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NEW

FOR 2016 Edexcel AS and A level

Geography Developing skilled and successful geographers

Book 2

Edexcel A leveleographyGLindsay Frost | Lauren Lewis | Daniel Mace | Paul Wraight

Series editor: Lindsay Frost

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Look out for FREE support Edexcel AS and A level Geography qualifications.

Introducing our brand-new resources

Lindsay Frost | Lauren Lewis | Daniel Mace | Viv Pointon | Paul Wraight


Edexcel AS/A level

eographyGBook 1


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2

Supporting you every step of the wayDeveloping skilled and successful geographersGeography matters. That’s why our Edexcel AS and

A level Geography qualifications and resources are designed

to support great geography teaching and help students of all

abilities succeed in their studies.

The top 5 things to know about our new resources…

1 Contemporary and engaging content to bring the subject to life

With geography, there’s a whole world to explore. That’s why our resources include clear and engaging content, case studies, diagrams and more, to fulfil the course requirements and inspire the geographers of the future.

2 Guiding students to think synoptically and see the ‘bigger picture’

Synoptic links signposted throughout the course enable students to connect geographical themes, ideas and concepts together. Our Thinking Synoptically pages provide interesting material to take your students beyond their studies, linking subjects together and giving them an opportunity to apply their skills and knowledge.

3 Focused on the new fieldwork requirements

Our brand-new Student Books focus on the new requirements and support success in fieldwork with example fieldwork investigations, guidance on using data and practical advice on how to choose and structure the independent investigation.



Edexcel AS/A level

eographyGBook 1


10/03/2016 14:35

Book 2

Edexcel A leveleographyGLindsay Frost | Lauren Lewis | Daniel Mace | Paul WraightSeries editor: Lindsay Frost


10/03/2016 14:35

3

Supporting you every step of the way

4 Targeted and practical support to build key geographical skills

We’ve developed resources that help your students to think geographically and build the skills at the heart of being good a geographer. That’s why we’ve included plenty of activities to support the development and application of numerical, statistical, cartographic, graphical, ICT and literacy skills in geographical contexts, as well as extension activities to stretch and challenge students further.

5 Expert support for exam preparation and practice

Your students can get exam-ready with assessment advice from our experts, contextualised AS and A level exam-style questions with answers for each topic, as well as focused exam pages at the end of every chapter.

Like what you see?Order your FREE Evaluation Pack!Includes a copy of the Edexcel AS/A level Geography Student Book: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/EvaluateALevelGeog

Lindsay Frost | Lauren Lewis | Daniel Mace | Viv Pointon | Paul WraightSeries editor: Lindsay Frost

Edexcel AS/A leveleographyGBook 1


10/03/2016 14:35

There’s even more FREE support for our Edexcel AS and A level Geography qualifications too!

Discover more of what’s available overleaf

4

PlanWe’ll help you navigate the new changes and

design your new AS and A level courses.

TeachOur high-quality support will help you teach

the skills students will need.

Track and AssessWe’ll help you track every student’s progress

and prepare for the new assessment.

DevelopOur events support great Geography teaching

and also count towards your CDP hours.

• Easy-to-follow headings matching the specification Learning objectives at the start of each chapter are mapped to the specification so that you’re clear on what to teach, and when.

• Synoptic links matching the specifications are highlighted throughout the Student Books, and accompanied by detailed explanations, to help you teach the new content and requirements with ease.

• Student Book for AS/A level (Year 1) (also available as Kindle editions). Our Student Books come with FREE ActiveBooks (e-books). The ActiveBooks can also be purchased separately.

• Student Book for A level (Year 2) (also available as Kindle editions).

• ActiveBooks for AS/A level (Year 1) and A level (Year 2) Online editions of the Student Books that can be personalised with annotations and notes, ideal for revision and independent study.

• AS and A level exam-style questions with tips on how to get started with answers and guidance throughout the Student Books.

• Dedicated exam pages with analysis of students’ answers to longer questions provide valuable exam practice as well as support for all abilities.

• Modelled fieldwork investigations with guidance on using data and advice on how to choose and structure the independent investigation.

• Activities to help students develop and apply numerical, statistical, cartographic, graphical, ICT and literacy skills.

