,000 RMB per year. The grants are low compared with the average U.S. grant size but are larger than they appear since the grants are for direct research costs and exclude salaries which typically account for 60% of U.S. research grants. One scientist said that the invention of the Chinese word processor made peer review possible, since “I know the calligraphy of everyone in my field!” Concerned about corruption in Chinese science Some Chinese scientists, including Professor Liu Ming of Zhejiang University in his 2005 book "Critique of the Academic Evaluation System", argue that 13www.wikipedia.org

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interference from government officials and university bureaucrats makes peer review far less effective in China than it could be. The time scientists spend cultivating politically influential people is lost to scientific research. Liu argues that the command economy mentality of measuring everything by the numbers combined with pervasive political interference results in a great waste of money, human talent as well as considerable corruption in Chinese science.

3.3. National Programmes14 Since the 1980s, China has formulated a series of national programs for science and technology research and development, with the strategic aim of improving China's competitiveness in science and technology in the 21st century. The Key Technologies Resarch and Development Program, the 863 Program and the 973 Program form the main body of state programs for science and technology. The Spark and the Torch programs have been important in raising China's strength in this area.

3.3.1. Key Technologies Research and Development Program The "Key Technologies Research and Development Program", launched in 1982, was the biggest scientific and technological program in China during the 20th century. Oriented toward national economic construction, it aims to solve critical, direction-related and comprehensive problems in national economic and social development; it covers agriculture, electronic information, energy, transport, materials, resources exploration, environmental protection and medical care, and other fields. Engaging tens of thousands of researchers in over 1,000 research institutes, the Key Technologies Program has had the largest funds, employed the most people and had the greatest impact on national economy of any plan to date.

3.3.2. 863 Program In March 1986, the "National Hi-tech Research and Development Program" (863 Program) was launched, after exhaustive examination by scientists. The Program set 20 themes in biology, spaceflight, information, laser, automation, energy, new materials and oceanography. Government's role is one of macro-control and support. The general research is decided on by scientific discussion, and specific projects determined by a committee of experts responsible for keeping abreast of international research developments, and reporting annually on their own fields, so as to set new research directions. Another distinctive feature of the program is that its results can be quickly industrialized.

3.3.3. 973 Program A national key program for development of basic scientific research, the 973 Program was launched in 1998. It mainly involves multi-disciplinary, comprehensive research on important scientific issues in such fields as agriculture, energy, information, resources, population, health, and materials, providing theoretical basis and scientific foundations for solving problems. The program encourages outstanding scientists to carry out key basic research in cutting-edge science and important sci-tech issues in fields with a great bearing on socio-economic development. Representing China's national goals, it aims to provide strong scientific and technological support for significant issues in China's 21st century socio-economic development. 14www.wikipedia.org

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3.3.4. Torch Program Launched in August 1988, the Torch Program is China's most important high-tech industry program and a national guideline program. As such, it includes: organizing and putting into action a series of development projects for high-tech products with advanced technology levels and good economic benefits in domestic and foreign markets; establishing high-tech industrial development zones throughout the country; and, exploring management systems and operation mechanisms suitable for hi-tech industrial development. The Program mainly involves projects in new technological fields, such as new materials, biotechnology, electronic information, integrated mechanical-electrical technology, and advanced and energy-saving technology.

3.3.5. Spark Program Launched in 1986, the Spark Program aims to revitalize rural economy through development and popularization of science and technology in rural areas so as to improve the lives of the rural population. Today, there are more than 140,000 sci-tech demonstration projects being carried out in 90 percent of rural areas throughout China.

