reading picture to understand class

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READING PICTURE TO UNDERSTAND CLASS:

SOCIAL CLASS REPRESENTATION IN SEVERAL NEWS

PHOTOS IN KOMPAS

THESIS

Presented to the English Department, Faculty of Letters, Jember University as one of

the requirements to obtain the award of Sarjana Degree in English Studies

INU BASIDJANARDANA

050110101079

JEMBER UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH DEPARMENT

2010


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To:

My parents; Sumiati and Warsito

The undying spirit and love.

Finally, I understand the meaning of freedom, responsibility and respect you gave to

me to be what ever I want to be

Thank you for your courage to be..


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MOTTO

The role of the media forces us to ask what kind of a world

and what kind of a society we want to live in.

Noam Chomsky,Media Control


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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that thesis entitled Reading Picture to Understand Class:

Social Class Representation in Several News Photos in Kompas is an original piece

of my writing. I certainly certify that this thesis is not a plagiarism work; the analysis

and the result described have not been already submitted for any degree or any

publications.

I state my declaration truly without any compulsion.

Jember, February 2010

The Writer

Inu Basidjanardana

050110101079


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APPROVAL SHEET

Approved and received by the Examination Committee, the English

Department, Faculty of Letters, Jember University

Jember, February 2010

Secretary Chairman

Indah Wahyuningsih, S.S Prof. Dr. Suparmin, M.A.196801142000122001 194003111966051001

The Members

1. Drs. Moch. Ilham, M.si. (.)196310231990011001

2. Dra. Supiastutik, M.Pd (.)196605141998011001

3. Drs. Wisasongko, M.A. (.)196204141988031004

Approved by

Dean of Faculty of Letters

Drs. Syamsul Anam, M.A.

195909181988021001


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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

All praises are due to Allah SWT, the Lord of universe, the Almighty and the

most Benevolent who gives me blessing, force, and guidance to finish this thesis.

Eventually, I believe that without a mercies, it is impossible to compose this scientific

report used to obtain Sarjana Sastra degree at the Faculty of Letters, Jember

University.

This thesis has been not completed without the involvement and assistance of

many individuals. In this opportunity I would like to reveal my sincere gratitude to:

1. My Almamater, Jember University.2. Drs. Syamsul Anam, M.A., Dean of Faculty of Letters, Jember University;

and Drs. Moch. Ilham, M.Si., the Head of English Department for the

permission to compose this thesis.

3. Drs. Moch. Ilham, M.Si., my first advisor and Dra. Supiastutik, M.Pd., mysecond advisorwho have spent a lot of time in correcting and improving this

thesis. I am really grateful for the cooperative advisory, helpful advices andpatience during the writing of my thesis.

4. All lecturers of English Department who have given the advantageous andvaluable knowledge during my study at Faculty of Letters, especially for Mas

Ikwan Setiawan, my virtual advisor who lent me Judith Williamsons

Decoding Advertisementto start my thesis.

5. All staffs and the librarian of the Central Library of Jember University for theservice.

6. All my friends in English Department especially the academic year of 2005 forcontinuous support and friendship.


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7. The student of Journalistic School (die Tegalboto schule) UKPKM Tegalbotofor worthy full lesson about life in those crowded room. We are indeed the

young and restless.

8. dr. Dilli Yudhistira my older brotherwho lend me a personal computer andHornbys Oxford Learners Dictionary in the last of my writing.

9. My niece and nephew; Devi Eka Wardani Mega Ningtyas and Dicky FattahDwi Mahardika. Let the sunshine spring upon your faces.

10.My little angels; Melan and Arin.11.Iken Nafikadini, M.Kes., my sisterand Inggit Muhaimin Tamba, my brother

for the endless happiness. May force be with you.

12.My quiet place in this noisy world, Fatati Nur Diana.Thank you for giving space in your beautiful place, it brings round me that

the lifes so good. Thank you for being part of my deepest heart.

13.The peoples who encourage me and help morally to finish this thesis that isforget to be mentioned.

I do realize that nobody is perfect. The mistakes in composing this thesisbelong to my lack of knowledge. I hope this thesis will be useful especially for the

progress of linguistic major in English Department.


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SUMMARY

Reading Picture to Understand Class: Social Class Representation in Several News

Photos in Kompas; 80 pages; Inu Basidjanardana; 050110101079; 2010; English

Department, Faculty of Letters, Jember University.

This thesis entitled Reading Picture to Understand Class: Social ClassRepresentation in Several News Photos in Kompas, analyzes how the social class ofthe reader can be determined through semiotic theory two orders of signification.Here, the focus of study is the news photographs especially the headline photos in the

Kompas that were published in mid of December 2009 until early of January 2010.

The photograph has invited a polysemous reading and various interpretationof meaning. It is necessary to find out how they make sense of these photographs

based on their historical, cultural background. The analysis is based on the theory of

communication and the concept of ideology that affect the behavior in language

toward the presented text.Barthes two orders of signification that is a redefinition of Saussures theory

semiotics, is used to analyze the way in which signs and conventions in the text

interact with the conventions experienced and expected by the user. Furthermore, the

use of Pierces theory of sign is beneficial to help the two orders of signification topredict and catch the messages in the photograph in an effective and comprehensive

way. These semiotics theories also help to interpret the complex ways in which a

sentence is constructed and the way its form determines its meaning. Then, thesegmentation theory especially social class theory is applied to support the two orders

of signification in interpreting the ideological dimension that shapes the ideas of

representation.In Indonesia, the division of social class can be divided into Class A+ (the

upper-upper class), Class A ( the lower-upper class), Class B+ (the upper-middle

class), Class B (middle class), Class C+ (the upper-lower class), and Class C (thelower-lower class). From the discussion, there are two classes that have been

presented from the headline photo ofKompas; upper-middle class and middle class.

Thus, the social class reader ofKompas is from Class B (middle class) until Class B+

(upper-middle class).


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TABLE OF CONTENT

FRONTISPIECE

DEDICATION PAGE ........................................................................................ iiMOTTO ............................................................................................................... iii

DECLARATION ................................................................................................. iv

APPROVAL SHEET .......................................................................................... v

ACKNOWLEDGMENT .................................................................................... viABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... viii

TABLE OF CONTENT ...................................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................ xii

LIST OF APPENDICES .................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1

1.1 The Background of the Problem ................................................................... 1

1.2 The Problems to Discuss .............................................................................. 41.3 The Scope of the Study ................................................................................. 5

1.4 The Goals of the Study ................................................................................. 5

1.5 The Significance of the Study ...................................................................... 61.6 The Type of Study ........................................................................................ 6

1.7 The Organization of the Thesis .................................................................... 6

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL REVIEW .............................................................................. 7

2.1 Communication ............................................................................................ 7

2.1.1 Mass Media ...................................................................................... 9

2.1.2 Language in Mass Communication .................................................. 112.2 Representation .............................................................................................. 13

2.3 Semiotics and Two Order of Signification ................................................... 15

2.3.1 Denotation ........................................................................................ 21

2.3.2 Connotation ...................................................................................... 22

2.3.3 Myth ................................................................................................. 222.4 Segmentation ................................................................................................ 24

2.4.1 Social Class Theory .......................................................................... 24

2.4.2 Social Behaviors ............................................................................... 26a. Upper Class ..................................................................................... 27

1) The Upper-Upper Class ......................................................... 27

2) The Lower-Upper Class ......................................................... 28