• Professional Development Courses Events to help you get the most out of our products, services and qualifications, which combined, will have a greater impact on learning.

• Getting Started guide

• Course planner

• Schemes of work for every topic

• Mapping documents comparing current and new specifications.

• Guide to planning high-quality fieldwork developed with the Field Studies Council to ensure that field trips are meaningful and successfully prepare students for the exams.

• Topic booklets for every topic

• Field-trip methodology worksheets and case studies of good fieldwork practice. Using the Field Studies Council’s wealth of experience with geography field trips, these case studies will ensure that the benchmark for good fieldwork is clearly understood by both you and your students.

• Material to help develop geographical skills, including:• skills worksheets• a Maths for Geography booklet• a lesson plan (with worksheets) focused on

developing students’ understanding of GIS.

• Sample assessment materials for AS and A level

• Student examplars and examiner commentaries

• ResultPlus – the most detailed analysis available of your students’ exam performance.

• Case studies of good fieldwork practice

• Getting Ready to Teach events

Join our experts at full-day events to discover more about the structure, content and assessment of our new qualification, and explore teaching and delivering strategies.

Supporting you every step of the way Our new resources and the extensive free support offered as part of the Edexcel AS and A level Geography qualifications have been designed to support success in geography. Together, they’ll provide you with all the support you need to help your students make the most of their potential.

Expert support every step of the wayYour Subject Advisor, Jon Wolton, is on hand to help with any questions you may have about the new courses. Get in touch:

@GeogAdvisor [email protected] 020 7010 2185

5

PlanWe’ll help you navigate the new changes and

design your new AS and A level courses.

TeachOur high-quality support will help you teach

the skills students will need.

Track and AssessWe’ll help you track every student’s progress

and prepare for the new assessment.

DevelopOur events support great Geography teaching

and also count towards your CDP hours.

• Easy-to-follow headings matching the specification Learning objectives at the start of each chapter are mapped to the specification so that you’re clear on what to teach, and when.

• Synoptic links matching the specifications are highlighted throughout the Student Books, and accompanied by detailed explanations, to help you teach the new content and requirements with ease.

• Student Book for AS/A level (Year 1) (also available as Kindle editions). Our Student Books come with FREE ActiveBooks (e-books). The ActiveBooks can also be purchased separately.

• Student Book for A level (Year 2) (also available as Kindle editions).

• ActiveBooks for AS/A level (Year 1) and A level (Year 2) Online editions of the Student Books that can be personalised with annotations and notes, ideal for revision and independent study.

• AS and A level exam-style questions with tips on how to get started with answers and guidance throughout the Student Books.

• Dedicated exam pages with analysis of students’ answers to longer questions provide valuable exam practice as well as support for all abilities.

• Modelled fieldwork investigations with guidance on using data and advice on how to choose and structure the independent investigation.

• Activities to help students develop and apply numerical, statistical, cartographic, graphical, ICT and literacy skills.

• Professional Development Courses Events to help you get the most out of our products, services and qualifications, which combined, will have a greater impact on learning.

• Getting Started guide

• Course planner

• Schemes of work for every topic

• Mapping documents comparing current and new specifications.

• Guide to planning high-quality fieldwork developed with the Field Studies Council to ensure that field trips are meaningful and successfully prepare students for the exams.

• Topic booklets for every topic

• Field-trip methodology worksheets and case studies of good fieldwork practice. Using the Field Studies Council’s wealth of experience with geography field trips, these case studies will ensure that the benchmark for good fieldwork is clearly understood by both you and your students.

• Material to help develop geographical skills, including:• skills worksheets• a Maths for Geography booklet• a lesson plan (with worksheets) focused on

developing students’ understanding of GIS.

• Sample assessment materials for AS and A level

• Student examplars and examiner commentaries

• ResultPlus – the most detailed analysis available of your students’ exam performance.

• Case studies of good fieldwork practice

• Getting Ready to Teach events

Join our experts at full-day events to discover more about the structure, content and assessment of our new qualification, and explore teaching and delivering strategies.

Supporting you every step of the way Our new resources and the extensive free support offered as part of the Edexcel AS and A level Geography qualifications have been designed to support success in geography. Together, they’ll provide you with all the support you need to help your students make the most of their potential.

