Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) for

Contextualising Early Child Care InterventionsA User’s Guide

Contents

Introduction 1

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)

i. What is RRA 3

ii. Characteristics of RRA 3

iii Sequence of RRA Activities 4

Applying RRA Prior To Initiating A Home-based

Caregiver Education Programme

i Planning 8

ii RRA Tools 9

Transect Walk 10

Community Resource Mapping 14

Daily Routine Clock 20

Seasonal Calendar 24

Focus Group Discussion 27

Appendices 37

List of Abbreviations

ECCD : Early Childhood Care and Development

RRA : Rapid Rural Appraisal

FGD : Focus Group Discussion

AWC : Anganwadi Centre

PHC : Primary Health Centre

ANM : Auxiliary Nurse Midwife

AWW : Anganwadi Worker

SHG : Self Help Group

1

Background

This booklet is of use to organisations

interested in implementing interventions for

improving home-based early child care in

poor rural and urban communities, through

a caregiver education programme.

An education programme for traditional

families will be effective only when your

project personnel and field workers

understand before initiating the programme,

the prevalent knowledge, attitudes, and

practices related to child care within a

particular community. Besides the universal

care messages your intervention must

convey, it is necessary to attempt to change

detrimental care behaviours while endorsing

sound ones. But to change detrimental

behaviours, mere awareness of a harmful

practice is not enough. It is important to

explore and evaluate the reasons, values and

beliefs that govern these practices. Only

then can a generic curriculum for caregiver

About This Booklet

INTRODUCTION

communication materials in the package

have been designed for direct use by field

workers with caregivers of these young

children. A video series entitled ‘Care for

Development’ is a component of the

package and this booklet is now added to it.

The Centre For Learning Resources (CLR)

has been promoting the holistic

development of disadvantaged children in

the birth to five years age-group through its

various educational projects. Through action

research, we have designed a

comprehensive curriculum for parent /

caregiver education, incorporating prime

messages related to holistic, home-based

child care for the under-three age-group.

The content of the curriculum spans

pre-conception to age three, integrating

messages related to women’s reproductive

health, pre-natal and child health, nutrition,

and psychosocial stimulation in infancy.

The CLR has developed an educational

package to implement this curriculum which

uses an active learning approach for an

illiterate and semiliterate audience. The

educational package is presently available in

Hindi, Marathi, Telugu and Oriya. The

2

Content Of The Booklet

This booklet helps you to understand the

following :

What is RRA.

A selection of RRA ‘tools’ (techniques)

that can be applied to home-based

child development interventions and

caregiver education programmes.

How to conduct RRA using these

selected tools.

Wherever relevant, the CLR’s own

experience is featured, to illustrate a

particular process.

A companion VCD on the RRA process

carried out by the CLR is also available.

education be supplemented by locale-

specific messages that may be necessary for

modifying age-old behaviours, and thus

having an impact on child development.

In the CLR’s own ECCD projects, we found

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) to be an

appropriate appraisal technique to obtain

the insights we needed for the above

purposes. RRA is a technique generally used

to collect local information and establish

rapport with community members before

initiating rural development projects. We

adapted it to suit the needs of a caregiver

education programme.

This booklet is an attempt to share our

experience in applying RRA in this context,

and to provide guidelines for organisations

who are interested in using this process

towards increasing the impact of their child

development interventions.

3

RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL (RRA)

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) is one of the

appraisal techniques that is used to create a

dialogue, and collect information in an

informal manner from a community where

some development work needs to be

initiated.

RRA can be defined as a systematic semi-

structured activity conducted by a multi-

disciplinary team with the aim of quickly and

effectively acquiring new information about

rural life and resources. It usually involves

collecting information by talking directly to

people.

RRA uses a set of guidelines that enables

users to collect information with the

involvement of local people in its

interpretation and presentation.

It also uses a set of tools - these consist of

exercises and techniques for collecting

information, ways of organising that

information so that it is easily understood by

a wide range of people, techniques for

stimulating interaction with community

members, and methods for quickly analysing

and reporting findings and suggesting

appropriate action.

What is RRA Characteristics of RRA

Participatory, and learning from

local people

People participate as equals in the situation

analysis and in the interpretation of the

analysis. It must involve the people who are

the intended “beneficiaries” of any eventual

development activity. RRA should give them

the opportunity to describe their conditions,

and present their point of view. The people

carrying out RRA must be prepared to listen

to local people and learn from them.

Structured but flexible

The approach to collecting information is

structured and requires careful planning,

clear objectives, the right balance of people

involved, and a good choice of tools and

techniques for use in the field.

At the same time, it should be flexible

enough to respond to local conditions and

unexpected circumstances. Compared to

the traditional methods of information

collection like questionnaires, this approach

is flexible with a focus on probing.

Integrated and interdisciplinary

The RRA team consists of people from

different disciplines and with different skills.

4

Sequence of RRA Activities

The RRA exercise progresses from obtaining

a general understanding of local conditions

(through transect walks and mapping

exercises) towards identification of key

issues and topics, which can be explored in

greater detail using appropriate techniques.

A regular review during the exercise with

team members provides the opportunity to

review this progress, and adjust activities

accordingly. The RRA findings are then

presented to the community members to

work out the future plan of action related to

the implementation of a development

project.

The composition of the team which carries

out RRA is extremely important in

determining the outcome. Obviously, the

composition of the team depends very much

on the objectives of the RRA and the

particular concerns which it is addressing.

Identifying the team

Iterative

The person carrying out the RRA keeps

probing deeper and deeper about a point of

interest till she/he is satisfied that the data is

reliable. Thus she/he repeats the same

points of investigation with different

categories of respondents at different

locations, and at more than one time.

A combination of different tools

The approach uses a combination of tools

which help outsiders to observe conditions

in a concise but systematic way. These tools

also allow local people to present their

knowledge, concerns and priorities to

outsiders.

The combination of different tools builds up

a more complete picture where different

viewpoints can be compared and

contrasted. It also reduces the time taken to

acquire knowledge about an area or a

situation, and then decide the development

interventions for that area.

There are a range of tools available.