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3) The Upper-Middle Class ....................................................... 28

b. Middle Class ................................................................................... 29

1) The Middle Class ................................................................... 292) The Working Class ................................................................ 29

c. Lower Class ..................................................................................... 30

1) The Upper-Lower Class ......................................................... 302) The Lower-Lower Class ........................................................ 30

2.5 The Ideology ofKompas .............................................................................. 30

CHAPTER 3

METHOD OF RESEARCH .............................................................................. 31

3.1 Semiotic Analysis .......................................................................................... 31

3.2 Type of Research ........................................................................................... 32

3.3 Type of Data .................................................................................................. 333.3.1 The Spread ofKompasReader ........................................................ 34

3.3.2 Social Class in Indonesia .................................................................. 34

3.4 Method of Collecting Data ............................................................................. 34

3.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 35

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................... 36

4.1 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 1 ............................................................ 36

4.1.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 37

4.1.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 39a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 39

b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 41

c. Myth .............................................................................................. 424.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 43


4.2.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 464.2.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 48

a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 48


c. Myth .............................................................................................. 51

4.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 524.3 The Semiotic Interpretation of Data 3 ............................................................ 53

4.3.1 The Type of Sign .............................................................................. 54

4.3.2 The Level of Meaning ...................................................................... 55a. The Denotative Meaning .............................................................. 55


c. Myth .............................................................................................. 57


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4.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 57




b. The Connotative Meaning ............................................................ 63c. Myth .............................................................................................. 65

4.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 65





c. Myth .............................................................................................. 734.1.3 Social Class Representation ............................................................. 74

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 75

BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................. 78

APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 82


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Shannon and Weavers Model of Communication ................................ 9

Figure 2.2 Two-Sided Psychological Entities .......................................................... 18

Figure 2.3 The Combination of Sign ...................................................................... 18

Figure 2.4 The Categories of Pierces Sign ............................................................ 19

Figure 2.5 The Two Order of Signification ............................................................ 21

Figure 2.6 Social Standing is Derived and Influence Behavior .............................. 27

Figure 3 The Spread ofKompasReader ................................................................ 36

Figure 4.1Kompasphoto: Tergerus Abrasi .......................................................... 38

Figure 4.2Kompasphoto ....................................................................................... 46

Figure 4.3Kompasphoto ....................................................................................... 55

Figure 4.4Kompasphoto:Pertemuan Parlemen Asia .......................................... 61

Figure 4.5Kompasphoto: Sesaji Kirab Malam 1 Sura ......................................... 69


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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Photo headline (January 13th

2010)

Appendix 2. Kompaslay out cover (January 13th

2010)

Appendix 3. Photo headline (December 30th

2009)

Appendix 4. Kompaslay out cover (December 30th

2009)


2009)


2009)

Appendix 7. Photo headline (December 9th 2009)


2009)


2009)


2009)


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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter helps to comprehend the discussion of the thesi. The topic being

discussed in this thesis is semiotic analysis in several news photos in Kompas. Then,

from those analyses the segmentation of the media will be found. To actually make it

easily explained, this chapter also needs to present the background of the problem,

the problems to discuss, the scope of the study, the goals of the study, the significance

of study, the methods of the study, and the organization of the thesis. Each of them

will be presented as follows:

1.1The Background of the ProblemCommunication is perhaps the most human of all human activities. It has

appeared as a primary need for people in all over the world. As social beings, they

need others to defence their existence, to survive, to maintain social relationship etc.

Barry describes:Social life is impossible without communication, and the

development of the power to communicate has played a vital role in the evolution of

the societies since the first men banded together (Barry, 1965: 16).

To carry those functions, human beings use language. Barker in the year of

1984 stated, Language is the communication of thoughts and emotions by means of

a structured system of symbol (Barker, 1984: 22). Further, Webster elucidated that

Language is a systemic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of

conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meaning

(Morse and Mish, 1996). Wardaugh argues the main function of language is human

communication (Wardaugh, 1972: 4). In addition, through language in the form of

words, symbols, gestures, sound patterns and soon, men try the possibility to build


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co-operation. Therefore language is a medium to share knowledge, information, and

experience and thus understand, persuade, convert or control their fellows (Barry,

1965: 16).

As the time changes, the medium of language have been enhanced, extended

and refined. Humans have been seeking new media through which to extend the

possibilities of communications their ability to exceed time and space (A.G Eka

Wenats Wuryanta, quoted in ekawenats.blogspot.com). Newspaper is one of the

results of the advance technological achievements that mediate language. This kind of

media make possible to the reader to interpret at their leisure without a time

limitation, unlike television or radio. This means that the reader can take time to

interpret the codes and therefore give the information more clearly. The function of

language is applied on purpose, not just informing facts but also constructing

meanings, building myths, serving arguments, and creating opinions. It is in

accordance with Reals statement (1989:17) in his Super Media that the media of

communication is the consciousness industry. It means media provides the materials

out of which many people construct their sense of class, of ethnicity and race, of

nationality, of sexuality, of us and them (Kellner, 1995:1).The newspaper is a form of news communication that presents a display of

codes that should serve the reader with information of the world. As a matter of fact,

news is expressed in a newspaper through symbolic and iconic sign. Both forms of

sign stand in a complementary relationship function as transmitter of the message.

The first, appears in the form of article, headline, caption and soon. These symbolic

signs are the major content of news media that give narrative descriptions. The

second, appears in the form of chart, cartoon, diagram, caricature and soon. These

iconic signs function as transparent representations of reality, as conveyors of

affective or emotional appeal, and as complex combinations of symbols put together

to make up rhetorical arguments.


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Photographs are one of rhetorical arguments in the newspaper. They are

containing sign and codes that provide information to the reader. According to Gaines

(2001: no page) the photograph is simultaneously iconic in its resemblance to

something in the world and indexical as the photo-chemical imprint bears witness to

the appearance of the object before the camera at some point in time. Thus, pictures

are more imperative than writing, they impose meaning at one stroke, without

analyzing or diluting it (Barthes, 1983:110). Barthes expressed his view that a news

photograph is an object that has been worked on, chosen, composed, constructed, and

treated according to professional, aesthetic or ideological norms which are so many

factors of connotation.There are many decisions taken by the photographer such as;

focusing, lighting, angle, which produce various representations, and readings, of the

same moment creating different connotations.

A photograph is like a written text in that it is made up of marks on card. It

has a substance comparable to writing, except that it is not articulated as an alphabet

is (Hynes, 1992: 235). According to Barthes, there are three kinds of messages in the

photograph: linguistics message, non-coded iconic message and coded iconic

message (Barthes, 1977: 36). The first is articulated as caption, title etc. The second isliteral, the captured reality. The third is the cultural aspects of the presented image.

Reading the news photograph is changing those messages into verbal text. It means

that the messages are read as how the verbal text is commonly treated.

This thesis will analyze the photograph in the newspaper with semiotics

approach through functioning the two orders of signification. Semiotics is primarily a

mode of analysis that seeks to understand how sign perform or convey meaning in

context. It is an orientation to the analysis of signs and signs about signs (Saussure,

1966:3). Whereas, two orders of signification is a term about levels of meaning. In

these orders, meaning may appears in denotation, connotation and or myth, in which

meaning as being process of negotiation between writer or reader and text where

denotation is the common sense, obvious meaning of a sign. Then connotation is the


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interaction of the sign with the feeling of the user and the values of their culture.