Paid-for resources from Pearson: Edexcel AS and A level Geography

Free support offered as part of our Edexcel AS and A level Geography qualifications

6

46

Tectonic processes and hazards

2.1

Yellow = Players, Orange = Attitudes and actions, Purple = Futures and uncertainties

There was an international decade for national disaster reduction (IDNDR) in the 1990s which

emphasised the need to combine ‘top down’ technological and government approaches with

‘bottom up’ community and NGO e� orts. This strategy may form part of a hazard management

cycle to prepare a place for a natural hazard or to learn lessons a� er each hazard event or disaster.

The overall aim is to reduce vulnerability for the future . All those involved with planning for an

emergency have a key role in reducing the impacts of a tectonic hazard.

The Sendai framework (2015 to 2030 ) recognises that emergency planners have a key role in

reducing the impacts of tectonic hazards within its priorities. This framework for reducing risk

includes the targets of reducing (a) disaster mortality, (b) numbers affected, (c) economic losses,

and (d) damage, and set targets of increasing (i) the number of disaster risk reduction strategies, (ii)

cooperation between developed and developing countries, (iii) the number of warning systems, and

(iv) the information flow to people. There are four priorities for action: (1) understanding disaster risk,

(2) strengthening disaster risk governance, (3) investment in making places more resilient and (4)

strengthening disaster preparedness and actions during the recovery phase.

Synoptic link

Mortality is a more specific

indicator than death rate

when studying population

change, as it can be related

to the cause of death or

specific groups within the

structure of a population,

such as infant mortality or

natural hazard mortality.

(See page XX.)

AS level exam-style

question

Suggest how emergency

planners and engineers may

help to modify the impacts of

a tectonic hazard. (6 marks)

Guidance

Think about what the two

groups of people can do,

describe what these

actions are and how each

action may reduce the

impact of an earthquake,

tsunami or volcanic

eruption.

A level exam-style

question

Suggest why insurance

companies may be interested

in encouraging the accurate

prediction of, and effective

preparation for, a tectonic

hazard. (6 marks)

Guidance

Think about the proportion

of fi nancial costs that may

be insured, and recall

information from Munich Re

and Lloyd’s data for

example. Explain how

prediction may help reduce

losses. Explain how

preparation may reduce

losses. Think also about

population, urbanisation,

and losses trends.

Knowledge check

Through reading this chapter and by completing the tasks and activities, as well as your wider

reading, you should have learnt the following, and be able to demonstrate your knowledge and

understanding of Tectonic processes and hazards (Topic 1).

a. Where do earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions occur?

b. What types of plate boundary are there and what are their main characteristics?

c. What is the plate tectonic theory and what is the evidence that supports it?

d. Which processes operate at plate margins and intra-plate locations?

e. What are the features of earthquake, tsunami and volcanic processes?

f. What are a hazard, disaster, and mega-disaster, and how do these link to vulnerability and

resilience of people and communities?

g. What are the social and economic impacts of tectonic events in countries at di� erent stages

of development?

h. How is the magnitude and intensity of earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes measured?

i. How do the characteristics of hazard profi les di� er?

j. What are the di� erent types of vulnerability and how do human factors infl uence the scale

of a disaster?

k. What are the trends in tectonic disasters over time and are these trends accurately

reported?

l. What is the global signifi cance of mega-disasters?

m. What are multiple hazard zones, and how do hydrological and meteorological processes

interlink with tectonic hazards?

n. How can tectonic hazards be managed e� ectively at the di� erent stages of an event?

o. Which specifi c strategies can be used to modify a tectonic event, vulnerability and

resilience, or loss?

Dra What are the features of earthquake, tsunami and volcanic processes?

Dra What are the features of earthquake, tsunami and volcanic processes?

What are a hazard, disaster, and mega-disaster, and how do these link to vulnerability and

Dra What are a hazard, disaster, and mega-disaster, and how do these link to vulnerability and

resilience of people and communities?

Dra resilience of people and communities?

What are the social and economic impacts of tectonic events in countries at di� erent stages

Dra What are the social and economic impacts of tectonic events in countries at di� erent stages

Dra How is the magnitude and intensity of earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes measured?