Depending upon the specific purpose in a

given project, appropriate tools need to be

selected. Some of the RRA tools are-

Transect Walk, Community Mapping, Time

Line and Trend Analysis, Venn Diagram,

Causal Diagram, Daily Routine Clock,

Seasonal Calendars, Matrix Ranking, Wealth

Ranking, Preference Ranking and Scoring,

Focus Group Discussion, etc. Selected tools

relevant to home-based child development

interventions are given on page 9, and their

use delineated in detail thereafter.

5

Consider the following while selecting the team :

Language ability

People on the team should have a good

command of the local language.

Gender composition

Keep a balance between men and

women on the team so that discussions

can be held with both sections of the

community.

RRA experience

Consider whether the team members

have RRA experience. If yes, find out

their understanding of RRA and if they

need to be trained. If members are not

trained, it may be necessary to arrange

for some training from an expert.

Multi-disciplinary

The range of disciplines relevant for the

appraisal would be social work, health,

nutrition, child development, etc. If

people from these disciplines are

available, and also have rural or basti

experience, it will always enrich the

appraisal. Experienced field

functionaries could also be considered.

Identify a team of at least 4-6 people.

6

RRA in Action

7

Applying RRA Prior To Initiating A

Home-based Caregiver Education Programme

8

Planning

s The core project team should review

all the information available with the

organisation related to reproductive

health care and care of children in the

birth to 3 year age-group. This could

be data on number of households

with children in the birth to 3 year

age-group, child care programmes

operational for this age-group, health

infrastructure, spread of the villages,

practices related to care during

pregnancy and early childhood, etc.

s A review will facilitate basic

understanding about the selected

villages/bastis. It enables the core

project team to identify the points of

enquiry. These are areas where you

need to probe to get a better insight

into care practices, and other related

information that can affect care of

young children.

s Identify the RRA team. You could

include people from outside the

organisation in the team. Care must

be taken that all team members are

trained to use the different RRA tools

and techniques.

s Plan the details of the appraisal with

the RRA team members and prepare

a plan of action. This is like a time

table of activities to be carried out on

field, indicating the date, activity,

approximate time needed and the

names of team members who have

been allotted various tasks.

9

Transect Walk

A walk through the lanes and by lanes of a

community where some development

work has to begin, at different times of

the day.

The following RRA tools provide an insight into the care practices related to

nutrition, health and psychosocial stimulation :

Community Resource Mapping

Drawing a detailed picture of the

community that indicates different

facilities, spread of community,

households, etc.

Daily Routine Clock

Drawing up a 24 hour activity clock to

understand the daily routine in the

lives of different groups of people-

women, men, children, young and

old people.

Seasonal Calendar

Drawing up an activity schedule of the

caregivers during different seasons to

find variations in their daily routine

during these seasons.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

A discussion among a small group,

guided by a facilitator, where the

group members are encouraged to

talk freely and spontaneously on a

certain topic.

How to use these tools has been delineated in detail in this booklet.

RRA Tools

10

Transect Walk

A Transect Walk is a walk through the lanes and by

lanes of a community at different times of the day with a

view to gaining an insight into the community where

some development work has to begin. The walk can

either be purpose-specific, or just a means to get

introduced to the community.

Purpose

w To become familiarised with the

topography and the people of the

community

w To understand the resources and their

location

w To better understand some problems

e.g. access to health facilities, water,

school, etc.

w To understand the strengths of the

community in terms of resources

w To gather people for the Community

Resource Mapping exercise

You require

s A local person, well versed with the

community, to accompany you

s Paper and pencil to note down all the

observations

11

Process

s The RRA team could divide

themselves into pairs and take

different routes through the village /

basti. Make sure that the wadis / tolas

and the households at the edge of the

village are visited during the walk.

s It is always beneficial to take a walk

through the community at different

times of the day. Although the

infrastructure remains the same,

different facets of the community can

be observed. Each walk enriches your

observations from an earlier walk.

s You could begin the walk in different

ways - from one end of the

community to the other, from a fixed

point, say the balwadi to the farthest

house, etc.

s Request a local person who is familiar

with the community to show you

around. “I want to see your village, if

you have the time would you like to

show me your village?”. The person

should be given some idea of the

purpose of the walk so that he /she

does not miss out on important spots.

s As you walk, stop on the way to get

introduced to the people, especially

to households with pregnant women

and children in the birth to three year

age-group. Chat with them about

issues that concern your work in that

community, go into some homes to

observe things. Informally chat with

the villagers to get information on the

impending farm activities, their work

schedule, feedback on existing

development programmes, etc.

s Observe the spread of the village or

basti, facilities and infrastructure

available, sanitation, etc. You could

look at the places where women

gather together for programmes such

as Self Help groups, and spot the

likely places where the meetings for

the caregiver education programme

could be held.

s One pair of team members could visit

the government infrastructure in the

village which may impinge on your

caregiver education programme

e.g. Primary Health Centre (PHC)

sub-centre, Anganwadi Centre

(AWC), creche, etc. A separate

observation proforma and interview

schedules could be prepared before

visiting them.

s If the community mapping can be

conducted on the same day, you

could use the walk to inform

community members about the time

and place when the activity is to take

place.

12

An example of a map showing route taken by the CLR project team

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Follow-up

Each pair of team members should make a

note of all the information gathered during

the walk. Categorise them into heads such

as facilities available, influential people,

number of hamlets/wadis, if you are looking

for a place to start your activity, likely places

where it can be done, important comments

made by community members, etc. Also

note down the questions which may have

come to your mind, so that you could

discuss these during community mapping.

Information collected by all the pairs should

be put together as learnings of the transect

walk.

14

Community Resource Mapping

Community Resource Mapping is a detailed picture

of the community that indicates different facilities,

spread of community, and households etc. Community

map could be a resource map i.e. a map which indicates

topographical features, livestock, farm land, hamlets, etc.

or a social map i.e. a map which shows households with

different categories of the community according to age,

caste, economic background, etc. Discussion with the

members of the community during the course of

preparing the map provides information about the

community.

