from wordless picture books to reading instruction
TRANSCRIPT
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Created by
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Smart Speech Therapy LLC
For Individual Use Only
Do not resell copy or share downloads
Do not remove copyright
From Wordless Picture Books to Reading
Instruction Effective Strategies for SLPs Working
with Intellectually Impaired Students
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Introduction
Critical thinking involves analysis synthesis and evaluation of information
in order to recognize patterns distinguish right from wrong offer
opinions anticipate reactions compare scenarios to choose favorable
outcomes as well as consider a variety of solutions to the same problem
These are the skills children need to make appropriate independent
decisions
For language and intellectually impaired children critical thinking
skills hierarchy needs to be explicitly addressed in therapy sessions in
order to improve these childrenrsquos independent decision-making abilities
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Overview
This presentation discusses how to address critical thinking skills through picture books utilizing the framework outlined in Bloomrsquos Taxonomy Cognitive Domain which encompasses the categories of knowledge comprehension application analysis synthesis and evaluation
It also reviews components of effective reading instruction for children with language and intellectual disabilities which include phonological awareness (sound manipulation in words) alphabetic principle (sound letter correspondence) orthographic instruction (knowledge of readingspelling rules) vocabulary instruction morphological awareness (prefixes suffixes and word origins) fluency (automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing) text comprehension and encoding (spelling)
Finally it provides recommendations on how components of effective reading instruction can be cohesively integrated in order to improve reading abilities of children with language disorders and learning disabilities
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Learning Objectives
After the completion of this presentation the participants will be able to
Describe components of Blooms Taxonomy relevant to critical thinking
skills instruction
List critical thinking skills hierarchy
Discuss how to implement effective critical skills instruction via picture
books
List components of effective reading instruction
Explain how to incorporate components of reading instruction into
speech language therapy sessions
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Bloomrsquos Original Taxonomy (1956)
A framework for educators to use to focus on developing and promoting higher order thinking skills in children (eg analysis and evaluation) rather than engaging in rote learning (memorizing facts)
Knowledge ldquorecall of specifics rdquo
Comprehension ldquounderstanding rdquo
Application ldquouse of abstractions in particular and concrete situationshelliprdquo
Analysis ldquobreakdown hellipinto hellipelementshelliprdquo
Synthesis ldquoputting together of elements and parts so as to form a wholerdquo
Evaluation ldquojudgments about the value of material and methods for given purposesrdquo
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One pp 201-207)
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Revised Bloomrsquos Taxonomy (2001)
Changed the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
ldquoKnowledgerdquo category was renamed ldquorememberingrdquo as knowledge is
an outcome or product of thinking not a form of thinking per se
ldquoComprehensionrdquo and ldquosynthesisrdquo categories were renamed to
ldquounderstandingrdquo and ldquocreatingrdquo respectively in order to better reflect
the nature of the thinking defined in each category
Rearranged as shown in the chart below
Created a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Reflects more active form of thinking
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Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Introduction
Critical thinking involves analysis synthesis and evaluation of information
in order to recognize patterns distinguish right from wrong offer
opinions anticipate reactions compare scenarios to choose favorable
outcomes as well as consider a variety of solutions to the same problem
These are the skills children need to make appropriate independent
decisions
For language and intellectually impaired children critical thinking
skills hierarchy needs to be explicitly addressed in therapy sessions in
order to improve these childrenrsquos independent decision-making abilities
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Overview
This presentation discusses how to address critical thinking skills through picture books utilizing the framework outlined in Bloomrsquos Taxonomy Cognitive Domain which encompasses the categories of knowledge comprehension application analysis synthesis and evaluation
It also reviews components of effective reading instruction for children with language and intellectual disabilities which include phonological awareness (sound manipulation in words) alphabetic principle (sound letter correspondence) orthographic instruction (knowledge of readingspelling rules) vocabulary instruction morphological awareness (prefixes suffixes and word origins) fluency (automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing) text comprehension and encoding (spelling)
Finally it provides recommendations on how components of effective reading instruction can be cohesively integrated in order to improve reading abilities of children with language disorders and learning disabilities
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Objectives
After the completion of this presentation the participants will be able to
Describe components of Blooms Taxonomy relevant to critical thinking
skills instruction
List critical thinking skills hierarchy
Discuss how to implement effective critical skills instruction via picture
books
List components of effective reading instruction
Explain how to incorporate components of reading instruction into
speech language therapy sessions
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Bloomrsquos Original Taxonomy (1956)
A framework for educators to use to focus on developing and promoting higher order thinking skills in children (eg analysis and evaluation) rather than engaging in rote learning (memorizing facts)
Knowledge ldquorecall of specifics rdquo
Comprehension ldquounderstanding rdquo
Application ldquouse of abstractions in particular and concrete situationshelliprdquo
Analysis ldquobreakdown hellipinto hellipelementshelliprdquo
Synthesis ldquoputting together of elements and parts so as to form a wholerdquo
Evaluation ldquojudgments about the value of material and methods for given purposesrdquo
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One pp 201-207)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Revised Bloomrsquos Taxonomy (2001)
Changed the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
ldquoKnowledgerdquo category was renamed ldquorememberingrdquo as knowledge is
an outcome or product of thinking not a form of thinking per se
ldquoComprehensionrdquo and ldquosynthesisrdquo categories were renamed to
ldquounderstandingrdquo and ldquocreatingrdquo respectively in order to better reflect
the nature of the thinking defined in each category
Rearranged as shown in the chart below
Created a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Reflects more active form of thinking
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Overview
This presentation discusses how to address critical thinking skills through picture books utilizing the framework outlined in Bloomrsquos Taxonomy Cognitive Domain which encompasses the categories of knowledge comprehension application analysis synthesis and evaluation