3.4. Protection of Intellectual Property Rights15 Since China joined the WTO and signed the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS agreement), the Chinese patent system is in line with international standards and conventions. Applications to the Chinese Patent Office have picked up considerably since then. Nevertheless, the situation still falls short of the needs of both domestic and foreign-owned innovative enterprises operating in China. Infringement of intellectual property rights, particularly of copyright and trademarks, remains a concern. With quite sophisticated IP regulations in place, the current level of infringement mainly points to weaknesses in the enforcement of IPR regulations. Both judicial and administrative decisions are difficult to enforce owing to the lack of appropriate infrastructure and mechanisms as well as of manpower. While top leaders in the Chinese government have become aware of the importance of building a sound legal framework for IPR protection – which is already much improved – enforcement of the laws, especially at the local level, need to be substantially improved. However, China’s move towards a more innovation-based economy can be expected to lead to improvements. As Chinese enterprises become more innovative, they, too, are adversely affected by a lack of effective IPR protection. Therefore, it is likely that awareness of this problem will become more widespread and lead to effective counter-measures. Tsinghua University, one of China’s largest IPR applicants, vigorously pursues every instance of infringement. The Chinese Patent Office has conducted an active campaign to distribute information on IPR.

3.5. Comparison between China and the West Traditional Chinese culture takes the system as a whole by looking into the relationships of matters; it pays more attention on mystical abstracts and invisible contents. Traditional western culture takes individual itself as the subject of study; it pays more attention to empirical analysis on obvious contents.16 The cultural differences between China and the West determine the different management styles in S & T research activities. 15 OECD reviews of innovation policy in China, © OECD 2008. 16 Comparison of Chinese and Western Culture and Understanding of Modern Science, Ni Xiangbao, Suzhou University Press 2003.

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The fact that most scientific research projects are financed by the state means that China has a very direct control and top-down administrative system on S & T. It is quite the opposite in the West, where government funding and private investment in innovation and research are equally important. It is not uncommon to see a bottom-up management style in the West. The different systems and management styles have made international cooperation with China in joint projects which seek funding from both inside and outside China difficult to achieve.

3.6. International Cooperation between China and Other Countries in S & T17

China has cooperated through programs in science and technology with 152 countries and regions, signed inter-governmental sci-tech cooperation agreements with 96 countries and joined more than 1,000 international sci-tech cooperation organizations. Non-governmental international cooperation and exchanges have also been increasing. The China Association for Science and Technology and affiliated organizations have joined 244 international scientific and technological organizations; in international scientific and technological organizations, Chinese researchers hold 293 executive member-director or higher level posts, 281 leading posts on expert committees of international organizations; and 253 CAS scientists hold posts in international scientific organizations. The China Natural Science Foundation has concluded cooperative agreements and memoranda with counterpart organizations in 36 countries. The International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Award of the People's Republic of China is a national science and technology award established by the State Council. It is granted to foreign scientists, science and technology engineers and managers, or organizations that have made important contributions to China's bilateral or multilateral scientific and technological cooperation. By the end of 2004, 35 foreign experts have won the award. 17 www.wikipedia.org

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4. Sino – Swiss Cooperation in Higher Education and Research

4.1. Status Quo Cooperation between China and Switzerland in science and education has a long tradition. Exchange has been taken place on an individual and institutional basis for decades. In 1989, the two countries decided to formalize their cooperation and to sign an Agreement on Science and Technology. Since then, a large number of Swiss universities, universities of applied sciences and institutes have entered into bilateral cooperation programs with Chinese counterparts. Cooperation and exchange on an individual (researchers, students, and faculty) and institutional basis remains the fundament of bilateral relations between Switzerland and China. In 2003, the Sino-Swiss Science and Technology Cooperation (SSSTC) program was established, after the signing of a memorandum of understanding (MoU) between the SER and the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST). Based on this MoU, steps have been taken to promote collaborations between Swiss and Chinese scientists during the pilot phase (2004-2007). The result of this pilot phase SSSTC is the establishment of a basic framework for science and technology cooperation between China and Switzerland. The SSSTC program encourages long term partnership and aims to provide opportunities for collaboration between Swiss and Chinese research institutions. In 1963, the first school exchange between Switzerland and China took place. Between 1963 and 1999, China offered 419 scholarships to Swiss students. In 2006, an agreement was signed to allow the Swiss part to offer 10 federal and 8 cantonal scholarships to Chinese students per year, making it possible for young Chinese scientists to improve in Switzerland. While the Chinese part offers 18 state scholarships to Swiss students in theory and 30 places of exonerated studies of right of schooling (tuition-free). The number of the exact scholarships offered will be confirmed each year per exchange of diplomatic note. Although it is difficult to get exact figures, an estimated 250 Chinese students have studied abroad in Swiss universities and about 50 Swiss students in Chinese universities in 200718.