15

Purpose

s To get a clear idea of the topography,

spread of the community, social

groups, homes of the target

population, etc.

s To help initiate a discussion so as to

gather opinions on different issues,

e.g. services available for pregnant

women and under 3 children at the

AWC and PHC sub-centre

s To gather information about the

resources available in the community

s To collect information on social issues

e.g. a discussion to find out if there

are caste barriers and divides within

the village. This helps us to find out

how people of different castes can

come together for caregivers’

meetings

You require

s An open place where people can

gather to create a map

s Men and women from different

sections of the community

s Chalk/charcoal/sticks, rangoli, seeds,

etc.

s Chart paper, pencils and sketch pens,

if open space is not available.

Preparing a map on paper restricts

participation since all the people may

not be able to see clearly. It also

restricts the boundaries of the map.

s One or more facilitators depending

on the number of maps to be created

16

Process

s Inform people about the place and

time when they should gather to

prepare the map.

s Explain to the community members

the purpose of the mapping exercise,

and briefly explain the work your

organisation proposes to start in their

village/basti.

s After a brief discussion, and answering

their queries, start the exercise.

s A map of the community can be

drawn collectively on the ground with

a stick or chalk. If there are

wadis/tolas attached to the village,

maps for these should be drawn along

with the people living there, and not

with the people of the main village.

s Depending on the number of people

who have gathered, decide whether

one or two maps need to be created.

If there are enough people, divide the

group into men and women or older

women and younger women, etc.

Since each group’s perspective about

looking at their community is

different, the details brought into the

map and the discussion while creating

the maps may be different.

s Identify a person who could lead, and

request him/her to start. It is a good

idea to start making the map from the

spot where people have gathered.

s The group could first mark the main

village, wadis, fields and the lanes.

They could then go on to marking the

households-putting some

identification mark on the households

that have pregnant women and

children in the birth to three year

age-group. Places such as the school,

PHC sub-centre, temple, masjid,

areas with different social groups,

water source, etc. could be marked.

s The facilitator must keep the purpose

of the activity in mind, and initiate

discussion with the community

members while creating the map. It

helps to gain an insight into the

various aspects of community life.

Encourage people to participate in

the discussion and to give their

opinion. The facilitator should probe

into each marked item to get more

details. For example, in one of the

mapping exercises conducted by the

CLR team, when the PHC sub-centre

was marked, the facilitator probed to

learn more about the facilities

provided at the centre. This

information could help while

interacting with pregnant women and

caregivers of children in the birth to 3

year age-group during meetings and

home visits. Given on page 17 is an

example of a discussion between

community members and the CLR

team.

17

There is no water supply or electricity connection so it cannot be used.

So you have a sub-center in the village. That is very good!

What use is a building? There is no doctor.

Why is that?

We have never seen anyone sitting in it. It is locked.

Has the village tried to solve this problem?

There is a private doctor who comes in.

What about the government doctor?

The ANM and the doctor from Kolwan sub-centre visit once a week.

Where do they sit?

In the AWC. They come on Tuesday and on every 9th of the month to give immunizations.

How do you know that they are in the village?

If anyone is going towards the AWC, we ask them to find out if the doctor has come.

An example of a discussion between community members and the CLR team

18

s The team could note down this point,

about the arrival of the doctor, for

further probing with the village

authorities and the health staff. In

another mapping exercise, the

participants marked the liquor shop.

This initiated a discussion on the issue

of alcoholism in the village. The

women participants became extremely

Follow-up

The map created by the community on the

floor or paper is copied out by a team

member indicating various details, e.g.

names of wadis, time taken to walk to the

wadis from the main road, temple, clinic of

the private doctor, etc.

Team members should sit together and

make a note of all the learnings from the

exercise. Points which need to be probed

with specific people or with the community

during focus group discussions should also

be noted.

vocal about the problem of rampant

alcoholism and complained

vociferously about the woman who ran

the shop. Since this problem could

affect the time spent by male

caregivers with their children and also

the home environment, the facilitator

encouraged a discussion on this.

19

An example of a village map created by community members, copied by the CLR team

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The Daily Routine Clock helps in understanding a day

in the lives of different groups of people: women, men,

children, young and old people. It reveals variation in the

daily routine during different seasons and job distribution

among different members of the community.

20

Daily Routine Clock

Purpose

s To understand the daily routine of the

different caregivers

s To learn who the caregivers of

children are, at different times of the

day and night

s To get to know the time of the day

when multiple activities such as

cooking, managing children, washing,

etc. are done. Participation of children

in some of these tasks could be

suggested

s To understand distribution of tasks

between men and women so that

male caregivers’ involvement could be

planned

s To find out about the free time of

different sections of the community

so that caregiver-child interaction can

be suggested

s To understand the chores done by

caregivers inside and outside the

house

21

You require

s A group of community members

whose daily routine you want to

learn about

s A clock prepared on a chart

s Set of cards illustrating the different

chores likely to be done by the

community (list of cards in

appendix 1)-optional material

s Few blank cards

s Chalk

s Paper and pencil to make a note of

observations

Process

s The facilitator should explain the

purpose of the activity to the group.

Give the set of cards illustrating the

different chores done by the

community members to the group.

Let the group look at the cards and

identify the chores. The facilitator

should begin the discussion about

whether the tasks illustrated in the

cards are what the community

members do.

s Ask an individual group member to

recollect a particular day in the recent

past, and recount various activities

done on that day. Keep the relevant

card illustrating each activity on the

clock. If the activity mentioned is not

illustrated, quickly write / illustrate on

a blank card and put it on the clock.

Involve other group members to learn

more about the daily routine of the

community members.

22

Radha, can you recall how you began your day yesterday? What did you do as soon as you woke up?

These days I wake up very early, around5 a.m.

You just said these days. So normally you don’t wake up at this time?

Normally, I wake up little later, but these days we are transplanting the rice saplings. I leave home by 8 a.m. and am back only at 6 p.m.

Are there women in this group who do not go to the field?

Yes, Sarika and Pushpa don’t.

My baby is just 2 months old, so my husband will not send me to work this year.

Let’s talk about when transplanting work is complete. Kavita, can you tell us your routine then?