Additionally, myth is a hidden ideological function of signs which seems natural not

historical. Thus, by the analysis, social class of the medias reader will be found.

The object of this thesis is Kompas, the Indonesian newspaper that was

publishing since June 1965. It is the most widely read newspaper in Indonesia

according to A.C Nielsen, the international private bureau of statistics. It has been the

largest national newspaper in Indonesia. In 2004, its daily circulation reached some

530.000 copies, and its Sunday edition is about 610.000 copies. Readership totalled

about two million peoples.

Concerning the importance of the role of the theory of semiotics in the

process of interpretation of news photograph, especially its two orders of

signification; this thesis is going to find out the intended messages and describe the

functions of two orders of signification of the news photograph on the Kompas from

non-linguistics aspect, so that the thesis entitled Reading Picture to Understand

Class: Social Class Representation in Several News Photo in Kompas is

proposed.

1.2The Problem to DiscussThis thesis discusses what the segmentation ofKompas reader. Basically,

segmentation is dividing the consumer into several groups that are differentiated by

their needs, characteristics, or behaviour (Kottler, 1997:235). The basic concept of

this phrase is the identification of portions of the market that are different from one

another. The product produced by the company is not constantly interesting for all

peoples. It is because of the differentiation of the peoples purchasing motives, the

knowledge about the product, and the peoples behaviors (Peter and Olson,

2000:135).

There are three aspects of segmentation based on Kottler (1999:300)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004


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1. Geographic aspect (including region, the population density, and climate)2. Demographic aspect (containing the age of consumers, sex, race, religion,

social class and their nationality)

3. Psychographic aspect (containing lifestyle and personality of theconsumers)

In this thesis, the aspect that is chosen to discuss is demographic aspect,

specifically for social class. The analysis will be led to several headline photos in

Kompas.

1.3The Scope of the StudyLimitation of discussion is needed in order to get a clear description of the

process and result. The objects of analysis are 5 headline photos in Kompas around

December 2009 until January 2010. The selection of the data based on common

category such as: law, sport, culture, politics, and human life. Then, it will be focused

onKompas at December 9th

(politics),10

th(sport), 17

th(culture), 30

th(law) 2009 and

January 13

th

2010 for human life category.

1.4The Goals of the StudyBased on the problem explained, the goals of the study can be mentioned as

follows:

1. To describe and interpret the existence of the news photographs.2. To describe how the reader can comprehend the news photographs in

Kompas by using the Theory of Semiotics and applying the two orders of

signification.

3. To find the social class ofKompasreader.


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1.5The Significance of the StudyThis study is not only aimed to define the segmentation that can be seen in the

photograph, but also to get readers appreciation to any physical point existed in a

media. This study also can be used for whether students or lecturers who interested in

media and communication studies. Moreover, this analysis also can be implemented

to other kinds of sign. The most significance of this study is to support people

appreciation of media. Further discussion about this subject is also needed to support

next research of interpret photograph using semiotics analysis.

1.6 The Type of StudyThis study will use library research. Library research aims to produce a

critical synopsis of an existing area of research writing. Besides the data and theories

were taken from books, most of them were taken from articles in internet because

there are not enough books available that related to the method of this thesis. Besides

getting information from written text, the writer also made some discussion with

some people who are interesting in media and communication studies, especially innews photograph.

1.7The Organization of the ThesisThis thesis will be divided into five chapters. The first chapter contains an

overview of this study. Second chapter will give a theoretical review. Therefore

readers have a comprehensive understanding of the analysis. Third chapter will

provide model of methodology and data collecting. Fourth chapter is discussion and

result. It contains the analysis of the problem. The last chapter contains conclusion of

this thesis.


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CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter gives some theories that take over some features. These

theories expand the understanding about semiotics theory and other theories which is

related to this thesis. The discussion will be started from communication; the usage of

language in mass communication, media and newspaper including its instruments,

especially news photograph. Second subchapter, the discussion will be focused on

semiotics Pierce and Saussure and the two orders of significationas the basic of

the method. Indeed, the Saussurean semiology is used to help the two order of

signification work that was developed by Barthes. Since, the two order of

signification concept is principally derived from Saussurean theory of sign. Then, the

Piercean semiotics is used to interpret the signifierof the photograph, in order to look

up the social class of reader.

A review on segmentation and social class are placed in the third subchapteras a combining formalist analysis to show how socio-economical meaning convey the

ideological dimension of text. Finally, the history ofKompas is positioned in the last

subchapter.

2.1 Communication

Communication is one of human activities that everyone recognizes as talking

to one another, spreading information, our hair style, and or literary criticism: the list

is endless (Fiske, 1990: 1). The boundaries of its field have been unclear from the

beginnings. It is in concurrence with Frank E.X Dance in the preface of his book

(1967). He stated that it is impossible to cover all area of this science because of the


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breadth of interest in the field of communication (Dance, 1967: no pages). As these

widely definition, John Fiske then briefly defined communication is social

interaction through messages (1990: 2).

The simple route of communication can be seen in the scheme below (cited in

Fiske, 1990:6):

Shannon and Weaver s model of communicati on

Sender Message Channel Recei ver Destination

Noise

figures 2.1

That basic model of communication presents it as a simple linear process. The

sender is seen as the decision maker; that is, the sender decides which message to

send, or rather selects one out of a set of possible messages. This selected message is

then changed by the transmitter into a signal which is sent through the channel to the

receiver. For a telephone, the channel is a wire, the signal is an electrical current in it,

and the transmitter and receiver are the telephone handsets. In conversation, my

mouth is the transmitter, the signal is the sound waves which pass through the

channel of the air, and your ear is the receiver. And destination is the goal of

communication.

Furthermore, communication can be divided into 4 types; personal

communication, group communication, organizational communication, and mass

communication (Cangara, 2008: no pages). Each type has difference range of the

effect occured. Personal communication occurs narrower than other. It is because the

process of acquiring data is only appeared in human mind. In the other hand, the

effect of mass communication reaches the widest area (Gerbner cited in Dance,

1967:42).


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Mass communication define as a process whereby mass-produced message

are transmitted to large, anonymous, and heterogeneous masses of receivers (cited in

Nurudin, 2007:12). Wright in Dance (1967) specificly describes:

This new form can be distinguished from older types by the following majorcharacteristic: it is directed toward relatively large, heterogeneous, and

anonymous audiences; messages are transmitted publicly, often-times to reachmost audience member simultaneously, and are transients in character; the

communicator tends to be, or to operate within, a complex organization that

may involve great expense. (1967:286)

The definition above elucidated clearly that, beside it covers wide area of

receiver, in mass communication the message will be spread, distributed and

transmitted publicly to the large number of audiences who is heterogeneous (come

from various status, class, race, religion, and different characters), and anonymous

(the unrelated affaire between audiences) (Nurudin, 2007:12). Sender controls the

process of producing message in a complex organization, called by media institution.

So, mass communication can also be defined as communication through mass media

which is constructed by modern technology of the society.

2.1.1 Mass Media

The development of technology brings new area of human communication.

Communication takes place not only on the interpersonal level between face-to-face

individuals but also mediated large community through technological devices. The

pervasiveness of the media in our everyday lives cannot be overstated. They devoted

to reaching very large popular audiences and readerships in print, screen, and aural

media (Hartley, 2002:142).