4.2. Opportunities for the Future At the end of 2007, the Swiss Federal Government decided on additional funding to be used to develop bilateral cooperation with a selected group of non-European countries. Together with India, China is the priority-country within this group with additional funding of over CHF 8 Million for the period of 2008 until 2011. This allowed for the launch of a new phase of the SSSTC: in order to broadly reach Chinese scientists, the “Action Phase” of SSSTC (2008-2011) intends to reach beyond the MOST and to include the Ministry of Education (MOE) and Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) in the program as well. ETH Zürich is the leading house (LH) for the program, and University of Zürich has been selected as the associated leading house (ALH). Through an expansion of the priority areas as well as the increased mode of collaboration, it is hoped that the action phase of SSSTC will maintain and deepen the existing cooperation between Swiss and Chinese scholars. The call for proposals for joint research projects was launched in May 2008 and was completed in July 2008. The proposals will be evaluated by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the selected project will be co-funded by Switzerland and China. 18 These numbers are estimates by the Embassy in Beijing, based on provided scholarships, applications for student visas and university-indications.

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Appendices

Appendix I - “211 Project” Universities

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北京 Beijing 清华大学 Tsinghua University 北京大学 Peking University 中国人民大学

Renmin University of China 北京交通大学

Beijing Jiaotong University

Beijing 北京工业大学

Beijing University of Technology

北京航空航天大

学 Beihang University 北京理工大学 Beijing Institute of Technology 北京科技大学

University of Science and Technology Beijing

Beijing 北京化工大学

Beijing University of Chemical Technology 北京邮电大学

Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunication 中国农业大学

China Agricultural University 北京林业大学

Beijing Forestry University

Beijing 中国传媒大学

Communication University of China 中央民族大学

The Central University for Nationalities 北京师范大学

Beijing Normal University 中央音乐学院

Central Conservatory of Music

Beijing 对外经济贸易大学

University of International Business and Economics 北京中医药大学

Beijing University of Chinese Medicine 北京外国语大学

Beijing Foreign Studies University

中国地质大学

（北京） China University of Geosciences

Beijing 中国政法大学

China University of Political Sciences and Law 中央财经大学

Central University of Finance and Economics 华北电力大学

North China Electric Power University 北京体育大学

Beijing Sport University

上海市 Shanghai 上海外国语大学

Shanghai International Studies University 复旦大学 Fudan University 华东师范大学

East China Normal University 上海大学 Shanghai University

Shanghai 东华大学 Donghua University 上海财经大学

Shanghai University of Finance and Economics 华东理工大学

East China University of Science and Technology 同济大学 Tongji University

Shanghai

上海交通大学 与上海第二医科大学

合并 Shanghai Jiao Tong University

天津 南开大学 Nankai University 天津大学 Tianjin University 天津医科大学

Tianjin Medical University

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重庆 重庆大学 Chongqing University 西南大学