I will wake up by 6 a.m., light the chula, keep water for heating, collect the cow dung, and clean the cow shed. All this takes about an hour.

Kavita, you have a 2 year old son. Where is he when you are doing this work?

If he wakes up between this time he is with his father. His father sometimes feeds him.

So most of you leave for the field around 11 a.m. and come back by 2 p.m. With whom are your children during this time? What do they do with them?

An example of a discussion of the CLR team with a group of mothers

23

Follow-up

Analyse the daily clock activity keeping in

mind the purpose of the activity. This may

give you information about the time of day

when different caregivers are with these

young children, time of the day when the

mothers and grandmothers are relatively

free, and this can be used to conduct

caregivers’ meetings and home-visits. It may

give you an idea of the time spent by male

caregivers with these children, different

chores the caregivers do, and those in which

a young child can be encouraged to

participate, time spent by different

caregivers on leisure-television viewing,

chatting, etc. Analysis will also give you

information about the number of hours

most mothers work outside the house, and

whether there is a day when the caregivers

do not go out to work.

24

Seasonal Calendar

The Seasonal Calendar helps in finding out the variation

in the daily routine of the different groups of people -

women, men, children, young and old during different

seasons. This tool may not be useful if there is no seasonal

variation in the routine of the community members.

Purpose

s To understand seasonal variations in

their daily routine

s To get to know months in the year

when community members are busy

outside the home e.g. due to

agricultural work

s To learn about the important festivals

and events celebrated in the

community

s To know which are the months when

the caregiver education programme

activities can be intensified

You require

s A group of community members

whose seasonal calendar you want to

know

s Chart paper

s Paper and pencil to make a note of

observations

25

Process

s The purpose of the activity is explained

to the group. Prepare a grid on a chart

paper as shown on page 26, and write

the months of the year-either months

of the Indian calendar or those in the

Gregorian calendar depending on what

is familiar to the community members.

Ask the group to tell you the months in

the year when agricultural work is very

intense. Mark these months on the

calendar with a symbol e.g. four dots.

Mark the months when there is least

agricultural work with one dot. Ask the

group to put two or three dots against

the rest of the months depending on

the amount of work done in the field.

s Now find out which are the different

festivals and events celebrated in the

village. Write these against the

different months. Let the community

members talk about how they

celebrate these events and festivals.

Follow-up

Analyse the exercise with the team

members. Make a note of the months when

the programme activities can be intensified.

Also note the months when the women will

be busy preparing for festivals and other

events.

26

Example of a Seasonal Calendar drawn up with a group of older women

Number of dots indicate the extent of agricultural work in that month, where 1 dot indicates the least and5 dots indicate the maximum amount of agricultural work.

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a discussion held

among approximately 6 -12 persons guided by a

facilitator. The group members are encouraged to talk

freely and spontaneously about a certain topic.

27

Focus Group Discussion

Purpose

s To obtain in-depth information about

concepts, perceptions and ideas of a

group around a focus area

s To get spontaneous information from

the community on a focus area in a

short period of time

You require

s A local contact person to help arrange

the FGDs. This person could be your

programme functionary or a

functionary of any other development

programme e.g. Anganwadi Worker,

Self Help Group organiser, etc.

s A place which is a neutral setting and

where people of all sections of a

community could gather, and which is

sufficiently quiet

s Seating - chairs / dari (floor mat) for

the participants

28

FGDs on these topics are useful :

Ü Care practices related to the

pre-natal period

Ü Care practices related to post-natal

care of the mother and the new born

Ü Causes of low birth weight of babies

in the community

Ü Care practices related to feeding

children in the 6 months to 3 years

period

Ü Play and interaction of caregivers with

children in the birth to 3 years age-

group

Ü Traditional play/interaction/games

practiced by the caregivers with

children in the birth to 3 year age-

group

s A facilitator from among the

programme team who, as far as

possible, is of the same sex and

roughly of the same age as the

participants. Someone who has

adequate background knowledge of

the topic and is able to communicate

in the local language.

s A reporter from among the

programme team who will keep a

record of the content of the

discussion and of the emotions of the

participants (things they feel strongly

about, angry reactions, etc.). The

reporter should understand the local

language.

29

Process

s List the topics/areas related to the

caregiver education programme in

which you need to acquire in-depth

understanding of perceptions and

ideas of community members.

s Prepare one or two clear objectives

for each FGD, e.g. the objectives can

be :

- To find out attitudes of caregivers

related to play and interaction with

children in the birth to 3 years age-

group.

- To find out the traditional

play/interaction/games played by

caregivers with children in the

birth to 3 years age-group.

s Choose the category of community

members for each FGD e.g. older

women, younger women with

children in the birth to 3 years age-

group, field staff of the health

department-Auxiliary Nurse Midwife

(ANM), ASHA worker, Dais

(Traditional birth attendants), etc. You

may repeat an FGD with different

categories of community members

since each group may discuss the

questions from their perspective. For

example, the FGD mentioned above

could be conducted separately with a

group of mothers and grandmothers.

s Prepare discussion guides for each

FGD. These are a set of open-ended

questions which are simple, clear,

non-judgemental and non-

threatening. A discussion guide helps

you to keep the discussion focused on

the objective of the FGD. If an FGD is

being conducted with different

categories of community members on

the same topic, the discussion guide

may vary slightly. Look at Appendix 2

for some examples of discussion

guides for FGDs on different topics

listed on page 28.

s Select participants for each FGD.

Take the help of your local contact

person for the selection. Explain the

purpose of the FGD to this person

and stress on the fact that you need

participants who can express a range

of views on a topic. For a successful

FGD, make sure that the group is

homogenous so that there is free and

open discussion, without pressure

from mothers-in-law.

s There is no need to pre-decide the

number of FGDs that you will

conduct on each topic and with each

category. You may stop when you are

not getting any new information on a

topic. The number of FGDs on a topic

with each category may also depend

on the project needs and the

resources available.

s Inform the participants a day or two

in advance so that their consent to

join the discussion can be obtained.

30

s Probe into a response to gain a better

understanding of an opinion

expressed. The facilitator can seek

clarification by asking, “Can you tell

me more about this?”