Dra How is the magnitude and intensity of earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes measured?

How do the characteristics of hazard profi les di� er? Dra How do the characteristics of hazard profi les di� er?

GCE_Geog_Mkt_Ch1_Topic1-6th_online_watermark.indd 46

24/02/2016 10:30

Features to look out for in the sample chaptersIn the enclosed sample chapter from our AS/A level Book 1, you will get a glimpse of all the features we’ve created to help all your students succeed in geography.

4


CHAPTER


1

Distribution of tectonic hazards Causes of tectonic hazards There are several major crustal plates (for example Africa), minor plates (for example Cocos), and

micro-plates (for example Sunda) (Figure 1.2). These plates o� en move in di� erent directions

and at di� erent speeds, creating di� erent types of plate boundary and therefore variations in

earthquake and volcanic activity. Most earthquake and volcanic activity is found in zones along

the plate boundaries. The boundary which creates earthquakes with a magnitude of 9 M w or

higher ( Moment Magnitude Scale ) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and

a continental plate (a destructive plate boundary with subduction ). However, there are also

earthquakes near the middle of plates ( intra-plate ) associated with ancient faults, which resulted

from the solid crust cracking during its long journey over millions of years. There is also volcanic

activity near the centre of some plates ( hot spots ). This is either the result of the upwelling of hot

molten material from the core/mantle boundary (for example Hawaii, Pacifi c Plate) or from the

top of a huge mantle plume just under the crust (for example Nyiragongo, African Plate). It is also

possible that large meteorite impacts create symmetrical hot spots on opposite sides of the planet

when they collide with the Earth.

Learning objectives

1.1 To understand that the global distribution of tectonic hazards can be explained by the processes operating at plate boundaries and intra-plate locations.

1.2 To understand that the plate tectonic theory was developed to explain plate movements and the magnitude of tectonic hazards.

1.3 To understand that the physical processes, linked to earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis, explain the causes of tectonic hazards.

1.1 To understand that the global distribution of tectonic hazards can be explained by the

1.2 To understand that the plate tectonic theory was developed to explain plate movements and

1.3 To understand that the physical processes, linked to earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis,

Why are some locations more at risk from tectonic hazards?

ACTIVITY

1. Study Figure 1.2 and consider the plate boundaries and movements.

a. Identify three locations with convergence of an oceanic and a continental plate.

b. Describe what is happening in the Indian Ocean between Australia and India. Why is this signifi cant for the people living around the coasts of this ocean?

c. Describe what is happening in and around New Zealand.

d. Describe what is happening in the Middle East.

Extension

Investigate the ancient crustal plate called Zealandia. GNS Science (Te Pu Ao) may be a useful source.

Dra� the plate boundaries. The boundary which creates earthquakes with a


) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and

Dra� ) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and

destructive plate boundary

Dra� destructive plate boundary with

Dra� with subduction

Dra� subductionearthquakes near the middle of plates (

Dra� earthquakes near the middle of plates ( intra-plate

Dra� intra-plate ) associated with ancient faults, which resulted

Dra� ) associated with ancient faults, which resulted

Dra� from the solid crust cracking during its long journey over millions of years. There is also volcanic


activity near the centre of some plates ( Dra� activity near the centre of some plates ( hot spotsDra�

hot spotsmolten material from the core/mantle boundary (for example Hawaii, Pacifi c Plate) or from the Dra� molten material from the core/mantle boundary (for example Hawaii, Pacifi c Plate) or from the

just under the crust (for example Nyiragongo, African Plate). It is also Dra� just under the crust (for example Nyiragongo, African Plate). It is also

GCE_Geog_Mkt_Ch1_Topic1-6th_online_watermark.indd 4 24/02/2016 10:30

Exam-style questions with tips on how to answer, as well as focused exam pages with analysis of student answers to longer questions.

Engaging activities help students develop and apply key geographical skills in a geographical contexts, while Extension questions stretch and challenge them.

Clear learning objectives linked to the specification provide a clear overview of what it will be covered in each chapter while easy-to-follow headings matching the specificationensure you are confident of what will be teaching.

