RESERCH & DEVELOPMENT CENTER FOR BIC. & SEW. MAC.

Project by students of Automobile

Roll no.’s

A.5714A.5715A.5676A.5688A.5701A.5711A5803

About innovation discovery

Its 500 cc 4 stroke air-cooled engine produces maximum output of 6.5 bhp @ 3600 rpm and 1.48 kgm @ 2500 rpm.

It is available with various important features like 4 speed gear box, fuel tank capacity of 14.25 ltr (reserve 1.25 ltr) etc.

Its 1370 mm wheelbase provides better grip on road assuring safest riding in any road condition.

Fatigue of long journey can easily be avoided with the relaxing seat and spacious foot rest.

About chaise

Showed creativity

Parts

Universal jointDrive shaftPistonGudgeon pinConnecting rodCrankshaftBearings

Parts

Piston ringElectromagnetic coils FlywheelClutchMultiple plate friction clutchFuel pumpFuel injectionCylinder head

Parts

Automobile self starter CamshaftRocker armTransmission (mechanics)Crown Wheel and PinionAutomobile drum brakeAir filter

Parts

Battery Oil filter

Universal joint

A universal joint, U joint, Cardan joint, Hardy-Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint is a joint in a rigid rod that allows the rod to 'bend' in any direction, and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90° to each other, connected by a cross shaft

Drive shaft

A drive shaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft, or Cardan shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them.

Drive shafts are carriers of torque: they are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia.

Drive shaft

Advantages\Disadvantages

Advantages * Drive system is less likely to become jammed or broken, a common problem

with chain-driven bicycles * The use of a gear system creates a smoother and more consistent pedaling

motion * The rider cannot become dirtied from chain grease or injured by the chain

from "Chain bite", which occurs when clothing or even a body part catches between the chain and a sprocket

* Lower maintenance than a chain system when the drive shaft is enclosed in a tube, the common convention

* More consistent performance. Dynamic Bicycles claims that a drive shaft bicycle consistently delivers 94% efficiency, whereas a chain-driven bike can deliver anywhere from 75-97% efficiency based on condition.

* Greater clearance: with the absence of a derailleur or other low-hanging machinery, the bicycle has nearly twice the ground clearance

* For bicycle rental companies, a drive-shaft bicycle is less prone to be stolen, since the shaft is non-standard, and both noticeable and non-maintainable. This type of bicycle is in use in several major cities of Europe, where there have been large municipal funded, public (and automatic) bicycle rental projects.

Advantages\Disadvantages

Disadvantages * A drive shaft system weighs more than a chain system,

usually 1-2 pounds heavier * At optimum upkeep, a chain delivers greater efficiency * Many of the advantages claimed by drive shaft's proponents

can be achieved on a chain-driven bicycle, such as covering the chain and gears with a metal or plastic cover

* Use of lightweight derailleur gears with a high number of ratios is impossible, although hub gears can be used

* Wheel removal can be complicated in some designs (as it is for some chain-driven bicycles with hub gears).

Motorcycle drive shafts

Motorcycle drive shafts

Drive shafts have been used on motorcycles almost as long as there have been motorcycles. As an alternative to chain and belt drives, drive shafts offer relatively maintenance-free operation and long life. A disadvantage of shaft drive on a motorcycle is that gearing is needed to turn the power 90° from the shaft to the rear wheel, losing some power in the process. On the other hand, it is easier to protect the shaft linkages and drive gears from dust, sand and mud.

The best known motorcycle manufacturer to use shaft drive for a long time — since 1923 — is BMW. Among contemporary manufacturers, Moto Guzzi is also well-known for its shaft drive motorcycles. The British company, Triumph and all four Japanese brands, Honda, Suzuki, Kawasaki and Yamaha, have produced shaft drive motorcycles.

Motorcycle engines positioned such that the crankshaft is longitudinal and parallel to the frame are often used for shaft driven motorcycles. This requires only one 90° turn in power transmission, rather than two. Moto Guzzi, BMW, Triumph, and Honda use this engine layout.

Motorcycles with shaft drive are subject to shaft effect where the chassis climbs when power is applied. This is counteracted with systems such as BMW's Paralever, Moto Guzzi's CARC and Kawasaki's Tetralever

Drive shaft for Research and Development (R&D)

The automotive industry also uses drive shafts at testing plants. At an engine test stand a drive shaft is used to transfer a certain speed / torque from the combustion engine to a dynamometer. A "shaft guard" is used at a shaft connection to protect against contact with the drive shaft and for detection of a shaft failure. At a transmission test stand a drive shaft connects the prime mover with the transmission.