It also reviews components of effective reading instruction for children with language and intellectual disabilities which include phonological awareness (sound manipulation in words) alphabetic principle (sound letter correspondence) orthographic instruction (knowledge of readingspelling rules) vocabulary instruction morphological awareness (prefixes suffixes and word origins) fluency (automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing) text comprehension and encoding (spelling)
Finally it provides recommendations on how components of effective reading instruction can be cohesively integrated in order to improve reading abilities of children with language disorders and learning disabilities
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Learning Objectives
After the completion of this presentation the participants will be able to
Describe components of Blooms Taxonomy relevant to critical thinking
skills instruction
List critical thinking skills hierarchy
Discuss how to implement effective critical skills instruction via picture
books
List components of effective reading instruction
Explain how to incorporate components of reading instruction into
speech language therapy sessions
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Bloomrsquos Original Taxonomy (1956)
A framework for educators to use to focus on developing and promoting higher order thinking skills in children (eg analysis and evaluation) rather than engaging in rote learning (memorizing facts)
Knowledge ldquorecall of specifics rdquo
Comprehension ldquounderstanding rdquo
Application ldquouse of abstractions in particular and concrete situationshelliprdquo
Analysis ldquobreakdown hellipinto hellipelementshelliprdquo
Synthesis ldquoputting together of elements and parts so as to form a wholerdquo
Evaluation ldquojudgments about the value of material and methods for given purposesrdquo
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One pp 201-207)
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Revised Bloomrsquos Taxonomy (2001)
Changed the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
ldquoKnowledgerdquo category was renamed ldquorememberingrdquo as knowledge is
an outcome or product of thinking not a form of thinking per se
ldquoComprehensionrdquo and ldquosynthesisrdquo categories were renamed to
ldquounderstandingrdquo and ldquocreatingrdquo respectively in order to better reflect
the nature of the thinking defined in each category
Rearranged as shown in the chart below
Created a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Reflects more active form of thinking
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Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Objectives
After the completion of this presentation the participants will be able to
Describe components of Blooms Taxonomy relevant to critical thinking
skills instruction
List critical thinking skills hierarchy
Discuss how to implement effective critical skills instruction via picture
books
List components of effective reading instruction
Explain how to incorporate components of reading instruction into
speech language therapy sessions
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Bloomrsquos Original Taxonomy (1956)
A framework for educators to use to focus on developing and promoting higher order thinking skills in children (eg analysis and evaluation) rather than engaging in rote learning (memorizing facts)
Knowledge ldquorecall of specifics rdquo
Comprehension ldquounderstanding rdquo
Application ldquouse of abstractions in particular and concrete situationshelliprdquo
Analysis ldquobreakdown hellipinto hellipelementshelliprdquo
Synthesis ldquoputting together of elements and parts so as to form a wholerdquo
Evaluation ldquojudgments about the value of material and methods for given purposesrdquo
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One pp 201-207)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Revised Bloomrsquos Taxonomy (2001)
Changed the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
ldquoKnowledgerdquo category was renamed ldquorememberingrdquo as knowledge is
an outcome or product of thinking not a form of thinking per se
ldquoComprehensionrdquo and ldquosynthesisrdquo categories were renamed to
ldquounderstandingrdquo and ldquocreatingrdquo respectively in order to better reflect
the nature of the thinking defined in each category
Rearranged as shown in the chart below
Created a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Reflects more active form of thinking
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Bloomrsquos Original Taxonomy (1956)
A framework for educators to use to focus on developing and promoting higher order thinking skills in children (eg analysis and evaluation) rather than engaging in rote learning (memorizing facts)
Knowledge ldquorecall of specifics rdquo
Comprehension ldquounderstanding rdquo
Application ldquouse of abstractions in particular and concrete situationshelliprdquo
Analysis ldquobreakdown hellipinto hellipelementshelliprdquo
Synthesis ldquoputting together of elements and parts so as to form a wholerdquo
Evaluation ldquojudgments about the value of material and methods for given purposesrdquo
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook One pp 201-207)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Revised Bloomrsquos Taxonomy (2001)
Changed the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
ldquoKnowledgerdquo category was renamed ldquorememberingrdquo as knowledge is
an outcome or product of thinking not a form of thinking per se
ldquoComprehensionrdquo and ldquosynthesisrdquo categories were renamed to
ldquounderstandingrdquo and ldquocreatingrdquo respectively in order to better reflect
the nature of the thinking defined in each category
Rearranged as shown in the chart below
Created a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Reflects more active form of thinking
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Revised Bloomrsquos Taxonomy (2001)
Changed the names in the six categories from noun to verb forms
ldquoKnowledgerdquo category was renamed ldquorememberingrdquo as knowledge is
an outcome or product of thinking not a form of thinking per se
ldquoComprehensionrdquo and ldquosynthesisrdquo categories were renamed to
ldquounderstandingrdquo and ldquocreatingrdquo respectively in order to better reflect
the nature of the thinking defined in each category
Rearranged as shown in the chart below
Created a processes and levels of knowledge matrix
Reflects more active form of thinking
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Remembering
Name setting and characters of the story
Match story grammar cards with book pages
Sequence 3 part picture cards
Basic recall of information
Story can be retold by filling the blanks
In a cave in the ______
In his deep dark lair through the long cold _____
sleeps a great big ______
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Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
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Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Understanding
Teach relevant vocabulary words (eg describe retell main idea etc)
Attempt to retell the story given scaffolding and pictorial support
Interpret pictures
Discuss characters feelings
Make predictions re what would happen
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Applying
Students are able to show that they can use the knowledge and facts
acquired from the book and apply it to other situations
Besides hibernating what else could the bear have done to get
through the winter
Why is it dark in a cave
What would happen if the bear didnrsquot hibernate in the winter
Classify story characters
Bear and mouse are mammals wren and raven are birds
Mammals have ____characteristics birds have ____ characteristics etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Analyzing