7

11

CHAPTER 1

Plate tectonic theory All pieces of evidence are important for the theory. There are some relatively small pieces – such

as the continental shelf shapes fi tting together (for example Africa with South America), matching

rock types (in ancient cratons 2.6 billion years old), matching fossils (such as the Cynognathus

reptile in South America and Africa; Glossopteris fern in all southern continents), coal that forms

under tropical conditions found in temperate areas, evidence of glaciation in tropical Africa,

and of course the fact that the majority of earthquakes and volcanoes occur in zones near

plate boundaries. More signifi cant pieces of evidence include studying the way that earthquake

(seismic) waves travel through the Earth, and the location of earthquake focal points. Along the

Wadati-Benio� zone foci depths can reach 700 km, which shows subduction of the denser basaltic

oceanic plates into the asthenosphere (upper mantle). It was not until the 1950s that the ocean

fl oor was surveyed; this showed the presence of mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust was

being created, and symmetrical ‘magnetic stripes’ ( palaeomagnetism ) in the new iron rich rocks

either side of the constructive plate boundaries. The magnetic direction is locked in when rocks

cool below about 250 o C and shows the reversal of the Earth’s magnetic fi eld and age of the oceanic

crust. Put together, these two points demonstrate the ‘conveyor belt’ movement of sea fl oor

spreading , with youngest rocks at the ridges (Figure 1.7). Studies of palaeomagnetism also show

continental rotation (polar wandering), which, when reversed, demonstrate that the continents did

once fi t together as Pangaea (for example Greenland and UK joined). The study of lavas reveals the

nature of the Earth’s interior, and hot spot volcanoes show plate movement, for example the Pacifi c

Plate is moving over the Hawaiian fi xed hot spot at 7 cm per year.

Synoptic link

Ice Ages of the past may have been influenced by the arrangement of the oceans and continents as the plates moved, for example, today Antarctica is helping to keep the planet cooler. (See page XX.) Physical tectonic processes Earthquakes and earthquake waves At any plate boundary stress and strain can build up along the join, due to friction created by

masses of rock trying to move past each other. This is greatest along the Wadati-Benio� zone

within destructive plate boundaries (Figures 1.5 and 1.6), with the 9.5 M w earthquake in Chile (1960)

being the largest. Stress is also great along transform (conservative) boundaries (Figure 1.9), with

the 7.6M w earthquake of 1992 on the San Andreas Fault being the largest. There is less friction at

constructive plate boundaries (Figure 1.7) and so magnitudes are lower, for example, the largest

recent earthquake in Iceland was 6.5M w in 2000, but they are usually smaller. The focus of an

earthquake is the point at which the strain is released. This sends earthquake ( seismic) waves in

all directions, being strongest at the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, known

as the epicentre. There are several types of earthquake (seismic) wave, and all move the ground in

a di� erent way. The P waves (primary) arrive fi rst and have a short wavelength and travel quickly

through the crust. S waves (secondary) arrive a few seconds later and have a longer wavelength

and a velocity of 4 km/s, causing more destruction. In the November 2011 Tohoku earthquake in

Japan the S waves reached Tokyo 90 seconds a¢ er the release of stress at the focal point.

Dra� masses of rock trying to move past each other. This is greatest along the Wadati-Benio� zone

Dra� masses of rock trying to move past each other. This is greatest along the Wadati-Benio� zone

within destructive plate boundaries (Figures 1.5 and 1.6), with the 9.5 M

Dra� within destructive plate boundaries (Figures 1.5 and 1.6), with the 9.5 M w

Dra� w earthquake in Chile (1960)

Dra� earthquake in Chile (1960)

being the largest. Stress is also great along transform (conservative) boundaries (Figure 1.9), with

Dra� being the largest. Stress is also great along transform (conservative) boundaries (Figure 1.9), with

earthquake of 1992 on the San Andreas Fault being the largest. There is less friction at

Dra� earthquake of 1992 on the San Andreas Fault being the largest. There is less friction at

constructive plate boundaries (Figure 1.7) and so magnitudes are lower, for example, the largest Dra� constructive plate boundaries (Figure 1.7) and so magnitudes are lower, for example, the largest Dra� in 2000, but they are usually smaller. The focus of an Dra� in 2000, but they are usually smaller. The focus of an

earthquake is the point at which the strain is released. This sends earthquake ( seismic) waves in Dra� earthquake is the point at which the strain is released. This sends earthquake ( seismic) waves in Dra� all directions, being strongest at the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, known

Dra� all directions, being strongest at the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus, known


24/02/2016 10:30

10

Tectonic processes and hazards2.1


Table 1.2: Plate boundary tectonic characteristics.