Basically, based on Mass Communication Theory (1987) the functions of

mass media are transmitting for all kind of knowledge. From the purpose mentioned,

they have taken over role of school, parent, even the religion (McQuail, 1987:97-99).


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As the time change, Kenneth Tucker viewed that the function of media as a site for

ideological struggles in which people actively contest and reinterpret the meaning

that they receive from this institution. Through mass media, the rulings groups

attempt to naturalize meaning that serve their interest into common sense of the

society (Tucker, Jr., 1998: 174).

Kellner elucidated that media culture help establish the hegemony of specific

political groups and projects. Media culture produces representations that attempt to

induce consent to certain political positions, getting members of the society to see

specific ideologies as the way things are (Kellner, 1995: 59). Thus he makes the

simple conclusion about the function of media that media culture is maintaining

boundaries and also legitimating the rule of the hegemonic class, race, and gender

forces (1995: 62).

Newspaper is one of printed mass media were published first in 1690 in the

U.K, and now become the most widely read mass media in almost all big cities in the

world (Vivian, 2008:12). This leading position is maybe also supported by the

concept of a bright, flippant narrative style of news reporting, which includes a

strong editorial viewpoint in its coverage. While the content of a newspaper varies, itgenerally consists of a predetermined combination of news, opinion, and

entertainment.

The model of newspaper becomes the favourite of all news media. It is

designed to appear most commonly in daily editions; thus it could provide

background, summarize the news, and add depth and interpretation that most media

cannot give. It presents immediately in its front page the facts and information for its

readers, and based mostly on facts that are fresh and written as it happens (Carr,

2010).

This thesis analyzes the photo headlined ofKompas for understanding the

social class of its reader. Headline is text at the top in the front page of a newspaper,

indicating the nature of the article below it. It summarizes a whole event in a few
http://www.answers.com/topic/predetermined-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaperhttp://www.answers.com/topic/predetermined-1


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words, and dense noun phrases pack a variety of descriptive facts into a small portion

of a sentence (Aitchison and Lewis, 2003:2). Furthermore, Allan Bell states:

The headlines are in fact telling the story. In some cases they refer to other,sidebar stories separate from the story above which they are placed. By

contrast the modern headline usually derives entirely from the lead sentenceof the story below it and certainly not from any information beyond the body

copy of that story. (cited in Aitchison and Lewis, 2003:10)The role of news photograph in the headline itself is to visualize the event,

applying what had been read and see to accomplish a goal. It also contributes to

literacy, the understanding and interpreting of information (Racine, 2002:6). The

further function of news photo will be described in the next sub chapter that generally

define about language in mass communication.

2.1.2 Language in Mass Communication

Mentioning communication is impossible without mentioning language. Eco

in his A Theory of Semiotics (1976) made implied distinction between language and

communication. According to him, language can exist independently without

communication; in other hand communication can not exist without language (Eco,

1976: 8-9). He described that any flow of information from a source to a destination

is a process of communication, even the passage of a signal from machine to

machine. Its process involve message sending by producer to the audience (cited in

Noth, 1990: 172). In addition, Tubbs and Moss (1994:66) stated in theirHuman

Communicationbook, involves sending messages from one persons nervous

system to anothers with the intention of creating a meaning similar to the one in the

senders mind.

From the statement above, it is not wondered in the opinion that language is

used solely for the communication of factual information between peoples (Lyons,

1977: 50). For Lyons, a British linguist, that statement is not true. He argued that the

function of language is also serves for the establishment and maintenance of social


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relationships and for the expression of our attitudes and personality. Thus, language is

concerned in our cultural pattern and act of social behavior (Sapir, quoted in Hawkes,

1977: 125). In a simple way, it can be recognized that different culture makes

different language. The differences of language play an important, positive role in

signaling information as well as in creating and maintaining the subtle boundaries of

power, status, role, and occupational specialization that make up the fabric of the

social life (Anam, 2004:6).

In mass communication, messages are formally coded, symbolic, or

representational events of some shared significance in a culture, produced for the

purpose of evoking significance (Gerbner cited in Dance, 1967:43). They are coded

in complex symbol system named language. Hawkes (1977: 125) elucidated that

every speech-act includes the transmission of messages through the languages of

gesture, posture, clothing, hairstyle, perfume, accent, social context etc. Over and

above, under and beneath, even at cross-purposes with what words actually say.

That is in accordance with Ferdinand de Saussures statement in the third

chapter of his classical bookCourse in General Linguistics. Saussure affirmed that

language is a system of signs that express ideas and is therefore comparable to asystem of writing, the alphabet of deaf-mutes, symbolic rites, polite formulas,

military signals, etc, but it is the most important of all these system (Saussure,

1966:16). It means that language is not only articulated in form of letters, numbers

etc, but also in the objects of our civilization.

One form of language in newspaper is news photograph. A news photograph

introduces a new set of problems for the analyst. It is iconic, and not arbitrary, so the

paradigms involved are less well specified than they are in a verbal syntagm. It works

metonymically, not metaphorically, and so does not draw attention to the creativity

involved in its construction: it appears more natural (Fiske, 1990: 104). According

to Rolland Barthes in his essay Photographic Message, he states:

The press photograph is a message. Considered overall this message isformed by a source of emission, a channel of transmission and a point of


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reception. The source of emission is the staff of the newspaper, the group of

technicians certain of whom take the photo, some of whom choose, compose

and treat it, while others, finally, give it a title, a caption and a commentary.The point of reception is the public which reads the paper. As for the channel

of transmission, this is the newspaper itself, or, more precisely, a complex of

concurrent messages with the photograph as centre and surrounds constitutedby the text, the title, the caption, the lay-out and, in a more abstract but no less

'informative' way, by the very name of the paper. (cited in Barthes, 1977:15)

The purpose of this iconic sign does not just give the reality illustration but

also as a rhetorical argument about what has been. Further Zelizer argued that

photography functions simultaneously as an integral part of journalism, a facilitator

for achieving certain aims (cited in Fiske, 1990: 80). Then, Emery insisted that

photographs are used just as are words, to inform, persuade, and entertain users of the

mass media (Emery, 1971: 257).

2.2 Representation

Stuart Hall suggests two relevant meaning for the term representation

(1997:16). First, represent something means describe or depict something. It is to call

it up in the mind by description or potrayal or imagination and to place a likeness of it

before us in our mind or in the sense, as for example, in the sentence: This picture

represents the murder of Abel by chain. The second, to represent also means to

symbolize, stand for, to be a specimen of, or to substitute for; as in the sentence: In

Christianity, the cross represents the suffering and crucifixion of christ. Therefore,

representation can be concluded as an essential part of the process in which meaning

is produced and exchanged between members of a culture. It involves the use of

language, of sing and images which stand for or represent things. Representation

connects meaning and language to culture.

At the heart of meaning process in culture, there are two related system of

representation. The first enables us to give meaning to the world by constructing a set


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of correspondences or a chain of equivalences between things (people, object, event,

abstract ide, etc.) and our system of concept, our conceptual maps. The second

depends on constructing a set of correspondences between our conceptual map and a

set of signs, arranged or organized into various languages which stand for or

represent concepts. The relation between thing, concept, and signs lies at the heart of

the production of meaning in language. The process which links these three elements

together is what we call representation (Hall, 1997:19)

Stuart Hall also stated that there aree three approaches how representation of

meaning through language work (1997:24). These approaches are the reflective, the

intentional, and the constructionist or constructivist approaches. In the reflective

approach, meaning is thought to lie in the object, person, idea, or event in the real

world, and languagee functions like a mirror, to reflect the true meaning as it already

exist in the world.