Southwest University

河北 河北工业大学

Hebei University of Technology

山西 太原理工大学

Taiyuan University of Science and Technology

内蒙古 内蒙古大学 Inner Mongolia University

辽宁 大连理工大学

Dalian University of Science and Technology 东北大学

Northeast University 辽宁大学

Liaoning University 大连海事大学

Dalian Maritime University

吉林 吉林大学 Jilin University 东北师范大学 Northeast Normal University 延边大学

Yanbian University

黑龙江 哈尔滨工业大学 Harbin Institute of Technology 哈尔滨工程大学

Harbin Engineering University 东北农业大学

Northeast Agricultural University 东北林业大学

Northeast Forestry University

江苏 Jiangsu 南京大学 Nanjing University 东南大学

Southeast University 苏州大学

Suzhou University 南京师范大学

Nanjing Normal University

Jiangsu 中国矿业大学

China University of Mining and Technology 中国药科大学

China Pharmaceutical University 河海大学 Hohai University 南京理工大学

Nanjing University of Science and Technology

Jiangsu 江南大学 Jiangnan University 南京农业大学

Nanjing Agricultural University

南京航空航天大

学

Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics

浙江(1所) Zhejiang 浙江大学 Zhejiang University

安徽(3所) Anhui 中国科学技术大学

China University of Science and Technology 安徽大学 Anhui University 合肥工业大学

Hefei University of Technology

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福建(2所) Fujian 厦门大学 Xiamen University 福州大学 Fuzhou University

江西(1所) Jiangxi 南昌大学 Nanchang University

山东(3所) Shandong 山东大学 Shandong University 中国海洋大学

Ocean University of China 中国石油大学

China University of Petroleum

河南(1所) Henan 郑州大学 Zhengzhou University

湖北(7所) Hubei 武汉大学 Wuhan University 华中科技大学

Huazhong University of Science and Technology 武汉理工大学

Wuhan University of Science and Technology

中国地质大学

（武汉）

China University of Geosciences (Wuhan Campus)

Hubei 华中师范大学

Huazhong Normal University 华中农业大学

Huazhong Agricultural University

中南财经政法大

学

Zhongnan University of Finance and Economics

湖南(3所) Hunan 湖南大学 Hunan University 中南大学

Zhongnan University 湖南师范大学

Hunan Normal University

广东(5所) Guangdong 中山大学 Sun Yat-Sen University 暨南大学 Jinan University 华南理工大学

South China University of Technology 华南师范大学

South China Normal University

广西(共 1所) Guangxi 广西大学

Guangxi University

四川(共 5所) Sichuan 四川大学

Sichuan University 西南交通大学

Southwest Jiao Tong University 电子科技大学

University of Electronic Science and Technology of China 四川农业大学

Sichuan Agricultural University

Sichuan 西南财经大学

Southwest University of Finance and Economics

云南(1所) Yunan 云南大学 Yunnan University

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Source: http://gaokao.eol.cn

贵州(1所) Guizhou 贵州大学 Guizhou University

陕西(7所) Shanxi 西北大学 Northwest University 西安交通大学

Xi'an Jiao Tong University 西北工业大学

Northwest University of Technology 长安大学 Chang'an University

Shanxi 西北农林科技大学 Northwest A & F University 陕西师范大学

Shanxi Normal University

西安电子科技大

学 Xidian University

甘肃（1所） Gansu 兰州大学

Lanzhou University

新疆(1所) Xinjiang 新疆大学 Xinjiang University

军事系统(3所) Military 第二军医大学

Second Military Medical University 第四军医大学

Forth Military Medical University 国防科技大学

National University of Defence Technology

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Appendix II - “985 Project” Universities19 First Stage: (34) Tsinghua University Beijing University China University of Science and Technology Nanjing University Fudan University Shanghai Jiaotong University Xi'an Jiaotong University Zhejiang University Harbin University of Technology Nankai University Tianjin University Southeast University Huazhong University of Science and Technology Wuhan University Xiamen University Shandong University Hunan University China Oceanography University Zhongnan University Jilin University Beijing University of Technology Dalian University of Science and Technology Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Chongqing University China University of Electronic Science and Technology Sichuan University Huanan University of Science and Technology Zhongshan University Lanzhou University Northeast University Northwestern University of Science and Technology Tongji University Beijing Normal University Renmin University of China Second Stage: (4) China Agricultural University National University of Defense Technology Central University of Nationalities Northwest A & F University 19 http://gaokao.eol.cn

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Appendix III - Top 100 Chinese Universities Ranked By Achievements in Scientific Research20