On page 32 is an illustration from an

FGD conducted by the CLR team,

with fathers of children in the birth to

3 year age-group.

s The facilitator must control the

dominant participants, and encourage

the shy ones to express their views.

s The facilitator may bring the

discussion back on track if it goes off

track, by repeating the question.

s Hypothetical questions or vignettes

could be used to initiate a discussion

on certain topics. Look at Appendix 2

for an example.

s The facilitator must listen carefully,

and if an opinion is not expressed

loudly for all to listen, repeat it aloud.

s The facilitator should also control the

time allotted to various topics. If the

participants move away from the core

topic of the discussion, the facilitator

could let the discussion continue for a

while, but bring it back to the topic.

s At the end of the discussion, the

facilitator could summarise the main

issues that have emerged, and see if

all agree. The discussion could end by

thanking the participants.

s To begin an FGD, the facilitator

introduces himself / herself and asks

participants to introduce themselves.

s The facilitator explains the purpose of

the FGD and the kind of information

that is required. The FGD could be

started with an informal conversation

or a game, or any activity to put the

participants at ease. If possible, tea

and some refreshments could be

offered either in the beginning or at

the end of the discussion.

s The reporter should sit across from

the facilitator so as to have eye

contact whenever necessary. The

reporter should record the date, time

and place; names and characteristics

of participants; opinion of participants

expressed in their own words,

emotional reactions, comments

made after the meetings or softly on

the side.

s The reporter could also help the

facilitator by drawing his/her

attention to a missed comment from a

participant, missed topic or question

from the discussion guide.

s Begin the discussion with a question

from your discussion guide. Encourage

as many participants as possible to

express their views. There are no

right or wrong answers. The facilitator

must react neutrally to all responses,

and should not portray himself or

herself as an expert on the topic.

31

Follow-up

After each FGD the facilitator, reporter and

rest of the programme team if present at

the FGD should meet and review the

discussion. The notes taken during the

meeting should be read and completed in

case any point is missed. The team should

also evaluate the FGD and decide on any

changes that need to be made before

repeating the FGD with the next group.

Once all the FGDs on a topic have been

completed with all the categories of the

community, a full report of discussions

should be prepared.

It is not advisable to video document or tape

the conversation as the equipment may

inhibit the free flow of discussions.

s An FGD is generally for 1 to 1 and ½

hours. The first discussion on a topic

with a particular group is longer than

the following ones since all the

information is new.

32

When do you play with your child?

My baby is just two month old, so he is mostly with his mother.

Who takes care of the baby when your wife goes to fetch water?

My mother takes care. My sister is also there to help.

So you don’t have to take care of the baby.

We take care of such a young baby only if there’s no one else at home, then my mother asks me to help. The baby is still not holding his neck and we may not be able to lift the baby.

Would you like to lift such a small baby?

No, it’s ok. In any case, we can’t fulfill any of his needs at this age. Baby needs milk and is sleeping most of the time. Once the baby can walk, we take them out and sit near the temple. Children like to play there.

What about playing when the baby is lying in the crib or on the bed?

Yes, one can play. Call his name, smile. Baby is too small to understand anything or to play. If the baby cries, we should do something like snap our fingers or lift him up.

What about talking to these babies? What all do you play or talk with a 1 year old child?

What can we talk with a baby, he can’t understand anything.

Their grandmother talks sometimes. You have to do something when a baby cries, but they don’t understand anything.

An example of an FGD conducted with fathers of children in the birth to 3 year age-group

33

Analysing the discussions

Analyse the opinions and attitudes

expressed in order to extract the learnings

from the FGDs. This step is crucial in order

to make the generic caregiver education

package locale-specific.

There are different ways of analysing the

FGDs. The conclusions you draw from the

opinions expressed should be jotted down

in the margin of the report. To analyse the

causes of a problem revealed through an

FGD, you could prepare a flow diagram

using the learnings from the opinions

expressed. To do this, write each point /

of ace /

Lacksp

pracy

iv

Lack of confidence

Don’t perceive

interaction

with the child

as part of care

Mult ple deman si

d on t e pri a y h m r

c regi er’s ti ea v m

Free t me is spent doing

i

other activities of

int rest /e

utility e.g. ewings

opinion of the community on a separate

card. For example, the cards shown below

were written after the FGD on “Play and

interaction of caregivers with children in the

birth to 3 year age-group”.

The cards should be organised in a logical

sequence to understand the causes of a

problem. This can be depicted in the form

of a ‘flow-diagram’. The diagram will help

the programme team to think of ways of

handling each of the causes during the

relevant caregivers’ meetings or home-visits.

Some examples of flow diagrams prepared

by the CLR team are given in the

following pages.

34

Flow

dia

gra

m :

Analy

sis

of

FGD

on c

are

p

ract

ices

duri

ng p

regnancy

Fie

ld R

ea

lity

He

alth

of th

e p

reg

na

nt m

oth

er

an

d

child

are

co

mp

rom

ise

d.

First

th

ree

mo

nth

s o

f p

reg

na

ncy

are

n

ot m

on

itore

d

He

alth

ch

eck

ups

tho

ug

h p

urs

ue

d d

o

no

t yi

eld

op

tima

l re

sults

- p

resc

rib

ed

in

str

uct

ion

s n

ot fo

llow

ed

up

sin

cere

ly

Mo

the

rs a

re n

ot

rig

oro

us

ab

ou

t co

nsu

min

g ir

on

ta

b

Ina

de

qu

ate

re

st

No

ch

an

ge

in th

e q

ua

ntit

y a

nd

qu

alit

y o

f fo

od

du

rin

g

the

pre

na

tal p

erio

d.