Identify characteristics of story characters
Categorize story parts (which were funniest saddest etc)
Discuss fact vs opinion
Compare and contrast story characters
Bear and mouse are both animals
Bear is bigmouse is little
Why is walking through the woods alone dangerous
If you were Little Red Riding Hood what would you do
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Synthesizing
If you were this character what would you do differently
What would happen if _____
How would you change____
Why do you think____
Where can you find the proof that ____
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Evaluating
Students evaluate the evidence used to draw conclusions
and justify or defend their opinions of the story
Good genres for that are Fairy Tales and Aesoprsquos Fables
Why do you think it was wrong or fair
Do you think it was wrong for the wolf to try to trick Little Red Riding
Hood
Do you think it was fair that the grasshopper asked
the ant for food when he didnrsquot do any work all summer
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating
Create another character for this story
Create an alternative ending
Make a new scenarioepisode for the story
Place the character in a completely different setting
The bear goes to the beach (vs staying in the woods)
Create a simple song or a poem about the characters
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What is Academic Language
Discipline-specific vocabulary written conventions and abstract
language students need to succeed in school
Navigate more abstract written text
Organize information
Academic language is very rarely taught to children with
intellectual disabilities
Considered to be too advance for them to comprehend (fallacy)
Modified academic language hierarchy can be taught successfully to
many students with intellectual disability to improve their vocabulary
knowledge for listening and reading comprehension
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Academic Language Functions Hierarchy
Seek information - Ask -wh
questions
Infer - Make inferences Predict
consequences
Inform- Recount information Justify and persuade - Give
reasons for actions decisions or point
of view
Compare - Name similarities and
differences
Solve problems - Determine
solutions to problems
Order- Sequence information Synthesize - Integrate ideas to
summarize information cohesively
Classify - Group objects according
to characteristics
Evaluate - Assess and verify
Confirm value
Analyze- Identify relationships and
patterns
Source httpwwwcolorincoloradoorgsitesdefault
filesAcademic-Language-Functionpdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Critical Thinking Skills
Analogical reasoning is the process of knowledge transfer from
one situationcontext to the next (Chen 2002) It is
important for inductive reasoning development (correctly
generalizing based on available evidence) as well as for
problem solving real-world situations on daily basis
(Wedman Wedman amp Folger 1999)
Successful analogical problem solving ability allows children to
generalize and solve previously un-encountered problems
increase the potential success of solving different types of future
problems and even potentially decrease the time needed to
solve them (Gholson Eymard Morgan amp Kamhi 1987)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Critical Thinking Skills and Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities demonstrate inefficient information processing skills and consequently have difficulty with new and complex tasks due to weaknesses in synthesizing and integrating information as well as difficulties in areas that require problem solving complex concept formation and executive function (EF) skills such as sticking to the task planning inhibiting responses working memory and cognitive flexibility (Forrest 2004)
Due to EF impairments they exhibit significant difficulties with organization planning and tasks requiring sequencing (Tanguay 2001)
Many of them find it hard to internalize feedback learn from past experiences deal with ambiguous and non-routine situations understand cause-effect relationships as well as engage in gestalt processing (separate main idea from details when analyzing text)
It is important to break up the task complexity and sequentially teach them the steps to analogical problem solving
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Language Processing Hierarchy Pertaining to Critical
Thinking (Basic to Complex) (Richard 2001)
Prerequisites
Labeling
Functions
Associations
Categorization
Synonyms
Antonyms
Concepts (time location size etc)
Similarities
Differences
Multiple Meaning Words
Idioms
Analogies
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Examples of sample sessions
httpsitunesapplecomusa
ppkids-ihelp-analogy-1-
0id533759314mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
httpsitunesapplecoma
uappkids-ihelp-word-
analogy-1-
0id569134000mt=8
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
English for Everyone Analogy
Worksheets
Grades 1-12 Low Beginner to
Advanced
httpwwwenglishforeveryone
orgTopicsAnalogieshtm
More Free Apps from John Talavera
httpsitunesapplecomusdeveloperjohn-talaveraid502389200
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Training Analogical Reasoning Skills in Children With Language
Disorders (Masterson amp Perrey 1999)
Analogies in the Lorax from Ed-Helper
httpedhelpercomThe_Lorax_analogieshtm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Working with Wordless Picture Books (WLPBs)
Readcreate a script based on the book
Depending on which WLPBs you use you can actually find select scripts
online instead of creating your own
Find the scripts for the Mercer Meyer ldquoFrog Seriesrdquo HERE in English and
Spanish (courtesy of SALT SOFTWARE)
Ask the children to retell the story
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Identifying Warning Signs of Poor Story Telling
Is the childrsquos story order appropriate or jumbled up
Is the child using relevant story details or providing the bare minimum before turning the page
Howrsquos the childrsquos grammar Are there errors telegraphic speech (short phrases missing connectors instead of full sentences) or overuse of run-on sentences
Is the child using any temporaltime markers (first then after that) and conjunctions (and so but etc)
Is the childrsquos vocabulary adequate of immature for hisher age
Is there an excessive number of word-finding difficulties which interfere with story telling and its comprehension
Is the childrsquos story coherent and cohesive (makes sense)
Is the child utilizing any perspective taking vocabulary and inferring the characters feeling ideas beliefs and thoughts (see slide 11)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Narrative Milestones from Preschool - First Grade
Children 3-4 years of age can retell stories which contains 3 story grammar components (eg mdashInitiating event mdashAttempt or Action mdashConsequences) minimally interpretpredict events during story telling use some pronouns along with references to the characters names as well as discuss the characterrsquos facial expressions body postures amp feelings (utilize early perspective taking) (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
By 7 years of age children can retell a story utilizing 5+ story grammar elements along with a clear ending which indicates a resolution of the storyrsquos problem Their stories should have a well developed plot characters and a clear sequence of events as well as keep consistent perspective which focuses around an incident in a story (Hedberg amp Westby 1993 )
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Learning Vocabulary Words
Language disordered children require 36 exposures (as compared
with 12 exposures for TD children) to learn new words via
interactive book reading (Storkel et al 2016)