The second approach argues the opposite case. It holds that is speaker, the

author, who imposes his or her unique meaning on the world through language.

Words mean what the author intends they should mean.

Constructionist approach as the last approach recognizes this public, socialcharacter of language. It acknowledges that neither things in themselves nor the

individual users of language can fix meaning in language. According this approach,

we must not confuse the material world, where things and people exist, and the

symbolic practice and processes through which representation, meaning, and

language operated. It is not the material world which conveys meaning; it is the

language system or whatever system we are using to represent our concepts (Hall,

1997:25).

Representation, meaning, and language have an inseparable relation.

Representation is the production of meaning through language (Hall, 1997:18). In

representation, we use signs, organize into language of different kinds, to

communicate meaningfully with others. Language can use sign to symbolize, stand


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for or references object, people and events in the real world. Meaning is produced

within language, in and through various representational systems which, for

convenience, we call language. Meaning is produced by the practice, the work of

representation. It is constructed through signifying.

Representation is simply defined as the process by which member of a culture

use language (and any system which deploys signs, any signifying system) to produce

meaning (Hall, 1997:61). This definition carries important premise that things

including objects, peoples, events, in the worlds do not have in themselves any fixed,

final or true meaning. It is us living in society within human culture who signify and

make things mean.

2.3 Semiotics and Two Orders of Signification

Referring to the Ecos A Theory of Semiotics (1976) and Noths

Handbook of Semiotics (1990), the study of semiotics has reached vast field area

beyond its founding fathers have theorized. The field of semiotics is of course

enormous, ranging from the study of the communicative behavior of animals (zoosemiotics) to the analysis of such signifying systems as human bodily

communication (kinesics and proxemics), olfactory signs (the code of scents),

aesthetic theory, and rhetoric (Hawkes, 1977:101). Roman Jakobson in Hawkes

(1977) suggests an approach to this mass of sign-systems which begin by considering

some general principles:

Every message is made of signs; correspondingly, the science of signstermed semiotic deals with those general principles which underlie the

structure of all signs whatever and with the character of their utilization withinmessages, as well as with the specifics of the various sign systems, and of thediverse messages using those different kinds of signs. (1977:102)

Semiotics or, also called, semiology basically means a science that study

about signs (Noth, 1990:3). There are three main areas of its study; thesign, to which


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it refers, and the user of the sign, as Fiskes statement in Introduction to

Communication Studies (1990):

Semiotics, as we call it, has three main area of study: (1) t he sign itself. Thisconsists of the study of different varieties of signs, of the different ways they

have conveying meaning, and of the way they relate to the people who usethem. For signs are human constructs and can only be understood in terms of

the uses people put them to, (2) the codes or systems into which signs are

organized. This study covers the ways that a variety of codes have developed

in order to meet the needs of a society or culture, or to exploit the channelsof communication available for their transmission, and (3) the culture within

which these codes and signs operate. This is dependent upon the use of these

codes and signs for its own existence and form. (1990: 40)

The terms semiology and semiotics themselves are both used to refer to this

science, the only deference between them being that semiology is preferred by

Europeans, out of deference to Saussures coinage of the term, and semiotics tends to

be preferred by English speakers, out of deference to the American Peirce (Hawkes,

1977:101).

Ferdinand de Saussure, the founder of modern linguistics, states:

A science that studies the life of signs within society is conceivable; it would

be a part of social psychology and consequently of general psychology; I shallcall it semiology (from the Greek se meon sign). Semiology would showwhat constitutes signs, what laws govern them. Since the science does not yet

exist, no one can say what it would be; but it has a right to existence, a place

staked out in advance. Linguistics is only a part of the general science ofsemiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics,

and the latter will circumscribe a well-defined area within the mass ofanthropological facts.

(cited in Hawkes, 1977: 100)

While, Charles Sanders Pierce states:

Logic, in its general sense, is, as I believe I have shown only another namefor semiotic, the quasi-necessary, or formal doctrine of signs. By describingthe doctrine as quasi-necessary, or formal, I mean that we observe thecharacters of such signs as we know, and from such an observation, by a


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process which I will not object to naming Abstraction, we are led to

statements, eminently fallible, and therefore in one sense by no means

necessary, as to what must be the characters of all signs used by a scientificintelligence, that is to say by an intelligence capable of learning byexperience.

(cited in Hawkes, 1977: 100)

For Saussure linguistic sign is two-sided psychological entity consisting of

a sound-image and a concept (1966:66). It can be represented by the drawing:

conceptconcept

sound-imagesound-image skull

figures 2.2

It is not symbol corresponds to the referent as it was understood. It means

when we write skull, this word becomes the physical form (sound-image / signifier)

of the sign. And, the signified is the concept that is evoked (the idea of skull). Thus,

the sign is the combination of the signifier and the signified.

signified (concept)

signifier (sound-image)sign

figures 2.3

Ferdinand de Saussure proposed that signs are not autonomous entities; they

derive their meaning only from the place within an articulated system. What

constitutes a linguistic sign is nothing but its difference from other sign. For instance

the signifierman can be understood as not woman, not boy etc (cited in Noth,

1990: 58).

Whereas, Pierce viewed that sign has triadic process called semiosis. It is an

action of the sign, in which the sign has cognitive effect on its interpreter. According

to him sign model consists of a triple connection of sign, thing signified, and

cognition produced in the mind (cited in Noth, 1990: 42). Peirce also identified a


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triangular relationship between the sign, the user, and the external reality as a model

of studying meaning. He writes:

Every sign is determined by its object, either first, by partaking in thecharacter of the object, when I call the sign an icon; secondly, by being really

and in its individual existence connected with the individual object, whenI call the sign an index; thirdly, by more or less approximate certainty that it

will be interpreted as denoting the object in consequence of a habitwhen Icall the sign a symbol.

(cited in Fiske, 1990: 47)

The categories of Piercessign can be drawn as follow:

figures 2.4

Those mean that in an icon the sign is resembles its object in some way: it

looks, sound, feel, taste, smell like it: e.g. a news photograph, a portrait, a cartoon, a

scale-model, sound effect in radio drama, a dubbed film, imitative gestures etc.

In an index, there is a direct link (physically or casually) between a sign and

its object: Both of them are actually connected, the link can be observer or inferred:

e.g. natural signs (smoke, cloud, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odors or

flavors), medical symptom (a pain, rash, pulse rate), measuring instruments (weather

cock, thermometer, clock, spirit-level), signals (a knock on a door, a phone ringing),

pointers (a pointing index finger, a directional signpost), a recordings (photograph,

a film, video or television shot, an audio-recorded voice), personal trademark

(handwriting, catchphrase) and indexical words (that, this, here, there).

Then, in a symbol there is no connection or resemblance between sign and

object: a symbol communicates only because people agree that it shall stand for what


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it does, so it is very arbitrary and purely conventional: e.g. language in general,

numbers, morse, traffic lights etc (Chandler, 2000:5).

Furthermore semiotics sees communication as the generation of meaning

in messages whether by the encoder or the decoder. Meaning is not an absolute, static

concept to be found neatly parceled up in the message. Meaning is the result of the

dynamic interaction between sign and interpretant, and object: it is historically

located and may well change with time (Noth, 1990:46).