Principal of diesel engine

1. Suction stroke - Air and vaporised fuel are drawn in

2. Compression stroke - Fuel vapor and air are compressed and ignited

3. Power stroke - Fuel combusts and piston is pushed downwards

4. Exhaust stroke - Exhaust is driven out

A four stroke internal combustion engine,

DIESEL ENGINE MOTOR CYCLE

In India, motorcycles built by Royal Enfield could be bought with 325 cc single-cylinder diesel engines due to the fact that diesel was much cheaper than petrol (gasoline) at the time, and of more reliable quality. These engines were noisy and unrefined and not very popular because of lower performance and higher weight penalties and also the unique kick-starting techniques. The engine were originally designed for use in commercial applications such as electric generators and water pumps

Enfield Diesel

Its 325 cc 4 stroke air-cooled engine produces maximum output of 6.5 bhp @ 3600 rpm and 1.48 kgm @ 2500 rpm.

It is available with various important features like 4 speed gear box, fuel tank capacity of 14.25 ltr (reserve 1.25 ltr) etc.

Its 1370 mm wheelbase provides better grip on road assuring safest riding in any road condition.

Fatigue of long journey can easily be avoided with the relaxing seat and spacious foot rest.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF ENFIELD DIESEL

Engine Type 4 stroke, air-cooled Displacement 325cc Bore x stroke 78x68mm Max. bhp 6.5bhp@3600rpm Max. torque 1.48kgm@2500rpm Fuel Consumption 70kmpl under normal riding conditions at 40

kmph Vehicle Electricals 12V ac/dc Wheel base 1370mm Fuel tank capacity 14.25 lt (1.25 lt. reserve) Front tyre 3.25"x19" Rear tyre 3.25"x19" Transmission Four-speed gear box

How diesel engines work

The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using a higher compression of the air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug ("compression ignition" rather than "spark ignition").

In the diesel engine, only air is introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting into a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure compared to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the gasoline engine. This high compression heats the air to 550 °C (about 1000 °F). At about this moment (the exact moment is determined by the fuel injection timing of the fuel system), fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a 'pre-chamber' depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed as evenly as possible. The more modern the engine, the smaller, more numerous and better distributed are the droplets. The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporisation causes a delay period during ignition, and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston. The rapid expansion of combustion gases then drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.[7]

As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead center (TDC), premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratios are much higher.

Fuel delivery A vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical or electronic governor which regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the engine

by controlling the rate of fuel delivery. Unlike Otto-cycle engines, incoming air is not throttled and a diesel engine without a governor can not have a stable idling speed and can easily overspeed, resulting in its destruction. Mechanically governed fuel injection systems are driven by the engine's gear train. [8] These systems use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed. [8] Modern, electronically controlled diesel engines control fuel delivery by use of an electronic control module (ECM) or electronic control unit (ECU). The ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal, as well as other operating parameters such as intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature, from a sensor and controls the amount of fuel and start of injection timing through actuators to maximize power and efficiency and minimize emissions. Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimizing emissions, and maximizing fuel economy (efficiency), of the engine. The timing is measured in degrees of crank angle of the piston before top dead center. For example, if the ECM/ECU initiates fuel injection when the piston is 10 degrees before TDC, the start of injection, or timing, is said to be 10° BTDC. Optimal timing will depend on the engine design as well as its speed and load. Advancing the start of injection (injecting before the piston reaches TDC) results in higher in-cylinder pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, but also results in elevated engine noise and increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions due to higher combustion temperatures. Delaying start of injection causes incomplete combustion, reduced fuel efficiency and an increase in exhaust smoke, containing a considerable amount of particulate matter and unburned hydrocarbons .

How diesel engines work

Major advantages

Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustion engines.

* They burn less fuel than a gasoline engine performing the same work, due to the engine's high efficiency and diesel fuel's higher energy density than gasoline.[9]

* They have no high-tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resulting in high reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments.

* They can deliver much more of their rated power on a continuous basis than a gasoline engine.

* The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a gasoline engine [10] due to the increased strength of parts used, also because diesel fuel has better lubrication properties than gasoline.

* Diesel fuel is considered safer than gasoline in many applications. Although diesel fuel will burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and does not release a large amount of flammable vapour.

Major advantages

* For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (kg burned per kWh produced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to gasoline and turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial power outputs. [11][12][13][14]

* They generate less waste heat (btu) in cooling and exhaust.[9]

* With a diesel, boost pressure is essentially unlimited.