Interactive book reading involves an adult reading a storybook to a
child and deviating from the text to provide additional explicit
instruction (eg define the new word)
Vocabulary words were discussed before during and after reading
the book by describing or defining the word and showing other ways
to use it
Treatment Materials Link
httpskuscholarworkskueduhandle180820313
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Remediation via Use of Specific Story Prompts
What is happening in this picture
Why do you think
What are the characters doing
Who what else do you see
Does it look like anything is missing from this picture
Letrsquos make up a sentence with __________ (this word)
Letrsquos tell the story You start
Once upon a time
You can say ____ or you can say ______ (teaching synonyms)
What would be the opposite of _______ (teaching antonyms)
Do you know that _____(this word) has 2 meanings
1st meaning
2nd meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Focus on Story Characters and Setting
Who is in this story
What do they do
How do they go together
How do you think she feels Why How do you know
What do you think she thinking Why
If itrsquos a wordless picture book What do you think she saying
Where is the story happening Is this inside or outside How do you know
Did the characters visit different places in the story Which ones How many
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Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Story Sequencing
What happens at the beginning of the story
How do we start a story
What happened second
What happened next
What happened after that
What happened last
What do we say at the end of a story
Was there troubleproblem in the story
What happened
Who fixed it
How did she fix it
Was there adventure in the story
If yes how did it start and end
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Complex Book Interactions
Compare and contrast story charactersitems
(eg objectspeopleanimals)
Make predictions and inferences about what going to happen in the
story
Ask the child to problem solve the situation for the character
What do you think he must do tohellip
Ask the child to state hisher likes and dislikes about the story or its
characters
Ask the child to tell the story back after reading it
With Pictures
Without Pictures
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Vocabulary of Feelings And Emotions
Words related to thinking
Know think remember guess
Words related to senses
See Hear Watch Feel
Words related to personal wants
Want Need Wish
Words related to emotions and feelings
Happy Mad Sad
Words related to emotional behaviors
Crying Laughing Frowning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Select Picture Book Authors and Series
Alyssa Capucilli
Biscuit series
Karma Wilson
The Bear Series
M Christina Butler
The Hedgehog Series
Lucille Colandro
There was an old lady whohellipseries
Jez Alborough (all books but particularly)
Bear Series Duck Series Cuddly Dudley
Keiko Kasza (ALL Books)
Jan Brett (Most Books)
Audrey Wood (all books but particularly)
Napping House Quick as a Cricket The Big Hungry Bear
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Thematic Non-Fiction Picture Books
Nonfiction texts contain unknown concepts and vocabulary which is then used in the text multiple times Lack of knowledge of these concepts and related vocabulary will result
in lack of text comprehension
Letrsquos Read and Find Out Stage 1 and 2 Science Series
They can be implemented by parents and professionals alike for different purposes with equal effectiveness
They can be implemented with children fairly early beginning with preschool onwards Developmentally disabled children Learning Disabled (LD) Children Intellectually Disabled (ID) Children Children with FASD Internationally Adopted LD children Bilingual children with LD Children with reading disabilities Children with psychiatric impairments
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
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Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Importance of Teaching Advanced Vocabulary
Students with significant language impairment often suffer from
the Matthew Effect (ldquorich get richer poor get poorerrdquo)
Interactions with the environment exaggerate individual
differences over time
Children with poor vocabulary knowledge learn less words and widen the
gap between self and peers over time due to their inability to effectively
meet the ever increasing academic effects of the classroom
The vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poorer limited
vocabularies only worsen over time (White Graves amp Slater 1990)
We need to provide these children with all the feasible
opportunities to narrow this gap and partake from the
curriculum in a more similar fashion as typically developing
peers
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
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Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Utility of Letrsquos Read and Find Out Series
The books are readily available online (Barnes amp Noble Amazon etc) and in stores
They are relatively inexpensive (individual books cost about $5-6)
Parents or professionals who want to continuously use them seasonally can purchase them in bulk at a significantly cheaper price from select distributors (Source rainbowresourcecom)
They are highly thematic contain terrific visual support and are surprisingly versatile with information on topics ranging from animal habitats and life cycles to natural disasters and space
They contain subject-relevant vocabulary words that the students are likely to use in the future over and over again (Stahl amp Fairbanks 1986)
The words are already pre-grouped in semantic clusters which create schemes (mental representations) for the students (Marzano amp Marzano 1988)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Non Fiction Picture Books in Action
The books on weather and seasons contain information on 1 Front Formations 2 Water Cycle 3 High amp Low Pressure Systems
Vocabulary words from Flash Crash Rumble and Roll (see detailed lesson plan HERE) (Source in2booksepalscom)
Word water vapor Context Steam from a hot soup is water vapor
Word expands Context The hot air expands and pops the balloon
Word atmosphere Context The atmosphere is the air that covers the Earth
Word forecast Context The forecast had a lot to tell us about the storm
Word condense Context steam in the air condenses to form water drops
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
What else can we do and why do we do it
Teach sequencing skills
Life cycles
Critical thinking skills
What do animals need to do in the winter to survive
Compare and contrast skills
What is the difference between hatching and molting
ldquoTeachers (SLPs) with many struggling children often significantly reduce the quality of their own vocabulary unconsciously to ensure understandingrdquo (Anita Archer)
Professionals are under misperception that if they teach complex subject-related words like ldquometamorphosisrdquo or ldquovaporizationrdquo to children with significant language impairments or developmental disabilities that these students will not understand them and will not benefit from learning them
These students can still significantly benefit from learning these words it will simply take them longer periods of practice to retain them
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggestions for Implementation with ID Students
Simplify explanations
Minimize verbiage and emphasize the visuals
Have teachersparas observe if possible for subsequent successful
review and implementation
Review information
Reinforce newly learned vocabulary
ldquoPicture walksrdquo to activate background knowledge
Important because ldquostudents who lack sufficient background knowledge
or are unable to activate it may struggle to access participate and