AN

M / A

WW

is n

ot

info

rme

d a

bo

ut

the

pre

gn

an

cy

It is

a s

oci

al t

ab

oo

to

an

no

un

ce o

ne

’s

pre

gn

an

cy b

efo

re

the

first

trim

est

er

is o

ver

lIn

form

atio

n

dis

sem

ina

tion

by

An

ga

nw

ad

is, H

ea

lth

sta

ff a

nd

NG

Os,

on

th

e im

po

rta

nce

of

pre

na

tal h

ea

lth c

are

, h

as

no

t b

ee

n

inte

rna

lise

d b

y th

e

pe

op

le.

l L

ack

of pa

rtic

ipa

tion

o

f th

e fa

mily

Ove

rlo

ad

o

f w

ork

l T

he

re is

a la

ck o

f kn

ow

led

ge

of th

e

imp

ort

an

ce a

nd

e

xte

nt o

f w

eig

ht

ga

in d

urin

g

pre

gn

an

cy

l P

erc

ep

tion

th

at

mo

re fo

od

ca

n

ma

ke th

e b

ab

y b

ig

resu

ltin

g in

diff

icu

lt d

eliv

ery

.l

Tw

o-m

ea

l pa

tte

rn

ma

kes

it d

iffic

ult

to

ea

t e

xtra

l F

oo

ds

such

as

milk

, e

gg

are

no

t a

vaila

ble

in a

ll h

om

es.

Mo

the

r-in

-la

w d

id

no

t h

ave

su

ch a

p

ract

ice

du

rin

g h

er

time

, so

do

es

no

t b

elie

ve in

p

rom

otin

g it

.

Ina

de

qu

ate

m

an

po

we

r in

on

e's

ow

n

field

Ina

de

qu

ate

p

lan

nin

g,

by

the

fa

mily

, to

re

arr

an

ge

d

ivis

ion

of

lab

ou

r w

ithin

th

e

ho

use

ho

ld

to e

nsu

re

rest

fo

r th

e

pre

gn

an

t m

oth

er

Mo

the

rs-in

-la

w

ha

ve n

ot b

ee

n

invo

lve

d in

th

e

pro

cess

of

inst

itutio

na

lise

d

pre

-na

tal c

are

Me

dic

al

ad

vice

u

nd

erm

ine

s m

oth

er-

in-

law

's

au

tho

rity

as

a c

are

giv

er

It is

no

t a

pp

reci

ate

d if

th

e d

au

gh

ter-

in-

law

sl

ee

ps

/ re

sts

du

rin

g

the

da

y

Ho

me

gro

wn

m

ilk &

ve

ge

tab

les

are

no

t ke

pt

for

ho

me

co

nsu

mp

tion

Lim

ited

a

vaila

bili

ty

an

d

fina

nci

al

con

stra

int

Th

e d

au

gh

ter-

in-la

w d

oe

s n

ot e

at th

ese

e

xpe

nsi

ve

foo

ds

Ac

tio

ns

Pla

nn

ed

- To

d

isse

min

ate

kn

ow

led

ge

an

d c

ou

nse

l ca

reg

ive

rs fo

r b

eh

avi

ou

r ch

an

ge

- Ta

ke th

e d

eci

sio

n m

ake

rs in

to c

on

fide

nce

an

d m

ake

th

em

an

inte

gra

l pa

rt o

f th

e s

ess

ion

s

- E

nco

ura

ge

de

velo

pm

en

t o

f ki

tch

en

ga

rde

ns

- D

esi

gn

str

ate

gie

s to

co

nvi

nce

fa

mili

es

tha

t e

xtra

fo

od

an

d ir

on

ta

ble

ts h

ave

a p

osi

tive

effe

ct

on

ch

ild's

birth

we

igh

t

35

Fie

ld R

ea

lity

Exc

lusi

ve b

rea

st fe

ed

ing

no

t p

ract

ise

d fo

r 6

mo

nth

s

Tra

diti

on

ally

acc

ep

ted

to

p fe

ed

s (h

erb

s, h

on

ey,

etc

.) a

re g

ive

nIn

suffic

ien

t b

rea

st m

ilk o

utp

ut

Mo

the

r is

no

t a

vaila

ble

a

t h

om

e to

fe

ed

th

e c

hild

Fa

mili

es

pe

rce

ive

th

at b

rea

st

milk

is n

ot su

ffic

ien

t to

sa

tisfy

ch

ild's

ap

pe

tite

Ce

rta

in tra

diti

on

al

fee

ds

are

co

nsi

de

red

n

ece

ssa

ry fo

r th

e

child

La

ck o

f a

wa

ren

ess

re

ga

rdin

g th

e

ad

van

tag

es

of

exc

lusi

ve b

rea

st

fee

din

g

Th

e b

elie

f th

at a

ch

ild

ne

ed

s a

dd

itio

na

l su

pp

lem

en

ts

esp

eci

ally

at 4

-6

mo

nth

s

Ina

de

qu

ate

fo

od

(Q

ua

lity

& q

ua

ntit

y)

inta

ke b

y m

oth

er

Ina

de

qu

ate

re

st

Mo

the

r h

as

to

lea

ve h

om

e fo

r o

utd

oo

r la

bo

ur

Lim

ited

a

wa

ren

ess

o

f fo

od

s th

at ca

n b

e

incr

ea

sed

Fin

an

cia

l co

nst

rain

t in

bu

yin

g

milk

etc

.

Lim

ited

a

vaila

bili

ty

(lo

cally

) o

f ve

ge

tab

les

Ho

me

gro

wn

m

ilk a

nd

ve

g.

are

no

t ke

pt

for

ho

me

co

nsu

mp

tion

Co

nfo

rmin

g

to e

xpe

cte

d

be

ha

vio

ur

Ina

de

qu

ate

m

an

po

we

r in

on

e's

o

wn

fie

ld. N

ee

d to

w

ork

fo

r w

ag

es

Ac

tio

ns

Pla

nn

ed

- To

dis

sem

ina

te k

no

wle

dg

e a

nd

co

un

sel c

are

giv

ers

fo

r b

eh

avi

ou

r ch

an

ge

- Ta

ke th

e d

eci

sio

n m

ake

rs in

to c

on

fide

nce

an

d m

ake

th

em

an

inte

gra

l pa

rt o

f th

e s

ess

ion

s

- To

en

cou

rag

e d

eve

lop

me

nt o

f ki

tch

en

ga

rde

ns

Flow

dia

gra

m :

Analy

sis

of

FGD

on loca

l ch

ild f

eedin

g p

ract

ices

36

Flow

dia

gra

m :