* The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal, therefore diesel engines are used in underground mines.

Emissions

Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel in excess air even at full load, at which point the quantity of fuel injected per cycle is still about 50% lean of stoichiometric. However, they can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust, which consists of unburned carbon compounds. This is caused by local low temperatures where the fuel is not fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder walls and at the outside of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbon deposit. Modern car engines use a diesel particulate filter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected into the engine.

The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the "black smoke limit". Beyond which point the fuel cannot be completely combusted, as the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric. It is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done in specialized applications (such as tractor pulling competitions) where these disadvantages are of little concern

Emissions

Likewise, when starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency is reduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke. The result is that fuel is not combusted fully, resulting in blue/white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine has warmed through. This is especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermally efficient. With electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection sequence can be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection can have mechanical and hydraulic governor control to alter the timing, and multi-phase electrically controlled glow plugs, that stay on for a period after start-up to ensure clean combustion—the plugs are automatically switched to a lower power to prevent them burning out.

Emissions

Particles of the size normally called PM10 (particles of 10 micrometres or smaller) have been implicated in health problems, especially in cities. Some modern diesel engines feature diesel particulate filters, which catch the black soot and when saturated are automatically regenerated by burning the particles. Other problems associated with the exhaust gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) can be mitigated with further investment and equipment; some diesel cars now have catalytic converters in the exhaust.

All diesel engine exhaust emissions can be significantly reduced by the use of biodiesel fuel. Oxides of nitrogen do increase from a vehicle using biodiesel, but they too can be reduced to levels below that of fossil fuel diesel, by changing fuel injection timing.

Power and torque

For commercial uses requiring towing, load carrying and other tractive tasks, diesel engines tend to have better torque characteristics. Diesel engines tend to have their torque peak quite low in their speed range (usually between 1600–2000 rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a larger engine used in a truck). This provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and, crucially, allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at low speeds than a gasoline engine, making them much more economical for these applications. This characteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so most modern diesels used in such vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers and shorter piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of torque over the engine's speed range, typically peaking at around 2500–3000 rpm.

Safety

The diesel engine is a very safe type of engine. Diesel engines are equipped with a mechanical or electronic governor to control minimum and maximum rpm[8], which makes Diesel engine runaway unlikely. The fuel is barely flammable so fire risk is low.

SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINES

SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINES

A single cylinder engine produces three main vibrations. In describing them we will assume that the cylinder is vertical.

Firstly, in an engine with no balancing counterweights, there would be an enormous vibration produced by the change in momentum of the piston, gudgeon pin, connecting rod and crankshaft once every revolution. Nearly all single-cylinder crankshafts incorporate balancing weights to reduce this.

While these weights can balance the crankshaft completely, they cannot completely balance the motion of the piston, for two reasons. The first reason is that the balancing weights have horizontal motion as well as vertical motion, so balancing the purely vertical motion of the piston by a crankshaft weight adds a horizontal vibration. The second reason is that, considering now the vertical motion only, the smaller piston end of the connecting rod (little end) is closer to the larger crankshaft end (big end) of the connecting rod in mid-stroke than it is at the top or bottom of the stroke, because of the connecting rod's angle. So during the 180° rotation from mid-stroke through top-dead-center and back to mid-stroke the minor contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the connecting rod's change of angle has the same direction as the major contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the up/down movement of the crank pin. By contrast, during the 180° rotation from mid-stroke through bottom-dead-center and back to mid-stroke the minor contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the connecting rod's change of angle has the opposite direction of the major contribution to the piston's up/down movement from the up/down movement of the crank pin. The piston therefore travels faster in the top half of the cylinder than it does in the bottom half, while the motion of the crankshaft weights is sinusoidal. The vertical motion of the piston is therefore not quite the same as that of the balancing weight, so they can't be made to cancel out completely.

Secondly, there is a vibration produced by the change in speed and therefore kinetic energy of the piston. The crankshaft will tend to slow down as the piston speeds up and absorbs energy, and to speed up again as the piston gives up energy in slowing down at the top and bottom of the stroke. This vibration has twice the frequency of the first vibration, and absorbing it is one function of the flywheel.

Thirdly, there is a vibration produced by the fact that the engine is only producing power during the power stroke. In a four-stroke engine this vibration will have half the frequency of the first vibration, as the cylinder fires once every two revolutions. In a two-stroke engine, it will have the same frequency as the first vibration. This vibration is also absorbed by the flywheel.