progress through the general curriculumrdquo (Stangman Hall amp Meyer
2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Value of Non-Fiction Picture Books
Students learn vocabulary words in context embedded texts with
high interest visuals
They are taught specific content related vocabulary words directly to
comprehend classroom-specific work
They are provided with multiple and repetitive exposures of
vocabulary words in texts
SLPs maximize multisensory intervention when students are
learning vocabulary to maximize their gains (visual auditory tactile
via related projects etc)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading and Intellectual Disability (ID) ldquoIQ has a moderate correlation with achievement but this does not translate to a
conceptual model in which IQ is a robust determinant or cause of achievement Indeed there is considerable evidence that the cognitive problems that reduce achievement (eg language) also reduce IQ Children who dont learn to read show declines in IQ over timerdquo (Stuebing et al 2009)
ldquoPrint exposure appears to compensate for modest levels of general cognitive abilities low ability need not necessarily hamper the development of vocabulary and verbal knowledge as long as the individual is exposed to a lot of printrdquo (p162) (Stanovich 1993)
ldquo hellip diagnostic concepts assume that IQ sets a limit on either the level of achievement or the rate of progress of which a child is capable Share McGee amp Silva investigated this assumption in a longitudinal study in 1989 Used unselected cohort of 741 children whose reading achievement was
assessed at ages 7 9 11 and 13 years Findings on rates of progress and levels of achievement clearly indicate that IQ
does not set a limit on reading progress even in extreme low IQ childrenrdquo (p97) httpnifdiorgnews-latest-2blog-hempenstall400-can-people-with-an-intellectual-disability-
learn-to-read
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Students with ID to Read
Until recently phonological awareness instruction had been neglected in research on reading interventions for children with ID in favor of sight word instruction (Browder et al 2006 Browder et al 2012)
Recent research demonstrates that with an integrated and systematic approach students with ID can successfully combine the separate skills of phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence to decode unfamiliar words (Allor et al 2010 Browder et al 2008 OConnor et al 2010)
Results of a randomized long term study which lasted for 4 years found that students with low IQs including students with mild to moderate ID can learn basic reading skills when provided appropriate comprehensive reading instruction for an extended period of time (Allor et al 2014)
ldquoUsing carefully directed instruction individuals with intellectual disability can develop decoding a crucial reading skill ndash one considered difficult for this population Emphasizing phonological reading skills will pay off if the instruction is sufficiently intense and appropriately targetedrdquo (Conners et al 2006)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
Skill Focus K-2 Grades (Allor and Champlin 2010)
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
How Long Does it Take
ldquoIf learners master beginning skills thoroughly they will learn subsequent skills faster ie at an accelerated pace Initial examples require more time and a greater number of trials to learn than later examples The basic assumption is that children learn about learning and how-to-learn just as they learn other skillsrdquo (Engelmann p 177 in Lloyd et al 1995)
ldquoTo obtain automaticity in word recognition some children require extremely high levels of over-learning and practicerdquo (p 4) (Felton amp Wood 1989)
ldquoThe potential for individuals with lsquomental retardationrsquo [ID] to grasp and generalise literacy skills has been underestimated by many educators and researchers The findings from hellip review of studies suggest that individuals with mental retardation have the capabilities to grasp and generalise phonetic analysis skills from one context to another contextrdquo (Laurice amp Seery 2004)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention
Phonological Awareness ndash segmenting sequencing identifying and
discriminating sounds in words
Orthographic Knowledge ndash knowledge of alphabetic principle sound-
letter relationships letter patterns and conventional spelling rules
Vocabulary Knowledge -knowledge of word meanings and how they
can affect spelling
Morphological Knowledge- knowledge of ldquoword partsrdquo suffixes
prefixes base words word roots etc understanding the semantic
relationships between base word and related words knowing how to make
appropriate modifications when adding prefixes and suffixes
Mental Orthographic Images of WordsMental Graphemic
Representations- clear and complete mental representations of
(written) words or word parts
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Literacy Intervention (cont)
Reading Fluency
Reading Comprehension
What does ldquoShe can read really meanrdquo
If the child can decode all the words on the page
but their reading rate is slow and labored then they cannot
read
If the child is a fast but inaccurate reader and has trouble
decoding new words then theyrsquore not a reader either
If the child reads everything quickly and accurately but
comprehends very little then they are also not a reader
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Supplemental Reading Intervention
Mathes et al 2007 conducted 4 studies to test the efficacy of a Tier 2
supplemental early reading intervention for struggling readers
Found that native Spanish-speaking children benefited from explicit systematic
instruction similar to the one effective with native English speakers
Measures
Letter naming and letter sound identification
26 in English30 in Spanish alphabet
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Test of Phonological Processing in Spanish
Woodcock Language Proficiency
Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
Indicadores Dinamicos del Exito en la Lectura
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Page lsaquorsaquo
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness
Swanson et al 2005 examined post-treatment outcomes following direct systematic phonological awareness instruction for seventh-grade poor readers most of whom had English as their second language (n = 35) participated in small-group instruction sessions that emphasized
phonological awareness at the phoneme level and incorporated explicit linkages to literacy (12-week period 45 hours of contact with a trained instructor
Found out the 7th grade poor readers including bilingual students who have English as their second language can benefit from direct systematic instruction that emphasizes phonological awareness and is linked to literacy
Koutsoftas Harmon amp Gray (2009) studied the effect of Tier 2 intervention for phonemic awareness in (RtI) model in low-income preschool children (n = 34) Tier 2 intervention for beginning sound awareness was provided
twice a week (in 20-minute sessions) for 6 weeks by trained teachers and SLPs The intervention was successful for 71 of the children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
PhonologicalPhonemic Awareness (cont)
Ukrainetz Ross amp Harm (2009) studied schedules of phonemic
awareness treatment for kindergarteners
3x per week from September- December vs 1x per week from
September-March
Found large maintained gains in both schedules
Gains made from short intense treatment were similar to those made
from continuous weekly treatment
Goswami 1998 Branum-Martin 2006 found that gains transfer from L1
to L2 for phonological awareness and print concepts
Curley amp Gorman 2008 found that phonemic awareness instruction
in the stronger language yields greater gains in both the treated and