Meaning cannot be separated from the ideological struggles since its context

is dependent or historical. Since meaning is historical or diachronic, thus it is not only

synchronic as Saussure believed. John Fiske noted that Saussure was interested

primarily in the linguistic system, secondarily in how that system related to reality to

which it referred, and hardly at all in how it related to the reader and his socio-

cultural position. Thus, by his synchronicity, Saussure only examines the complex

ways in which a sentence can be constructed and the way its form determines its

meaning. Therefore, Saussure was less conscious in the fact that the same sentence

may convey different meanings to different people in different situations (Fiske,

1990:85). For instance, pig can be defined as animal, police (for black ghetto), malechauvinist (for feminists) etc. (Hall, 1980: 124-5).

It was Roland Barthes, the French semiotician, who proposed a systemic

model by which the interactive idea of meaning could be analyzed (Fiske, 1990:85).

This theory called the two orders of signification. The two orders of signification is a

term about levels of meaning. Barthes argues that two orders of signification

(mythology) is a part both of Semiology inasmuch as it is a formal science, and

ideology inasmuch as it is an historical science: it studies ideas in form (Barthes,

1983: 111). In these orders, meaning may appear in denotation, connotation and

myth, in which meaning as being process of negotiation between reader and text.

Barthes elucidated that any system of significations comprises a plane of

expression (E) and a plane of content (C) and that signification coincides with


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relation (R) of the two planes: ERC (Barthes, 1983: 89). The primary sign is one of

denotative while the secondary sign is one of connotative semiotics. The denotative is

often called the first order of signification while the connotative as the second order

of signification. It can be abstracted as (Sunardi, 2002:122):

Figures 2.5

The first order of signification is based on the Saussurean theory of sign that

consist of signifier and signified that build a sign (meaning). This relation may be

expressed in Hjemslevian term, expression (E1), content (C1) that coincides with

relation (R1).

The second order of signification is the second semiotic system that used the

Saussurean theory of sign as a base. Thus, the sign of the first order become the

signifierof the second order. In the first order we SIGNIFICATION called as sign,

FORM as signifier, CONCEPT as signified. Therefore, the second order works as the

first order and the second order also use the first orders sign as its FORM or

signifier.

Furthermore, the FORM and CONCEPT of the second order of signification

in themselves also posses its own semiotic system: expression, form and substance.

To simplify, the semiotic system of the FORM may be called in term of E2R2C2and CONCEPT as E3R3C3. Therefore the second order of signification posses two

ways how signs work (called as connotation and myth). Barthes elucidated that

ideology is the form of the signified of connotation, while rhetoric is the form of

connotation (Barthes, 1980:92). Fiske clearly interprets Barthes raw abstraction as


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connotation is the second-order meaning of the signifier, myth is the second order

meaning of the signified (Fiske, 1990: 88).

2.3.1. Denotation

Considering that there is no meaning outside ideology, thus denotation is

another result of a discursive practice. Therefore ideological meaning also presents in

denotation. But confusion may not arise here. Hall argues the distinction of

denotation and connotation is an analytical only (Hall, 1980: 132). Barthes clarified:

Denotation is not the first sense, but it pretends to be. Under this illusion, inthe end, it is nothing but the last connotation (where the reading is at the same

time grounded and enclosed), the superior myth, thanks to which the texts

pretends to return to the nature of language. We must keep denotation,

old vigilant deity, crafty, theatrical, and appointed to represent the collectiveinnocence of language

(Barthes,1974: 9).

Then, Baudrillard affirmed:

Denotation is totally supported by myth of objectivity (whether concerning

the linguistic sign, the analogous photographic or iconic sign, etc.), the directadequacy of a signifier and a precise reality

(quoted in Hall, 1980: 133)

Thus in photography, the denoted meaning is conveyed solely through the

mechanical action of image reproduction: a dog is a dog. Therefore denotation, the

first order of signification is the one on which Saussure worked. It describes the

relationship between the signifier and signified within the sign, and of the sign with

its referent in external reality (Fiske, 1990:85). It means that denotation is literal,

obvious or common sense meaning of a sign. But it does not means denotation is

outside ideology. Stuart Hall clarifies that Indeed we could say that its ideological is

strongly fixed-because it has become so fully universal and natural (Hall,

1980:133). Fiske insists that denotation is what is photographed; connotation is how


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it is photographed (Fiske, 1990:86). Above all denotation is the literal, captured

reality of a photograph.

2.3.2 Connotation

According to Barthes, myth and connotation is generated in the same way in

the second order of signification. Connotation is the second-order meaning of the

signifier (FORM=E2R2C2). Connotation describes the interaction that occurs when

the sign meets the feelings or emotions of the users and the value of their culture

(Fiske, 1990: 85). Barthes argues that the connotation develops on the basis of

denotation whose signifier is a certain treatment of the image and whose signified

whether aesthetic or ideological, refers to certain culture of the society receiving the

message (Barthes, 1977: 17-19).

The difference of connotation and denotation in photography is obvious.

Barthes gives a clear example how denotation and connotation work, as follow:

denotation is mechanical production on film of the object at which the camera is

pointed. Connotation is human part of the process: it is the selection of what toinclude in the frame, of focus, aperture, camera angle, quality of film, and so on

(Fiske, 1990: 86). Then, Barthes declares that:

Connotation, the imposition of second meaning on the photographic message

proper, is realized at the different levels of the production of the photograph

(choice, technical treatment, framing, lay out) and represents, finally, a coding

of thephotographic analogue.

(Barthes, 1977: 20)


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2.3.3 Myth

Hall describes that myth differs from connotation at the moment at which it

attempts to universalize. Myth is connotation which has become dominant-hegemonic

(Hall, 1980: 125). For Fiske myth is the second-order meaning of the signified. Thus

it is the semiotic system of the CONCEPT (E3R3C3).

Barthes argues that myth is dominant ideology of our time. He insists that

myth serve the ideological function of naturalization (Barthes, 1980:130). It means

that myth is not natural, neutral or even necessary. Myth is taken for granted by those

located within the dominant ideology, and legitimized as natural occurrences or

timeless truths- the God eye view. It is presented as common sense, the

unquestioned way of interpreting reality or doing things. Barthes declares:

Myths are nothing but this ceaseless, untiring solicitation, this insidious and

inflexible demand that all men recognize themselves in this image, eternal yet

bearing a date, which was built of them one day as if for all the time.

(Barthes, 1980: 155)

Therefore the naturalization of history by myths, point up the fact that mythsare actually the product of a social class that has achieve dominance by a particular

history: the meanings that its myths circulate must carry this history with them,

but their operation as myths make them try to deny it and present their meanings as

natural, not historical or social. Myths mystify or obscure their origins and thus

their political or social dimension (Fiske, 1990: 89).

Thus myth is hidden ideological, hegemonic function of signs which

seem natural not historical that brings natural world view as something given, taken

for granted or goes without saying. This natural world view may masculinity,

femininity, freedom, individualism, objectivism, rationalism, inequality of human

races, the civilized western, the exotic orient, Englishness, middle class, upper class

and so on.


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2.4 Segmentation

Segmentation is an essential element of marketing in industrialized country

(Wedel and Kamakura, 2000:3). Since it was introduced (1956), segmentation has

become a central concept in both theory and practices. Many definition of

segmentation have been proposed since, but in empirical view the original definition,

which is proposed by W.R Smith, has retained its value.