Ranking of Top 100 Chinese Universities by Output of Scientific Research

Rank 大学名称 Name of University 1 清华大学 Tsinghua University 2 浙江大学 Zhejiang University 3 中国科学技术大学 China University of Science and Technology 4 上海交通大学 Shanghai Jiaotong University 5 北京师范大学 Beijing Normal University 6 哈尔滨工业大学 Harbin Institute of Technology 7 北京大学 Peking University 8 南京大学 Nanjing University 9 复旦大学 Fudan University

10 天津大学 Tianjin University 11 大连理工大学 Dalian University of Science and Technology 12 南开大学 Nankai University 13 西安交通大学 Xi'an Jiaotong University 14 西北工业大学 North-western Polytechnic University 15 北京航空航天大学 Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics 16 华中科技大学 Huazhong University of Science and Technology 17 武汉大学 Wuhan University 18 北京理工大学 Beijing Institute of Technology 19 中国人民大学 Renmin University of China 20 山东大学 Shandong University 21 吉林大学 Jilin University 22 中南大学 South central University 23 电子科技大学 University of Electronic Science and Technology of

China 24 北京交通大学 Beijing Jiaotong University 25 中山大学 Zhongshan University 26 四川大学 Sichuan University 27 南京航空航天大学 Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics 28 东南大学 Southeast University 29 北京科技大学 Beijing University of Science and Technology 30 兰州大学 Lanzhou University 31 北京化工大学 Beijing Chemical industry University 32 华南理工大学 Huanan University of Science and Technology 33 华东师范大学 East China Normal university 34 华东理工大学 China Science and Technology University 35 湖南大学 Hunan University 36 厦门大学 Xiamen University 37 东北大学 Northeast University 38 西安电子科技大学 Xidian University

20 http://rank2008.netbig.com/cn

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39 同济大学 Tongji University Rank 大学名称 Name of University 40 北京邮电大学 Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications 41 南京理工大学 Nanjing University of Science and Technology 42 中国农业大学 China Agricultural college 43 中国海洋大学 China Oceanography University 44 西北师范大学 Northwest Normal university 45 北京工业大学 Beijing Industrial university 46 东北师范大学 Northeast Normal University 47 上海大学 Shanghai University 48 华中师范大学 Central China Normal university 49 南京工业大学 Nanjing Industrial university 50 东华大学 Donghua University 51 上海财经大学 Shanghai Finance and economics University 52 沈阳药科大学 Shenyang Medicine Branch University 53 福建师范大学 Fujian Normal university 54 重庆大学 Chongqing University 55 苏州大学 Suzhou University 56 西南交通大学 Southwest Jiaotong University 57 福州大学 Fuzhou University 58 西北大学 Northwest University 59 首都师范大学 Capital Normal University 60 江南大学 South of Yangzi River University 61 中国药科大学 Chinese Medicine Branch University 62 中国矿业大学 Chinese Mining Industry University 63 华南师范大学 South China Normal University 64 陕西师范大学 Shanxi Normal university 65 湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal university 66 暨南大学 Jinan University 67 湘潭大学 Xiangtan University 68 浙江工业大学 Zhejiang Industrial university 69 云南大学 Yunnan University 70 南京师范大学 Nanjing Normal University 71 浙江师范大学 Zhejiang Normal university 72 汕头大学 Shantou University 73 深圳大学 Shenzhen University 74 哈尔滨工程大学 Harbin Engineering University 75 青岛科技大学 Qingdao Scientific and technical university 76 山西大学 Shanxi University 77 西南财经大学 Southwest Finance and economics University 78 南京农业大学 Nanjing Agricultural College 79 燕山大学 Yanshan University 80 华北电力大学 North China Electric Power University 81 华东政法大学 East China Politics and law University 82 中国石油大学 China Petroleum university 83 武汉理工大学 Wuhan University of Science and Technology 84 西南大学 Southwest university 85 西南政法大学 Southwest Politics and law University 86 河南师范大学 Henan Normal university 87 江苏大学 Jiangsu University 88 河北大学 Hebei University 89 合肥工业大学 Hefei Industrial university

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90 华中农业大学 Central China Agricultural college Rank 大学名称 Name of University 91 中国地质大学 Chinese Geology University 92 大连海事大学 Dalian Maritime affair University 93 郑州大学 Zhengzhou University 94 聊城大学 Liaocheng University 95 河海大学 River sea university 96 山东师范大学 Shandong Normal university 97 中央民族大学 Central University of Nationalities 98 武汉体育学院 Wuhan Sports Institute 99 扬州大学 Yangzhou University 100 天津师范大学 Tianjin Normal university

Note: Please click their Chinese names for web-links.