untreated language
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Tasks
Recognizing whether two presented words sound same or different
Recognizing which words rhyme and which do not
Generating rhyming words
Counting words in a sentence
Counting syllables in a word
Breaking words into syllables
Isolating beginning sounds in words
Isolating final sounds in words
Isolating medial sounds in words
Manipulating sounds in words (substituting first middle or last sounds in word amp naming new word)
Blending sounds to make a word (hat says hat)
Segmenting nonsense words
Blending nonsense words (eg tep says tep)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Activities
Songs and Nursery Rhymes httpwwwsongsforteachingcomnurseryrhymeshtm
Rhyming Books
ldquoOtter out of waterrdquo
ldquoSheep in a jeeprdquo
ldquoGiraffes canrsquot dancerdquo
httpwwwpbsorgparentsadventures-in-learning201408rhyming-books-kids
Rhyming Games
Rhyming bingo
Picture sorts
Rhyming scavenger hunt httpfun-a-daycomrhyming-activities-for-children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Rhyming
Clinician will introduce rhyming book to students and explain how
to recognize rhyming words
Rhyming words are words which endings sound the same
Clinician will present rhyming and non-rhyming word pairs in
exaggerated tone of voice and ask students whether these words
rhyme or not and what specifically makes the words rhymenot
rhyme
Students get numerous opportunities to recognize and produce
rhyming words during the explanation period
For severely impaired children who have profound difficulties
recognizing rhyming words cloze activities may be the answer
Bear Books by Karma Wilson
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonological Awareness Session Blending Sounds
In order to read words students must know the sounds for each of
the letters (alphabetic principle) then blend these sounds together to
determine the word
Sample goal Students will listen to the orally presented sounds in a
words presented with 1 second delay (mop) and then blend the
sounds together in sequence aloud to produce the target word (mop)
Supports
Repeated modeling
Scaffolding as needed
Picture cards with visuals and written words
Suggestion Start instruction with words that have continuous
consonant sounds then switch to those which cannot be prolonged
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction
Mapping consonant sounds to letters (eg b for b)
Mapping single letters to short vowel sounds (eg a for a)
Mapping vowel combinations to represent single vowel sounds (eg ee ea ie forē)
Mapping consonant digraphs and trigraphs (eg sh for sh ph for f tch for ch dge for j etc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 amp 3 sounds in beginnings of words (eg st qu sc str spletc)
Mapping consonant clustersblends with 2 sounds at the end of words (eg mp nd ft etc)
Mapping silent letter patterns (eg kn for k mb for m etc)
Mapping diphthongs (eg -oi -au etc)
Mapping R-controlled vowel sounds (eg -er -ir etc)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Phonics Instruction Basics
Firm knowledge of alphabet and sound letter correspondence
Executive function activities to strengthen the knowledge base
Label all the consonants and produce their corresponding sounds
Label only vowels and produce their corresponding sounds
Use of catchy mnemonics for recall
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mathes et al 2007 Instructional Design Recommendations
Ortho-phonemic
knowledge aka
Lettersound
Correspondence
No more than one grapho-phonemic
correspondence or high-frequency word patterns
per session
Review previously mastered grapho-phonemic
correspondence and high-frequency words each
session
Introduce first those grapho-phonemic
correspondences which occur more frequently in
words
Initially separate grapho-phonemic
correspondences and sight words which are
auditorially andor visually similar Then carefully
integrate in sessions to ensure discrimination
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Suggested Sequence of Teaching LetterSound Correspondence
As per U Penn Literacy Center Suggestion
a m t p o n c d u s g h i f b l e r w k x v y z j q
This sequence was designed to help learners start reading as soon as
possible
Letters that occur frequently in simple words (eg a m t) are taught first
Letters that look similar and have similar sounds (b and d) are separated in
the instructional sequence to avoid confusion
Short vowels are taught before long vowels
Lower case letters are taught first since these occur more frequently than upper case
letters
Modifications of the sequence are required to accommodate the learnersrsquo
prior knowledge interests (and hearing needs)
httpaacliteracypsueduindexphppageshowid6
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
Gr- correct writing it includes
Orthographic patterns - how speech is represented in writing Letters represent speech sounds (alphabetic knowledge)
Sound representation goes beyond one-to-one correspondence (eg long vowels consonant doublets)
Letters can and cannot be combined in certain ways (eg jr is not a legal combination in English)
Positional and contextual constraints govern use of letters (in what word positions letters may or may not be used) or orthotactic rules (eg tch cannot be written in the word-initial position to represent the tʃ sound)
Mental graphemic representations (MGRs) or stored mental representations of specific written words or word parts
Orthographic awareness refers to individuals attention to orthographic knowledge includes active and conscious thought and mindful consideration of aspects of the linguistic system
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Orthographic Knowledge (Apel 2011)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Spelling Patterns of Bilingual Children
Julbe-Delgado et al (2009) analyzed spelling patterns of 20 Spanish speakers in grades 6-8 (No SPED Services just ESL instruction)
Found that Spanish spelling errors were language-specific with little English interference noted
Due to transparency of Spanish language they found less phonological errors (unlike with older English spellers)
Orthographic errors were almost exclusively related to difficulties with complex letter-sound correspondences word boundaries accents and dialects
English misspellings in many instances reflected cross-language transfer of direct letter-sound correspondences Students tended to spell words the way that they pronounced them (Silliman et
al 2009)
English spellers struggled more with consonant doubling short vowel diagraphs and vowel errors (Bahr et al 2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Spelling
Spell-Links Approach is a speech-to-print Connectionist Word Study approach to teaching reading and writing Uses multi-linguistic and meta-linguistic instruction by building
literacy with activities that develop connect and integrate the different processes and regions of the brain involved in effective reading and writing
Instruction is organized by sounds and letters of words and starts with a sound The student then discovers common and additional allowable spelling choices for that sound
Instruction is phonological orthographic semantic and morphological Focus on direct mapping of spoken syllables with their corresponding
letters words are broken into syllables based on inborn syllable separations of spoken language
SPELL-Links to Reading amp Writing complete core program $349 httpshoplearningbydesigncomSPELL-Links-to-Reading-Writing-
LNX2htm
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Knowledge
Numerous studies have shown that children with PLI have word learning difficulties (eg Alt Plante amp Creusere 2004 Gray 2003 2004 2005 Kan amp Windsor 2010)
English is morphophonemic Language (Carlisle 2003 Chomsky and Halle 1968)
Its spelling system represents both phonemes and morphemes