Analy

sis

of

FGD

on e

xtent

and t

ype o

f ca

regiv

er-

child

inte

ract

ion

Fie

ld R

ea

lity

Ca

reg

ivin

g in

tera

ctio

n w

ith b

irth

to

3-y

ea

r ch

ildre

n p

rovi

de

s lim

ited

stim

ula

tion

He

sita

tion

in s

ing

ing

, h

ug

gin

g, e

tc. in

th

e

pre

sen

ce o

f o

the

rs

Do

no

t p

erc

eiv

e

inte

ract

ion

with

th

e c

hild

as

pa

rt

of ca

re

Do

no

t se

e li

nka

ge

b

etw

ee

n e

arly

stim

ula

tion

an

d

lea

rnin

g

Do

no

t sp

en

d q

ua

lity

time

-

en

ga

gin

g c

rea

tive

ly (

exc

lusi

ve

as

we

ll a

s sh

are

d)

with

th

eir

child

ren

La

ck o

f co

nfid

en

ce

La

ck o

f sp

ace

/

priva

cy

Do

es

no

t co

nfo

rm to

tr

ad

itio

na

l an

d

soci

al n

orm

s o

f ca

reg

ivin

g

Tra

diti

on

al c

are

pra

ctic

es

do

no

t g

ive

an

y pa

rtic

ula

r si

gn

ifica

nce

to

ca

reg

ivin

g

inte

ract

ion

s

Ch

ild is

be

lieve

d

to s

tart

lea

rnin

g

on

ly in

fo

rma

l in

stitu

tion

s e

.g. b

alw

ad

i, sc

ho

ol

Fre

e tim

e is

sp

en

t d

oin

g

oth

er

act

iviti

es

of in

tere

st / u

tility

-

sew

ing

, cl

ea

nin

g, e

tc.

Fre

e tim

e

spe

nt o

nly

in

idle

ch

at

an

d g

oss

ip

(co

nfo

rmin

g to

so

cia

lisin

g

no

rms)

Me

nta

l as

we

ll a

s p

hys

ica

l fa

tigu

e d

ue

to

m

un

da

ne

e

very

da

y ta

sks

an

d p

ress

ure

s (c

rea

tivity

affe

cte

d)

La

ck o

f in

tera

ctiv

esk

ills

with

ch

ildre

n

Ac

tio

ns

Pla

nn

ed

- To

en

ha

nce

kn

ow

led

ge

of th

e p

rim

ary

an

d s

eco

nd

ary

care

giv

er

- To

en

ha

nce

ski

lls o

f th

e p

rim

ary

an

d s

eco

nd

ary

ca

reg

ive

r fo

r

st

imu

latin

g in

tera

ctio

n-

To in

itia

te g

rou

p a

ctiv

itie

s fo

r p

rovi

din

g c

hild

stim

ula

tion

Mu

ltip

le d

em

an

ds

on

th

e p

rim

ary

ca

reg

ive

r's

time

Ph

ysic

al h

ea

lth

of th

e m

oth

er

no

t u

p to

th

e

ma

rk

37

Appendices

38

Appendix I

List of cards to be prepared for the Daily Routine Clock Activity

Women

- Cooking

- Cleaning the cow shed

- Chatting with neighbours

- Washing clothes

- Washing utensils

- Bathing, brushing, etc

- Bathing children

- Fetching water

- Working in the fields

- Watching TV

- Cleaning food grain

- Fetching fire wood

- Taking animals for grazing

- Eating

- Sleeping

- Playing with children

- Sewing

- Milking

- Taking children to the

doctor

- Attending SHG meetings

Men

- Working in the field

- Chopping firewood

- Taking animals for grazing

- Chatting with friends

- Playing cards

- Drinking

- Eating

- Sleeping

- Repairs/other jobs in the house

- Working in a factory

- Milking

- Fetching water

- Fetching fire wood

- Sleeping

- Washing clothes

- Watching TV

- Taking children to the doctor

- Attending village meetings

More cards could be added depending on the community you are working with.

39

Appendix II

Discussion Guides for Focus Group Discussions (FGD)

s What are all the things you do to take

care of a pregnant woman in the early

part of pregnancy and later?

s When should a pregnant woman

make her first visit to the hospital?

What are all the things done during

this visit, and in the later visits? Why

are each of these services provided?

s Should a pregnant woman make any

changes in her diet?

- Increase or decrease in food

quantity. Why?

- Abstinence from certain food items.

(e.g. Hot and cold foods). Why?

- Abstinence from tobacco, drinks,

other harmful substances etc. Why?

s Is the pregnant woman given certain

types of food, if the gender of the

unborn child has been predicted?

s When will you say that a pregnant

woman is healthy? Why?

s How will you know that the growth

of the foetus is good?

Topic : FGD to understand “Care practices related to the prenatal period”

s Is weight gain during pregnancy

considered good? How much weight

should a pregnant woman gain in 9

months?

s How do you handle morning sickness?

s If the pregnant woman has any

problem or questions to ask, whom

does she go to- in the family, in the

community?

s Who is the decision maker when it

comes to accessing health services?

s Should a pregnant woman make any

change in her daily routine?

s Is there a rearrangement of

household work during pregnancy?

s What are the things a pregnant

woman should not do during

pregnancy?

s Where did you deliver (ask few

women) your baby? Why?

s When and why (monetary reasons,

status, convenience, safety) did you

decide where to get the delivery done

i.e. in the hospital or at home?

40

s What are the preparations made for

the delivery? Any special preparations

for the home delivery?

s How is the pregnant woman reached

to the hospital for delivery, especially

during the night or rainy season?

Topic : FGD to understand “Care practices related to

post-natal care of the mother and the new born”

Separate FGDs can be held with mothers and grandmothers of children in

the birth to three year age-group. Dais and women of status who are looked

up to for advice on issues related to pregnancy could be included in the FGD

with grandmothers.