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Appendix IV – Fact sheet - National High-tech R&D Program (863 Program)21 In 1986, the late Chinese leader Mr. DENG Xiaoping personally approved the National High-tech R&D Program, namely the 863 Program. Implemented during three successive Five-year Plans, the program has boosted China’s overall high-tech development, R&D capacity, socio-economic development, and national security. In April 2001, the Chinese State Council approved continued implementation of the program in the 10th Five-year Plan. 863 Program domains and subject 1. Biological Technology Domain • New zoological and botanical varieties with high quality, high production, and reverse - resistance

(101) • Genetic engineering medicine, vaccine and gene therapy (102) • Protein project (103) 2. Space Technology Domain (Two Subjects) • The space technology research development performance advanced large-scale launch vehicle

sharpens our country astronautics launch commercial service ability to continue to carry on for the peaceful purpose space science and technology research and the development.

3. Information Technology Domain • Intelligent IT system (306) • Photoelectron component and photoelectron, micro electron system integration technology (307) • Information acquisition and processing technology (308) • Communication (317) 4. Laser Technology Domain (Three Subjects) • The Laser Technology research high performance and the high grade Laser Technology apply the

achievement in the production lead the pulse power technology, the plasma technology, the green wood to anticipate technical science and so on laser spectroscopy development.

5. Automation Area Of Technology • Computer integration manufacture system (CIMS) (511) • Intelligent robot (512) 6. Energy Technology Domain • Coal-burning magnetic fluid power technology (613) • Advanced nuclear reactor technology (614) 7. New Material Domain High-tech new material and modern science technology (715) 8. Ocean Technology Domain • Sea survey and surveillance technology (818) • Marine life technology subject (819) • Marine resource development technology (820) 21 http://www.most.gov.cn; http://www.863.org.cn

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9. Special Subjects • Paddy rice gene mapping • Aviation remote sensing live transmission system • HJD-04E large-scale digit program controlled switch key technologies • Superconductivity technology • High-tech new concept new idea exploration For more details, please see http://www.most.gov.cn/eng/programmes1/200610/t20061009_36225.htm http://www.863.org.cn/english/annual_report/annual_repor_2002/annual_repor_2002.pdf

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Appendix IV – Fact sheet “973 Program”22 The National Basic Research Program (also called 973 Program) is China's on-going national keystone basic research program, which was approved by the Chinese government in June 1997 and is organized and implemented by the Ministry of Science and Technology. The 973 Program is created on the basis of existing research activities and deployments made by the National Natural Science Foundation and some major dedicated pre-studies, to organize and implement basic research to meet the nation's major strategic needs. The Program has gathered together strong expertise to launch research projects on major scientific issues relating to sustainable development such as agriculture, energy, information, resources and environment, population and health, and materials in line with the national objectives for economics, social and S&T developments. Since implementation, the Chinese government has put 133 projects under the authorized program by the end of 2002, including 17 projects in agriculture, 15 in energy, 18 in information technology, 24 in resources and environment, 21 in population and health, 19 in materials, and 19 in synthesis and hi-tech. The government appointed 175 chief scientists, and made financial investments of 2.5 billion RMB in the “9th 5 -Year Plan”. The 973 Program not only absorbs the largest investment from the central government among China's basic research programmes since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, but also is composed of single projects with the largest investment by the Chinese government. On average, every single project enjoys a strong support of up to 20-30 million RMB over a span of 5 years. For the funding of 973 Program projects, a new mode of "2+3", namely, a stage-by-stage funding, was adopted. Two years after each project is implemented, a mid-term evaluation and inspection should be conducted. Based on the actual performance and the evaluating comments of a special expert group, the decision will be made on whether the preset tasks should be continued, or whether the preset amount of funding should be modified in the next three years. For the detailed project list, please see http://www.973.gov.cn/English/AreaList.aspx 22 http://www.973.gov.cn