It has an opaque alphabetic orthography (grapheme-phoneme correspondence in English is often indirect or not always transparent)
Growing body of research indicates a positive effect of morphological awareness on vocabulary knowledge literacy acquisition spelling and reading comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2012 Lam Chen Geva Luo amp Li 2011 Nagy Berninger amp Abbott 2006 Sparks amp Deacon 2015)
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Morphological Awareness Studies
Emergent bilinguals demonstrate an increasing awareness of
morphological inflections in L2 across time together with an ability
to recognize and to manipulate them (Geva and Shafman 2010)
Knowledge of cognates facilitates the transfer of Spanish derivational
awareness to English vocabulary and reading comprehension
(Ramirez et al 2013)
The relationship between morphological awareness and reading
comprehension was found to strengthen between 4th amp 5th grade and
in 5th grade MA was found to be a significant predictor of reading
comprehension (Kieffer amp Lesaux 2008)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention (Apel amp Diehm 2013)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Morphological Intervention with Older Children
Find the root word in a longer word
Fix the affix
Affixes at the beginning of words are called ldquoprefixesrdquo
Affixes at the end of words are called ldquosuffixesrdquo
Word sorts to recognize word families based on morphology or
orthography
Explicit instruction of syllable types to recognize orthographical
patterns
Word manipulation through blending and segmenting morphemes to
further solidify patterns
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Mental Graphemic Representations (MGRs)
MGR is a stored mental image of a written word or a prefix or suffix
(Apel amp Masterson 2001)
Used when one needs to know that a part of a word must be
spelled a certain way
When students are presented with known written words they
quickly recognize them by matching them to their stored MGRs and
then access their meanings (effective reading strategy) (Mayall et al
2001)
If students MGRrsquos are well developed they quickly recognize and
recall visual representations of words
Frees up memory and attention for comprehending text (Apel
2009)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
MGR-Based Intervention
ldquoVisualizingrdquo Activities which need to be used for words for which
other knowledge (eg PA OK etc) cannot be used
Therapist models visualizing using a picture and then an image
familiar to student (eg pencil)
Using the target word they both look at written word and talk about
its characteristics
Student spells word forward and backward (eg cat rarr tac)
Student stores a ldquophotordquo of a word
Student visualizes word spells it forward then backward (Apel
2011 Based on SPELL-Links to Reading and Writingtrade)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Knowledge and Instructional Practices
ELLs who experience slow vocabulary development are less able to comprehend text at grade level than English-only peers (August et al 2005)
Instructional Strategies
Take advantage of studentsrsquo first language
Ensure they know meanings of basic words
Review and reinforce
Lovelace amp Stewart (2009) found that vocabulary instruction was most effective when children used the words meaningfully in multiple contexts (context embedded)
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred via games and activities in which the words were repeated often
ldquoDeep levelrdquo of word-learning occurred when new words were connected to childrens prior experiences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Developing a Vocabulary Enriched Classroom
Environment with Teacher Collaboration
1 High-quality classroom language
2 Reading aloud
3 Explicit vocabulary instruction
4 Instructional routine for vocabulary
5 Word-learning strategies
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Vocabulary Selection Tips
According to Judy Montgomery ldquoYou can never select the wrong words to teachrdquo Make it thematic
Embed it in current events (eg holidays elections seasonal activities)
Classroom topic related (eg French Revolution the Water Cycle Penguin Survival in the Polar Regions etc)
Do not select more than 4-5 words to teach per unit to not overload the working memory (Robb 2003)
Select difficultunknown words that are critical to the passage meaning which the students are likely to use in the future (Archer 2015)
Select words used across many domains
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Examples of Spring Related Vocabulary
Adjectives Verbs
Flourishing Awaken
Lush Teem
Verdant Romp
Refreshing Rejuvenate
Nouns Idiomatic Expressions
Allergies April Showers Bring May Flowers
Regeneration Green Thumb
Outdoors Spring Chicken
Seedling Spring Into Action
Sapling Swing into spring
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Effective Methods of Vocabulary Instruction
For students to learn vocabulary directly it is important to explicitly teach
them individual words amp word-learning strategies (NRP 2000)
For children with low initial vocabularies approaches that teach word
meanings as part of a semantic field are found to be especially effective
(Marmolejo 1991)
Rich experienceshigh classroom language related to the student
experienceinterests
Explicit vs incidental instruction with frequent exposure to words
Instructional routine for vocabulary
Establishing word relationships
Word-learning strategies to impart depth of meaning
Morphological awareness instruction
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Creating Effective Intervention Materials
Thematic packet which contains a variety of opportunities for students to practice word usage
Text Page
A story which introduces the topic and contains context embedded vocabulary words
Vocabulary
List of story embedded vocabulary words with definitions and parts of speech
Multiple-choice questions or open ended questions
Crossword puzzle with a word bank
Fill-in the blank
SynonymAntonym Matching
Explain the Multiple Meanings Words
Create Complex Sentences (with Story Vocabulary)
httpswwwsmartspeechtherapycomshopthe-water-cycle-a-thematic-language-activity-packet-for-older-students ( The Water Cycle Packet))
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
Read vocabulary words in context embedded in relevant short texts
Teach individual vocabulary words directly to comprehend
classroom-specific texts
Definitions
Provide multiple exposures of vocabulary words in multiple contexts
synonyms antonyms multiple meaning words etc
Maximize multisensory intervention when learning vocabulary to
maximize gains
Visual auditory tactile etc
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Explicit Vocabulary Instruction
Steps to new vocabulary introduction
1 Say the word and ensure the students can pronounce it
2 Provide a dictionary definition and a student-friendly
explanation
3 Give examples of the definition in a sentence
4 Have the students practice using the word with each other in
sentences
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Components of Effective Vocabulary Interventions
(cont)
Use multiple instructional methods for a range of vocabulary
learning tasks and outcomes
Read it spell it write it in a sentence practice with a friend
etc
Usage of morphological awareness instruction
An ability to recognize understand and use word parts
(prefixes suffixes that ldquocarry significancerdquo when speaking and
in reading tasks
Teacher Training
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Instructional Routine for Vocabulary
Teach students how to figure out unfamiliar words based on context
Context clues
A process that adults use automatically but requires explicit
instruction at the elementary level
As early as possible teach the students how to use parts of a word