Post natal care of the mother

s Where are most deliveries

conducted-home, private hospitals,

government hospitals?

s Is there a sacrosanct seclusion period

for the mother and the baby? (Present

day as well as traditional).

s What routine is followed during this

period- monitoring of the mother’s

diet, avoidance with outsiders,

avoidance with men, child being

restricted to a room, etc.

s What is the mother given to eat

immediately after delivery? Which

foods are prescribed and which are

avoided?

s If your daughter-in-law is pregnant,

what role will you play in taking care

of her? (for the mother-in-law)

s What are the parameters used to

judge whether a new born is healthy

or not?

s Is the quantity of food increased or

decreased immediately after delivery

and later? What is the frequency of

food intake?

s Who monitors the mother’s diet after

delivery? For how long is the special

diet given?

s When should a lactating mother get

back to work (within the house and

outside the house)? What is the actual

practice- difference based on the

order of pregnancy, gender of the

child, division of labour, etc.?

s Any other practices during this

period?

41

Initiating breast feeding

s When do mothers start breast

feeding? (Ask few women)

s Who decides when to initiate breast

feeding?

s (If breast feeding is initiated in the first

hour) What is the significance of this

practice for the mother as well as the

child?

s If breast feeding is not initiated in the

first hour/day, is the first milk

discarded? Is there a cultural clash

which hinders the practice or

advocates against it?

s Are any foods given to increase breast

milk output?

s What are some ways followed to

increase breast milk output? (Rest,

herbs, water, etc.)

s What according to you are the

reasons for low breast milk output?

s Any other taboos and practices

related to breast feeding?

s How should the mother breast feed?

- Cover the child’s face, why?

- How often, why?

- Activity during this time: Singing,

working, playing with the baby,

chatting or no activity.

s For how long does a mother continue

to breast feed? Especially at night.

s Foods and liquids given to babies

within the first month - honey,

almonds, ghutti (mixture of herbs),

water. Reasons for giving these.

s Do they believe that all mothers can

lactate? If no, how is the situation

handled where they think the mother

is not producing milk or enough milk ?

s What are the methods used for

spacing children? Problems they face

related to this issue.

42

s At what age is food other than breast

milk started?

s What is the food given to the child

during the following ages:

- Birth- 6 months

- 6 months-1 year

- 1-3 years

s Traditional food preparations for

children in the 6-12 month period.

s Ask a mother of a 6-9 month old baby

to recall all the food/s she gave her

baby yesterday and the approximate

quantity of food.

s How much should a child eat at

different ages?

s Who generally feeds the baby-

variation during agricultural cycle,

time of the day?

Topic : FGD to understand “Care practices related to

feeding children in the 6 month to 3 year period”

Separate FGDs can be held with mothers and grandmothers of children in

the birth to three year age-group. Dais and women of status who are looked

up to for advice on issues related to pregnancy could be included in the FGD

for grandmothers.

s If the mother is outside the home for

4-6 hours, is the food kept ready for

the grandmother to feed the baby?

Ask them to recall the food that is

kept ready.

s How many times in a day is food

served to the baby? How do they

decide that it is time to feed the baby?

s How do they know the food they are

giving (food and breast milk) is

enough for the baby?

s Methods used for modifying the food

preparations to suit the different age-

group?

s How is the food served to the baby -

on a separate plate or from the plate

of an older person?

s What are the other activities carried

out while feeding the baby-e.g.

chatting or showing things while

feeding?

43

s Let caregivers suggest things which

are missing in the care of Babita. Let

them say why the care they suggest is

essential for the baby. Do they think

care of children differs with age,

gender, etc.?

s Let caregivers talk about things they

consider as care, and do with their

children? If none of the caregivers

mentions play or interaction as one of

the care aspects, open a discussion on

it by asking if Radha and her mother-

in-law should play and interact with

Babita? Why?

s What are the different ways in which

caregivers play with their children?

(Singing, rocking the child, telling

stories, traditional games, etc.)

s When do they do these activities?

How do these activities help children?

s What play materials do they provide

their children with? Are they

purchased, or are they things around

the house,etc.?

Topic : FGD to understand “Play and interaction of caregivers

with children in the birth to 3 year age-group”

You could begin the discussion with this vignette:

Radha has a 9 month old baby called Babita. Radha with help from her mother-in-law, takes

care of Babita. They bathe her, feed her and keep her clean. They even get her weighed and

immunized on time.

- Would you say Radha and her mother-in-law are taking good care of Babita?

- Do you think there is anything missing in her care?

- Do you do anything more in taking care of your little children?

Separate FGDs can be held with

mothers, fathers, grandfathers and

grandmothers of children in the birth

to three year age-group.

s What are all the things children in the

birth to three year age-group learn to

do? At what age do children start

learning?

s How do you recognise that the child

is learning?

s Do you do anything for this learning?

Please elaborate.

s Do you think it is necessary to talk to

the baby especially in the birth to one

year age-group? Why?

s How do they think a baby less than

one year communicates with an adult?

s What do you think contributes to the

child doing well in school? What can

you do about it within the family?

References

1. Dhamankar, Mona - Compilation of PRA notes

2. National Institute of Urban Affairs - Resource Book

3. FAO Corporate Document Repository Title : Marketing research and information

systems (Chapter 8 : Rapid Rural Appraisal)

http: // www.fao.org/docrep/W3241E/W3241eo9.htm

4. Participatory Rural Appraisal Collaborative Decision making : Community-based method

http : // nird.ap.nic.in/clic/Rrd125.html#8

5. Participatory Rural Appraisal

http : // en.wikipedia.org/wiki/participatory_rural_appraisal

6. Jaswal, Surender - Focus Group Discussion, TISS, Mumbai

44

Centre For Learning Resources

8 Deccan College Road, Yerawada, Pune 411 006

E-mail : clr@vsnl.com

Website : www.clrindia.net

The Centre For Learning Resources (CLR), is a non-governmental educational

institution. The CLR acts as a technical support organisation to NGOs working at the

grassroots level, and to government agencies and private schools. Its main goal is to

improve the quality of education and development of socially and economically

disadvantaged rural and urban children. The CLR's activities include training, research,

materials development, advocacy and consultancy for educational programmes.

It has recently been working intensively with trainers and field workers involved in

interventions to improve child care within disadvantaged families.