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Appendix V - List of Chinese Research Institutes23 BGI - Beijing Genomics Institute The Beijing Genomics Institute (BGI) was founded in 1998. It achieved international prominence as a center for sequencing human genome. BGI completed 1% of the human genome for the Human Genome Project. Today the BGI has a staff of 500, led by Director Yang Huanming (also known as Henry Yang). In Spring 2003, BGI was one of the first laboratories in the world to sequence the SARS virus. Current research includes drug discovery and studying the genes of livestock and crops. A cooperative project with Danish partners focuses on the pig genome. BGI independently completed a working draft and detailed genetic map of Chinese super hybrid rice genome. This pioneering work was featured on the cover of the Science magazine in April 2002. BGI also participated in international chicken genome project and sequenced silkworm genome in collaboration with North East Agriculture University in China. The Institute has both a private and a public character. It receives funds both from private investors and the Chinese government. The laboratory is also the Bioinformatics Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing Huada Genomics Research Center was the precursor of BGI. In October 2003, The Beijing Genome Institute Hangzhou (Zhejiang) branch and Zhejiang University founded a new research institute, the James D. Watson Institute of Genome Sciences. The Watson Institute is intended to become a major center for research and education in East Asia modeled after the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Cenozoic Research Laboratory The Cenozoic Research Laboratory of the Geological Survey of China was established at the Peking Union Medical College in 1928 by Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black and Chinese geologists Ding Wenjing and Weng Wenhao for the research and appraisal of Peking Man fossils unearthed at Zhoukoudian. CASTU - Center for Advanced Study, Tsinghua University The Center for Advanced Study, Tsinghua University (CASTU; simplified Chinese: 清华大学高等研究中心; pinyin: Qīnghuá Dàxué Gāodĕng Yánjiū Zhōngxīn) is a research institute established in Beijing in 1997. Modelled after the Princeton-based Institute for Advanced Study, albeit in a university setting, it is engaged in theoretical studies in physics, computer science and biology. Its honorary director is the Nobel Laureate Professor Chen Ning Yang, who has provided guidance and support to CASTU since its inception, and current director is Professor Hwa-Tung Nieh. Central Research Institute of Culture and History Central Research Institute of Culture and History (Chinese: 中央文史研究馆) is an institute founded by Communist Party of China and Chinese government for senior intellects with united front and honorary purposes. Its principle is "respecting elders and promoting culture". Its presidents, vice presidents and fellows are appointed by premier of the State Council, and they are all senior scholars, celebrities and specialists. 23 www.wikipedia.org