Piston

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, pumps and gas compressors. It is located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

Piston

Gudgeon pin

In internal combustion engines, the gudgeon pin (UK, wrist pin US) is that which connects the piston to the connecting rod and provides a bearing for

the connecting rod to pivot upon as the piston moves.[1] In very early engine designs (including those driven by steam and also many very large

stationary or marine engines), the gudgeon pin is located in a sliding crosshead that connects to the piston via a rod.

The gudgeon pin is typically a forged short hollow rod made of a steel alloy of high strength and hardness that may be physically separated from both the connecting rod and piston or crosshead.[1] The design of the gudgeon

pin, especially in the case of small, high-revving automotive engines is challenging. The gudgeon pin has to operate under some of the highest

temperatures experienced in the engine, with difficulties in lubrication due to its location, while remaining small and light so as to fit into the piston

diameter and not unduly add

Connecting rod

In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft. The connecting rod was invented sometime between 1174 and 1200 when a Muslim inventor, engineer and craftsman named al-Jazari built five machines to pump water for the kings of the Turkish Artuqid dynasty — one of which incorporated the connecting rod. Transferring rotary motion to reciprocating motion was made possible by connecting the crankshaft to the connecting rod, which was described in the "Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices". The double-acting reciprocating piston pump was the first machine to offer automatic motion,[1] but its mechanisms and others such as the cam, would also help intitiate the Industrial Revolution.

Connecting rod

Crankshaft

The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach.

It typically connects to a flywheel, to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsion vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.

The crank-connecting rod system was first fully developed in two of an Arab inventor Al-Jazari’s (1136-1206) water raising machines in 1206[1][2]. Similar crankshafts were later described by Conrad Keyser (d. 1405), Francesco di Giorgio (1439–1502), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), and by Taqi al-Din in 1551.[3] A Dutch "farmer" Cornelis Corneliszoon van Uitgeest also described a crankshaft in 1592. His wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmill's circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for the crankshaft in 1597.

Crankshaft

Bearings

The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearing (the main bearings) held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in a multicylinder engine, it must be supported by several such bearings, not just one at each end. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, in preference to straight-8 engines. The long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds. High performance engines often have more main bearings

Piston ring

A piston ring is an open-ended ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter of a piston in a reciprocating engine such as an internal combustion engine or steam engine.

The three main functions of piston rings in reciprocating engines are:

1. Sealing the combustion/expansion chamber. 2. Supporting heat transfer from the piston to the

cylinder wall. 3. Regulating engine oil consumption. The gap in the piston ring compresses to a few

thousandths of an inch when inside the cylinder bore.

Piston ring

Electromagnetic coils

An electromagnetic coil (or simply a "coil") is formed when a conductor (usually a solid copper wire) is wound around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. One loop of wire is usually referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an electronic circuit, electrical connection terminals called taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are often coated with varnish and/or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional insulation and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often called a winding. A transformer is an electromagnetic device that

Flywheel

Flywheel A flywheel is a mechanical device

with a significant moment of inertia used as a storage device for rotational energy. Flywheels resist changes in their rotational speed, which helps steady the rotation of the shaft when a fluctuating torque is exerted on it by its power source such as a piston-based (reciprocating) engine, or when the load placed on it is intermittent (such as a piston pump). Flywheels can be used to produce very high power pulses as needed for some experiments, where drawing the power from the public network would produce unacceptable spikes. A small motor can accelerate the flywheel between the pulses. Recently, flywheels have become the subject of extensive research as power storage devices for uses in vehicles; see flywheel energy storage.

Clutch

A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one shaft is typically driven by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. In a drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor, and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so that they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged), or be decoupled and spin at different speeds (disengaged).

Multiple plate friction clutch

This type of clutch has several driving members interleaved with several driven members. It is used in motorcycles and in some diesel locomotives with mechanical transmission. It is also used in some electronically-controlled all-wheel drive systems. This is the most common type of clutch on modern types of vehicles. When the brake is pushed the caliper containing piston pushes the pad towards the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as when the handbrake is pulled the cylinder pushes the brake shoes towards the drum which also slows the wheel down.