(and sentence) to determine its meaning
Greek and Latin roots of English for kids how to locate the
meaning of the word in early texts
Fancy Nancy series
By 4th grade students need to learn how to use parts of a word (and
sentence) to determine its meaning
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Basic Reading Fluency
The following skills are needed to read at sentence level
Tracking from left to right in the correct sequence and across multiple
lines of text
Efficient decodingword recognition of all words in the sentence
Maintaining the sequence of words in memory (if slowed reading speed)
Efficient word processing to interpret sentence meaning
Phonological awareness
Phonics knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Mental Graphemic Representations
To decode hard to read non-transparent words
o Laugh knob corps colonel
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Decoding for Reading Fluency
The components of fluency are automaticity prosody accuracy and speed expression intonation and phrasing
Automaticity refers to accurate quick word recognition
In order to decode a word the students must have the following skills
Recognize all the presented letters in a word
Have the knowledge of sounds associated with each letter
Store these sounds in the exact presented sequence in memory
Then blend these sounds together to form a word
Finally retrieve the meaning of that word
Instructional materials
Written cards without pictures are best
Nonsense words are recommended to avoid guessing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Fluency Rates Hasbrouckamp Tindal (2006)
Hasbrouck J amp Tindal G A (2006) Oral reading fluency norms A valuable assessment
tool for reading teachers The Reading Teacher 59(7) 636-644)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Strategies for Improving Fluency
Repeated Reading
Select a 100-200 word passage for reading practice (make sure its too long for students to memorize)
Use a 1 minute timer and do an initial reading aloud
After reading student underlines any unknown words
Therapist marks off the last line read
Count the total number of words read as well as the number of correctlyfluently read words
Multiple re-readings are recommended to reach target rate
Carnine Silbert Kamersquoenui and Tarver 2004 suggest a rate ~ 40 higher than the original If a student read 60 words per minute on the first try the new target rate would be
60 + 24 or 84 words per minute
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Reading Comprehension
As per Aacutelvarez-Cantildeizo Suaacuterez-Coalla amp Cuetos 2015 children with
poorer reading comprehension make
Inappropriate pauses (including inter-sentential pauses before comma)
Made more mistakes on content words (as compared to peers with good
reading fluency)
Struggle with using appropriate pitch at the end of sentences (eg pitch
declination in declarative sentences)
Prosody plays an important part not just on reading fluency but also
reading comprehension
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Informal Reading Comprehension Treatment
Comprehension Plus (Grades 1-6) Focus on monitoring and understanding complex text now for intervention purposes
Continental Press (HEREHERE)
Reading for Comprehension (Grades 1-8) Relatively simpler readability
More common vocabulary (Tier II some Tier III)
Content Reading (Grades 2-8)
Science
Social Science
Geography
Harder to decode and comprehend
More obscure and complex main ideas
Contain more complex vocabulary words (Primarily Tier III)
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Teaching Specific Reading Comprehension Skills
Main Idea
Context Clues
Inferring
Predicting Outcomes
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
Fact and Opinion
Sequencing Order of Events Steps in a Problem
Paraphrasing
Summarizing
Drawing Conclusions
Generalizing
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Use controlled texts no more than 1-2 pages in length even for older more capable students
Determine and circleunderline key words in texts
Review each paragraph
With very impaired students review each sentence
Topic (wordphrase)
Main idea (sentence)
Answer the questions and combined the information
Who
What
Where
Why
How
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Reading Comprehension
ABC Teach httpswwwabcteachcom
Newsela httpsnewselacom
E-Reading Worksheets httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-worksheetsreading-
comprehension-worksheets
TPT httpswwwteacherspayteacherscomBrowsePrice-
RangeFreeSearchreading+comprehension+
K-12 reader httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsreading-comprehension
Read Works httpwwwreadworksorg
Denotes websites which contain free therapy resources to address other various reading comprehension skills listed on slide 80 - teaching specific skills
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Free Resources for Teaching Main Ideas
K-12 reader
httpwwwk12readercomsubjectreading-skillsmain-idea-
worksheets
E-Reading Worksheets
httpwwwereadingworksheetscomfree-reading-
worksheetsreading-comprehension-worksheetsmain-idea-
worksheets
Read Works
httpwwwreadworksorgrwarticles-teach-main-idea
Townsend Press
httpwwwtownsendpresscomuploaded_filestinymcewriting20
and20motvnRWC_chapter4pdf
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Conclusion
All language and literacy interventions with developmentally intellectually and language impaired students need to follow a hierarchy of skills development from simplest to complex
When working on very difficult concepts with very impaired children consider the following strategies
Errorless Learning
Use of prompts -most-to-least - to elicit only correct responses
Prompted trials are followed by less prompted trials until the child demonstrates mastery of the skill
8020 rule
Incorporate known information when teaching new tasks
Use picturewritten list of predetermined strategies for when child is frustrated so they express to you when having trouble comprehending what you are teaching
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Page lsaquorsaquo
New Smart Speech Therapy Resources
Best Practices in Bilingual Literacy Assessments and
Interventions
Comprehensive Literacy Checklist For School-Aged
Children
Dynamic Assessment of Bilingual and Multicultural
Learners in Speech Language Pathology
Differential Assessment and Treatment of Processing
Disorders in Speech Language Pathology
Practical Strategies for Monolingual SLPs Assessing
and Treating Bilingual Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Helpful Resource Bundles
The Checklists Bundle
General Assessment and Treatment Start Up
Bundle
Multicultural Assessment Bundle
Narrative Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Social Pragmatic Assessment and Treatment Bundle
Psychiatric Disorders Bundle
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Assessment and
Treatment Bundle
WWWSMARTSPEECHTHERAPYCOM Copyright copy 2013 Smart Speech Therapy LLC
Page lsaquorsaquo
More Helpful Resources
Assessment Checklist for Preschool Aged Children
Assessment Checklist for School Aged Children
Speech Language Assessment Checklist for Adolescents
Differential Diagnosis of ADHD in Speech Language
Pathology
Creating Functional Therapy Plan
Selecting Clinical Materials for Pediatric Therapy
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for Preschool Children
Social Pragmatic Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
Language Processing Deficits Checklist for School Aged
Children
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Page lsaquorsaquo
Contact Information
Tatyana Elleseff MA CCC-SLP
Website wwwsmartspeechtherapycom
Blog wwwsmartspeechtherapycomblog
Shop httpwwwsmartspeechtherapycomshop
Facebook wwwfacebookcomSmartSpeechTherapyLlc
Twitter httpstwittercomSmartSPTherapy
Pinterest httppinterestcomelleseff
Email tatyanaelleseffsmartspeechtherapycom