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Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, or simply Chengdu Panda Base, is a non-profit research and breeding facility for giant pandas and other rare animals. It is located in Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. Chengdu Panda Base was founded in 1987. It started with 6 giant pandas that were rescued from the wild. By 2007, it has had 110 panda births, and the captive panda population has grown to 62. Its stated goal is to "be a world-class research facility, conservation education center, and international educational tourism destination." China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center (Chinese: 中国空气动力研究与发展中心) was founded in 1968. It is the largest research and testing institute of air dynamics in China. The center is located in Mianyang City, Sichuan Province. Currently there are more than 1,600 scientists and technicians working there. Chinese Academy of Engineering The Chinese Academy of Engineering (Chinese: 中国工程院; Pinyin: Zhōngguó Gōngchéng Yuàn) is the national academy of the People's Republic of China for engineering. It was established in 1994 and is an institution of the State Council of China. Both Chinese Academies of Sciences and of Engineering are often referred to as "Liangyuan" (Both Academies) of science and technology in China. Chinese Academy of Sciences The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) (simplified Chinese: 中国科学院; pinyin: Zhōngguó Kēxuéyuàn), formerly known as Academia Sinica (not to be confused with the Republic of China's (Taiwan) Academia Sinica currently headquartered in Taipei which shares the same roots), is the national academy for the natural sciences of the People's Republic of China. It is an institution of the State Council of China. It is headquartered in Beijing, with institutes all over the People's Republic of China. Chinese Academy of Social Sciences The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (simplified Chinese: 中国社会科学院; traditional Chinese: 中國社會科學院; pinyin: Zhōngguó Shèhuì Kēxuéyuàn) is the national academy of the People's Republic of China for the social sciences in Beijing. It is an institution of the State Council of China. It was founded in May 1977 growing out of the Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. The first president was Hu Qiaomu, who held his position until his death, and the present president is Professor Chen Kuiyuan. IAPCM - Institute of Applied Physics and Computational Mathematics The Institute of Applied Physics and Computational Mathematics (IAPCM) was established in 1958 in Beijing in the People's Republic of China. The institution conducts research on nuclear warhead design computations for the Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics (CAEP) in Mianyang, Sichuan and focuses on applied theoretical research and on the study of fundamental theories. Its main research fields include: Theoretical Physics, Nuclear Fusion and Plasma Physics, Nuclear Physics and Atomic Molecular Physics, Laser Physics, Fluid Dynamics, Applied Mathematics-Computer Application, Computer Application, Arms Control Science and Technology.

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Institute of Automation The Institute of Automation (Chinese: 自动化研究所; pinyin: Zìdònghuà Yánjiūsuǒ) is a research lab belonging to the Chinese Academy of Sciences which researches robotics. IHEP - The Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences The following description is paraphrased from the IHEP webpage. The Institute of High Energy Physics(IHEP) is the biggest and comprehensive fundamental research center in China. The major research fields of IHEP are particle physics, accelerator physics and technologies, radiation technologies and application. INET - Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology The Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology (INET) of Tsinghua University, China was founded in 1960 as a top nuclear research and experimental base. It is located in the northern suburbs of Beijing near Changping tiger village. It is the Ministry of Education system's largest design research unit. IVPP - Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology The Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (abbreviated to IVPP) is a prominent research institution and collections repository for Chinese fossils, including many dinosaur and pterosaur specimens (many from the Yixian Formation). As its name suggests, research is focused on both paleontological topics and topics relating to human prehistory. The institution, located in Beijing, grew out of the Cenozoic Research Laboratory in 1929 and is its own organization under the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Its staff increasingly have worked internationally, and were authors or coauthors on 45 Nature and Science articles in the period 1999-2005 Notable paleontologists who have been affiliated with the IVPP include Yang Zhongjian (C. C. Young), Dong Zhiming, and Zhao Xijin. INRULED - International Research and Training Centre for Rural Education The International Research and Training Centre for Rural Education (INRULED) is a UNESCO sponsored training and research centre located in the Peoples Republic of China. INRULED’s main base is in Baoding, Hebei Province, which is located 130 km south of Beijing. The main sponsors of INRULED are the Chinese Government and UNESCO. There is an Associate Centre at the School of Education of the Nanjing Normal University and also at the Gansu Institute of Educational Research. INRULED conducts research and training in the area of rural education in line with the aims of the Education-for-All programme. Polar Research Institute of China The People's Republic of China operates the Polar Research Institute of China. The Institute manages three polar research stations, and the icebreaker Xue Long. United Nations University International Institute for Software Technology The United Nations University International Institute for Software Technology (UNU-IIST) is a United Nations University Research Training Centre based in Macau. It was originally set up by the Danish professor Dines Bjørner using funding from China, Macau and Portugal. Subsequently it was led by the Chinese professor Zhou Chaochen since 2005; Professor Mike Reed is the current Director. The Institute's special remit is to help developing countries in improving their support for computer science

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education and research. A number of research fellows visit from around the world each year. UNU-IIST has been particularly central in supporting and promulgating RAISE and the Duration Calculus, two important formal methods for software development.