Fuel pump

A fuel pump is a frequently (but not always) essential component on a car or other internal combustion engined device. Many engines (older motorcycle engines in particular) do not require any fuel pump at all, requiring only gravity to feed fuel from the fuel tank through a line or hose to the engine. But in non-gravity feed designs, fuel has to be pumped from the fuel tank to the engine and delivered under low pressure to the carburetor or under high pressure to the fuel injection system. Often, carbureted engines use low pressure mechanical pumps that are mounted outside the fuel tank, whereas fuel injected engines often use electric fuel pumps that are mounted inside the fuel tank (and some fuel injected engines have two fuel pumps: one low pressure/high volume supply pump in the tank and one high pressure/low volume pump on or near the engine).

SINGLE CYLINDER PUMP

These are inline pumps used for small low speed Diesel Engine. The flange mounted fuel injection pump is cam-operated, spring return plunger pump of constant-stroke. The fuel delivery is controlled by the angular displacement of the plunger with regulating edge according to the instantaneous output charge of the diesel engines. The angular displacement of the plunger is derived from the regulating bar acting on the plunger control sleeve.

Fuel injection

Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has become the primary fuel delivery system used in gasoline automotive engines, having almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s. The first use of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman in 1925.[1][2]

A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will handle. Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the diesel and gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI's programmable firmware has permitted common hardware to be used with different fuels. Carburetors were the predominant method used to meter fuel on gasoline engines before the widespread use of fuel injection. A variety of injection systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream.

The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from a pump or a pressure container farther back in the fuel supply.

Fuel injection

Cylinder head

In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head sits above the cylinders and consists of a platform containing part of the combustion chamber and the location of the valves and spark plugs. In a flathead engine, the mechanical parts of the valve train are all contained within the block, and the head is essentially a flat plate of metal bolted to the top of the cylinder bank with a head gasket in between; this simplicity leads to ease of manufacture and repair, and accounts for the flathead engine's early success in production automobiles and continued success in small engines, such as lawnmowers. This design, however, requires the incoming air to flow through a convoluted path, which limits the ability of the engine to perform at higher rpm, leading to the adoption of the overhead valve head design.

In the overhead valve head, the top half of the cylinder head contains the camshaft in an overhead cam engine, or another mechanism (such as rocker arms and pushrods) to transfer rotational mechanics from the crankshaft to linear mechanics to operate the valves (pushrod engines perform this conversion at the camshaft lower in the engine and use a rod to push a rocker arm that acts on the valve). Internally the cylinder head has passages called ports for the fuel/air mixture to travel to the inlet valves from the intake manifold, for exhaust gases to travel from the exhaust valves to the exhaust manifold, and for antifreeze to cool the head and engine.

The number of cylinder heads in an engine is a function of the engine configuration. A straight engine has only one cylinder head. A V engine usually has two cylinder heads, one at each end of the V, although Volkswagen, for instance, produces a V6 called the VR6, where the angle between the cylinder banks is so narrow that it utilizes a single head. A boxer engine has two heads.

The cylinder head is key to the performance of the internal combustion engine, as the shape of the combustion chamber, inlet passages and ports (and to a lesser extent the exhaust) determines a major

Automobile self starter

Electric starter

The modern starter motor is either a permanent-magnet or a series- or series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a solenoid switch (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When current from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch, it pushes out the drive pinion on the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the ring gear on the flywheel of the engine. Before the advent of key-driven starters, most electric starters were actuated by foot-pressing a pedestal located on the floor, generally above the accelerator pedal.

The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to turn. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. The starter's pinion is clutched to its driveshaft through an overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to release the key as soon as the engine starts), the pinion will spin independently of its driveshaft. This prevents the engine driving the starter, for such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so fast as to fly apart. However, this sprag clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above; unless modifications are made.

This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the early 1960s; before that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places the starter drive pinion on a helically-cut driveshaft. When the starter motor begins turning, the inertia of the drive pinion assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix and thus engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, backdrive from the ring gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of the starter, at which point the drive pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of mesh with the ring gear.

Camshaft

The camshaft is an apparatus often used in piston engines to operate poppet valves. It consists of a cylindrical rod

Rocker arm

Generally referred to within the internal combustion engine of automotive, marine, motorcycle and reciprocating aviation engines, the rocker arm is a reciprocating lever that conveys radial movement from the cam lobe into linear movement at the poppet valve to open it. One end is raised and lowered by the rotating lobes of the camshaft (either directly or via a lifter (tappet) and pushrod) while the other end acts on the valve stem. When the camshaft lobe raises the outside of the arm, the inside presses down on the valve stem, opening the valve. When the outside of the arm is permitted to return due to the camshafts rotation, the inside rises, allowing the valve spring to close the giver.