Smith recognized that segments are directly derived from the heterogeneity of

costumer wants, as his argument in the article Product Differentiation and Market

Segmentation as Alternative Marketing Strategies in Journal of Marketing:

Segmentation involves viewing a heterogeneous market as a number of smaller

markets, in response to differing preferences, attributable to the desires of consumers

for more precise satisfaction of their varying wants. (Wedel and Kamakura, 2000:3).

Different customers have different needs, and it rarely is possible to satisfy all

customers by treating them alike. Therefore, the identification of market segment and

their element is highly dependent on the bases (variable of criteria) and method used

to define them. The choice of different bases may lead to different segments being

revealed.

2.4.1 Social Class Theory

Class is seen as embodying membership of collective groups, foralthough

people can identify as members of classes, this identification seems contextual and of

limited significance, rather than being a major source of their identity and group

belonging (Savage in Bottero, 2004:987). Culturally, class does not appear to be a

self-conscious principle of social identity. Structurally, however, it appears to be

highly pertinent.

For Weber a social class is a group that shares similar life chances, that is,

chances of achieving a socially valued living standard. Life chances are determined


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by ones income and ownership of various types of material property, including the

means of production, but also by the possession of what Weber referred to as status,

that is, social prestige and related cultural attributes, such as educational attainment,

type of occupation, and lifestyle (cited in Parillo, 2008:131). Thus, in the

distributional view classes are nuanced social groupings based on distributions of

numerous economic and cultural attributes that shape life chances, and identified

generally as lower class, middle class, and upper class. Each designation may be

further modified (e.g. lower middle class) or alternatively titled to recognize tradition

or prestige.

Moreover, class is a function of market power rather than ownership or non-

ownership of the means of production (Weber cited in Saunders 1990:23). Seen in

this way people form a class if they share roughly common life chances. They may

enjoy similar life chances because they own substantial property holdings from which

they can earn a profit, but the property market is not the only factor which influences

economic situation. What is also crucial is our position in the labour market. Some

people have particular skills or abilities which enable them to command high wages

when they take their labor to the market and this too will affect their class position.In addition, social-psychological problems of class and mobility are

examined, such as perceptions of low self-worth or uncertainty of social standing. For

example, one may attain the income of a higher class but still be excluded by its

members because the important attributes of lifestyle, taste and speech, do not

automatically follow.

How does a person obtain a social standing? The social standing is a result of

characteristics people posses that others in society desire and hold in high esteem.

The education, occupation, ownership of property, income level, and heritage

(racial/ethnic background, parents status) influence social standing, as shown in

figure below (Hawkins et al, 1998:115).


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Figures 2.6

Social standing ranges from the lower class, those with few or none of the

socioeconomic factors desired by society, to the upper class, who posses many of the

socioeconomic characteristics considered by society as desirable. Individuals with

different social standing tends to have different needs and consumption pattern.

Further about social behaviors will be explained in follow subsub chapter.

2.4.2 Social Behaviors

The study of social stratification is the study of how these different groupings

or strata relate to one another. Usually, it finds that they are related unequally. One

group may own and enjoy more economic resources than another, or it may be held in

higher esteem, or it may be in a position to order other groups around (Saunders,

1990:2-3). In our own society there are poor and wealthy people, there are families of

high birth and families of commoners, and there are politically powerful elites and

relatively powerless groups of people who are expected only to follow commands and

obey orders. The analysis of social stratification is concerned to understand how

inequalities like these arise in the first place, how they are maintained or changed

over time, and the impact which they have on other aspects of social life. In addition,

class is therefore determined not by the group in which you place yourself or the

people you interact with, but rather by these common characteristics (Kerbo,

1996:34).

Sosioekonomic

Factor

Occupation

Education

Ownership

Income

Heritage

Social Standing

Upper ClassMiddle Class

Lower Class

Behaviors

PreferencesPurchases

Consumption

Communication


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Weber in Saunders (1990:22-23) divides the social stratification into three

classes; upper, lower, and middle class. Upper class consists of those who live off

property income and enjoy the privileges of education. The lower class, by contrast,

is negatively privileged on both dimensions. In between these two classes, the

middle class, consists of people who have some property but little education and

people who have little property but can command high wages by virtue of their

education and qualifications (the intelligentsia and specialists).

Moreover, Hawkins et al in their book Consumer Behaviors (1998) break up

Webers class into several classes (1998:117). The upper class is divided into three

groups primarily on differences in occupation and social affiliation. The middle class

is divided into a middle class of average-income white and blue-collar workers living

in better neighborhoods, and a working class of average-income blue-collar workers

who lead a working-class lifestyle. And the lower class divided into two groups ,

one living just above the poverty level and the other visibly poverty-stricken. The

behavior of these designed-groups will be described in more detail in the following

sub-sub-sub chapter.

a. Upper Class

1) The Upper-Upper Class

Members of the upper-upper social class are aristocratic families who make

up the social elite. Members with this level of social status generally are the nucleus

of the best country clubs and sponsors of major charitable events. They provide

leadership and funds for community and civic activities and often serves as trustees

for hospitals, colleges, and civic organizations.

These individuals live in excellent homes, drive luxury automobiles, own

original art, and travel extensively. They generally stay out of the public spotlight

unless it is to enter politics or support a charity or community event.


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2) The Lower-Upper Class

The lower-upper class is often referred to as new rich-the current

generations new successful elite. These families are relatively new in term of upper-

class social status and have not yet been accepted by the upper crust of the

community. In some cases, their income is greater than those of families in the upper-

upper social strata.

Many members of this group continue to live lifestyles similar to those of

upper-middle class. This is particularly true of those who acquired their wealth

relatively slowly through professional accomplishment. These individuals do not try

to emulate or out-do the upper-upper class. Their income generally exceeds the

amount needed to support their lifestyle, and they are a prime market for investment

services of all type.

Other members of this class strive to emulate the established upper-upper

class. Entrepreneurs, sport star, and entertainers who suddenly acquire substantial

wealth often engage in this type behavior. However, they are frequently unable to

join the same exclusive clubs or command the social respect accorded the true blue

bloods.

3) The Upper-Middle Class

This class consists of families who posses neither family status derived from

heritage nor unusual wealth. Their social position is achieved primarily by their

occupation and career orientation. Occupation and education are key aspects of this

social stratum, as it consists of successful professional, independent business people,

and corporate managers. Members of this social class are typically college graduates,

many of whom have professional or graduate degrees.

Upper-middle class individuals tend to be confident and forward looking.

They worry about the ability of their children to have the same lifestyle they enjoy.


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They realize that their success depends on their careers, which in turn depend on

education. As a result, they concerned about their childrens education so much.

Having their children get a sound education from the right schools is very important

to them.

b. Middle Class

1) The Middle Class

The middle class is composed of white-collar workers (office workers, school

teachers, lower-level managers) and high paid blue-collar workers (plumbers, factory

supervisors). Thus, the middle class represent the majority of the white-collar group

and the top of the blue-collar group. The middle-class core typically has some college

though not a degree, a white-collar or a factory supervisor position, and an average

income.

The middle class concern about respectability. They care about their nation.

They care what the neighbors think. They deeply concern about the quality of public

schools, crime, drugs, traditional family values, and their familys financial security.

2) The Working Class

It consists of skilled and semi-skilled factory, service, and sales workers.

Though some households in this social stratum seek advancement, member of this

stratum are more likely to seek security for and protection of what they already have.

They greatly concern about crime, gangs, drugs, and neighborhood deterioration.