The effective leverage of the arm (and thus the force it can exert on the valve stem) is determined by the rocker arm ratio, the ratio of the distance from the rocker arm's center of rotation to the tip divided by the distance from the center of rotation to the point acted on by the camshaft or pushrod.

For car engines the rocker arms are generally steel stampings, providing a reasonable balance of strength, weight and economical cost. Because the rocker arms are part of the reciprocating weight of the engine, excessive mass limits the engine's ability to reach high operating speeds.

Rocker arm

Transmission (mechanics)

Transmission

Using the principle of mechanical advantage, a transmission or gearbox provides a speed-torque conversion (commonly known as "gear reduction" or "speed reduction") from a higher speed motor to a slower but more forceful output or vice-versa.

Uses Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of different—often

stationary—applications, such as wind turbines. Transmissions are also used in agricultural, industrial,

construction, mining and automotive equipment. In addition to ordinary transmission equipped with gears, such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and electrical adjustable-speed drives.

Crown Wheel and Pinion

A crown wheel is a wheel with cogs or teeth set at right angles to its plane and the pinion is a small cogwheel that meshes with the crown wheel. The pinion thread is specially made on the thread grinder to ensure proper fitting. Tooth contact of a crown pinion is inspected on a Gleason machine at regular intervals of time for uniform hardness and adequate case depth. They are checked thoroughly for high spots because this ensures premature failure and noise-free operation. The crown wheel & pinion are paired and checked for centralized tooth bearing and desired proximity. An elliptoid contact pattern is ensured between the crown wheel and pinion. They are made of fine-grained steel billet.

Features Crown wheel and pinion usually have the following features: * Excellent heat distortion control * High strength * Wear resistance property and * Noiseless and vibration free operation. In a machine, when any torque is applied to the drive unit, the tendency is for the crown

wheel and pinion to be forced into or out of mesh by the sliding contact. The amount of pre-load on the bearings determines how much torque can be transmitted without allowing end float, which cause the meshing of the gears to become incorrect.

Application Crown wheel & pinion are used widely in automotive industries. They are one of the most

stress prone parts of a vehicle. They are used in automobiles to maintain forward motion. To maintain forward motion both output drive shaft sides covers are removed and the pinion and crown wheel are swapped completely with differential.

Crown Wheel and Pinion

Automobile drum brake

drum brake

The brake shoe carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued to the shoe. When the brake is applied, the shoe moves and presses the lining against the inside of the drum. The friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort and energy is dissipated as heat.

Modern cars have disc brakes all round, or discs at the front and drums at the rear. An advantage of discs is that they can dissipate heat more quickly than drums so there is less risk of overheating.

The reason for retaining drums at the rear is that a drum is more effective than a disc as a parking brake.

Air filter

An air filter is a device which removes solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mold, and bacteria from the air. Air filters are used in applications where air quality is important, notably in building ventilation systems and in engines, such as internal combustion engines, gas compressors, diving air compressors, gas turbines and others.

Some buildings, as well as aircraft and other man-made environments (e.g., satellites and space shuttles) use foam, pleated paper, or spun fiberglass filter elements. Another method uses fibers or elements with a static electric charge, which attract dust particles. The air intakes of internal combustion engines and compressors tend to use either paper, foam, or cotton filters. Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor. The technology of air intake filters of gas turbines has improved significantly in recent years, due to improvements in the aerodynamics and fluid-dynamics of the air-compressor part of the Gas Turbines.

Battery (electricity)

In electronics, a battery or voltaic cell is a combination of one or more electrochemical Galvanic cells which store chemical energy. These cells create a voltage difference between the terminals of the battery. When an external electrical circuit is connected to the battery, then the battery drives an electric current through the circuit and electrical work is done. Since the invention of the first Voltaic pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power source for many household and industrial applications, and is now a multi-billion dollar industry.

The name "battery" was coined by Benjamin Franklin for an arrangement of multiple Leyden jars (an early type of capacitor) after a battery of cannon.[1] Common usage includes a single electrical cell in the definition

Oil filter

An oil filter is a filter to remove contaminants from engine oil, transmission oil, lubricating oil, or hydraulic oil. Oil filters are used in many different types of hydraulic machinery. A chief use of the oil filter is in internal-combustion engines in on- and off-road motor vehicles, light aircraft, and various naval vessels. Other vehicle hydraulic systems, such as those in automatic transmissions and power steering, are often equipped with an oil filter. Gas turbine engines, such as those on jet aircraft, require the use of oil filters. And oil production, transport, and recycling facilities employ filters.

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