They generally cannot afford to move to a different area so their current

neighborhood or schools become unsafe or otherwise undesirable. Immigration rates

concern them as a threat to their job. With modest education and skill levels, the more


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marginal member of this class is in danger of falling into one of the lower classes.

Unfortunately, they often lack the skills and resources to avoid the danger.

c. Lower Class

1) The Upper-Lower Class

The upper-lower class consists of indivuals who are poorly educated, have

very low income, and work as unskilled laborers (janitor, dishwasher). Member of

this class live in marginal housing that is often located in depressed and decayed

neighborhoods. Crime, drugs, and gangs are often close at hand and represent very

real threat.

2) The Lower-Lower Class

The lower-lower class, the poverty class, or the bottom layer, has the lowest

social standing in society. They have very low incomes and minimal education. This

segment of society is often unemployed for long periods of time. Many member ofthis group lack the personal resources in terms of educational background, work

habits, health, and attitude to escape unemployment and poverty without external

assistance.

2.5 The Ideology ofKompas

Kompas were published first at June 28th

1965 in Jakarta, found by P.K

Ojong, Jacob Oetama, and several former journalists ofIntisari magazine. In its

headline on the first edition-after 3 days serially released in test-proof edition- they

reported about the Asia and African Conference that was delayed for 4 months.

Generally, it contained 11 foreign news and 7 domestic news.


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The name that means a device for determining directions was exclusively

given by the Indonesian first president, Soekarno, aim to change their previous name

Bentara Rakyat. Soekarno concluded that the term rakyat (or class in English) had

been part of communist movement. Indeed, the appearance of media could not be

separated from the political constellation at the time.


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CHAPTER 3. METHOD OF RESEARCH

Based on the problem that will be discussed in this thesis, method of research

will be divided into some sub chapters. The first sub chapter is an explanation about

semiotics analysis. Then, the second chapter will contain the type of data that become

the object of analysis. Method of data collecting contains the limitation of data and

the way of data collecting in this thesis. The explanation about kind of analysis will

be described in the forth sub chapter, method of analysis. The last sub chapter is

hypothesis. It is a temporary answer about the problem. It may change according to

the analysis in the forth chapter.

3.1 Semiotic Analysis

Semiotics can be applied to anything which can be seen as signifyingsomething, in other words, to everything which has meaning within a culture

(Chandler, 1994:125). Even within the context of the mass media semiotic analysis

can also be applied to any media texts (including television and radio programmes,

films, cartoons, newspaper and magazine articles, posters and other ads) and to the

practices involved in producing and interpreting such texts. Within the Saussurean

tradition, the task of the semiotician is to look beyond the specific texts or practices to

the systems of functional distinctions operating within them. The primary goal is to

establish the underlying conventions, identifying significant differences and

oppositions in an attempt to model the system of categories, relations (syntagmatic

and paradigmatic), connotations, distinctions and rules of combination employed. For

instance, 'What distinguishes a polite from an impolite greeting, a fashionable from


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an unfashionable garment?' (Culler, 1985:93); the investigation of such practices

involves trying to make explicit what is usually only implicit.

A 'text' (such as a photograph, an animated cartoon or a radio news bulletin) is

in itself a complex sign containing other signs. The initial analytical task is to identify

the signs within the text and the codes within which these signs have meaning (e.g.

'textual codes' such as camerawork or 'social codes' such as body language). Within

these codes it needs to identify paradigm sets (such as shot size: long shot, mid shot,

close up). It also needs to identify the structural relationships between the various

signifiers (syntagms). Finally, it will be discussed the ideological functions of the

signs in the text and of the text as a whole. What sort of reality does the text construct

and how does it do so? How does it seek to naturalize its perspectives? What

assumptions does it make about its readers?

3.2 Type of Research

There are some types of research conducted in this thesis. The first type is

library research. Blaxter et al. stated that library research aims to produce a criticalsynopsis of an existing area of research writing (1997:151). In the library research,

books used as the data sources are very helpful to the elaboration of theoretical

review and problems that will be analyzed (Djajasudarma, 1993:7).

This research also conducts qualitative research. It concerns with collecting

and analyzing information in many forms, mainly non numeric. Qualitative research

tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of

instances or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating. It aims to

achieve depth rather than breadth (Blaxter et al, 1997:60). This thesis which

conducts semiotic analysis tries to analyze the several headline photos ofKompas and

achieve the appropriate interpretation of them.


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3.3 Type of Data

Basically semiotics can be applied to analyze both qualitative and quantitative

data. In analyzing the effect of mass media, it has to use quantitative data, but in

analyzing the process of facts construction, qualitative data is required.

Quantitative research is used in statistical analysis, in order to find out the

numbers of people that affected by the news. In other hand, the purpose of this study

is to find out facts construction, therefore, the analysis in this thesis will be applied on

qualitative data. Qualitative data is the data based on the research that focuses on

understanding and meaning through verbal narative and description rather than

number. As stated by Sherman and Webb (in Blaxter et al, 1997; 61), Qualitative

research, then, has the aim of understanding experience as nearly as possible as its

participants feel it or live it. William M.K. Trochim (2006) states that major

categories of qualitative data are; in-depth interviews,direct observation andwritten

documents.

In this thesis, the data analyzed are the headline photo ofKompas around

December 2009 and January 2010. The photos choosen are based on several news

categories; legal, sport, culture, politics, and ecology. It is in order to show that thetheory could be applied in any news category. The editions taken are on December

30th

2009 (legal category), December 10th

2009 (sport category), December 17th

2009

(culture), December 9th

2009 (politics), and January 13th

2010 (human life).

Beside the primary data, in this chapter also provide the data about the

circulation of Kompas and the distribution of social class in Indonesia. The

information ofKompascirculation is given to offer the other perspective about the

social status of readers based on the district they lived. Whereas, the figure of

distribution of social class is to make certain the social class of readers.


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3.3.1 The Spread ofKompasReader

No District Circulation Amount

1 Jakarta and surrounding 294.0042 Sumatera 64.852

3 West Java 61.272

4 Central Java 48.584

5 East Java 16.518

6 Borneo 17.910

7 East Indonesia 36.880

8 Other 31.591Figures 3

(Research and DevelopmentLitbang- Kompas, 1999)

3.3.2 Social Class in Indonesia

In Indonesia, abstractly the division of social class can be divided in to six

groups (Kasali, 2005:212).

1. Class A+ (the upper-upper class)2. Class A (upper class)3. Class B+ (the upper-middle class)4. Class B (middle class)5. Class C+ (the upper-lower class)6. Class C (the lower-lower class)

3.4 Methods of Collecting Data

Documentary (bibliography) study is applied in this study as the method of

data collection. Documentary study proceeds by abstracting from each document

(Blaxter et al, 1997:85). The elements that are considered important or relevant must

be collected or set together with the other related data. Documentary study is also a

way of study that is arranged through categorization, classification, verification, and


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discussion (analysis) of written materials related to research problem in which the

source are text, books, newspapers, magazine, and journals,etc. (Nawawi, 1998:85).

The data of this thesis are headline photo ofKompas taken from web sources

(www.epaper.kompas.com). They are collected, classified, and verified according to

problem of the study. Then they will be analyzed and described using the appropriate

theories in order to reveal the representation of social class reader.

3.5 Data Analysis

After collecting the data, they will be analyzed through several steps by

reading picture to understand class

Documents