Plate boundary type Seismic activity Volcanic activity Topography or bathymetry Other

Constructive (divergent)

Shallow focus; usually low magnitude (5–6)

E usive eruptions (low VEI scale 1-3)

Ocean ridge with central ri� valley; faulting at right angles; volcanic islands

High heat fl ow; young basaltic rock Destructive

(convergent): ocean and continent

Range of focal depths from shallow to 700 km along Wadati-Benio zone; o� en high magnitude (8–9)

Explosive (moderate to high VEI scale 5–6)

Ocean trench; fold mountains with volcanic peaks

Trench gas low heat fl ow and negative gravity anomaly; range of rock age

Destructive (convergent): ocean and ocean

Range of focal depths from shallow to 700 km along Wadati-Benio zone; moderate to high magnitude (7–9)

Explosive (moderate to high VEI scale 5–6)

Island arc; oceanic trench; back arc and fore arc zones

Trench gas low heat fl ow and negative gravity anomaly; range of rock age Collision (convergent):

continent and continent

Shallow to intermediate focal depth; moderate magnitude (6–8)

Usually none Fold mountains and plateaus

Average heat fl ow; rock age very variable

Transform (conservative)

Shallow focus; usually moderate magnitude (6–8)

Usually none; occasional fi ssure eruptions

Ridges and scars on surface

Average heat fl ow; rock age depends on oceanic (young) or continental (old) location

other faultsintersect withmain fault (e.g.San Gabriel,Hayward,Santa Monica)

oceanPacific Plate

(oceanic)

friction leads to tension (strain)between the two plates; tension is released suddenlyat the focus, creating an earthquake (seismic waves)fault is 16 km deep,

1300 km long

focus

North American Plate(continental)

epicentre

main fault line (strike slip boundary), San Andreasfault system, may be visible on surface, alongwhich movement (0.6 cm/yr) takes placecreating about 10,000 earthquakes a year

Figure 1.9: Transform (conservative) plate boundary.

Literacy tip

Always use correct geographical terms in your written answers when there is one to use. For example, asthenosphere for upper mantle; Moho for the boundary between the crust and upper mantle.

Dra� Dra� Dra� Dra� Dra� Dra� (moderate to high

Dra� (moderate to high VEI scale 5–6)

Dra� VEI scale 5–6)

Island arc; oceanic trench;

Dra� Island arc; oceanic trench; back arc and fore arc

Dra� back arc and fore arc zones

Dra� zones

Usually none Dra� Usually none


24/02/2016 10:30

Features to look out for in the sample chapters

5

CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.2: Map of crustal plates, plate boundaries and mantle plumes.

16

90

24

JF

RI

GP

PACIFIC

67

24

102TOKE

51EA

PA

COCOS

AP

NA

32

34

1425

SW

SCOTIASL

JZNAZCA SOUTH

AMERICAN

ANTARCTIC

CARIBBEAN

NORTH AMERICAN

AS AT

EURASIAN

8

14

AMUR

20ARABIAN

AFRICAN

SOMALIAN

26

INDIAN

13

59AUSTRALIAN

62

KE

NH

CL

SUNDA14

BU

PHILIPPINE MAPACIFIC

103

YANGTZE

OKHOTSK

ON

6

BS

direction of movement & mm per year34destructive constructive collision transform complex or uncertain

African and Pacific mantle plume positions

AP: Altiplano, AS: Aegean, AT: Anatolia, BS: Banda, BU: Burma, CL: Caroline, EA: Easter, GP: Galapagos, JF: Juan de Fuca, JZ: Juan Fernandez, KE: Kermadec, MA: Mariana, NA: North Andes, NH: New Hebrides, ON: Okinawa, PA: Panama,

RI: Rivera, SL: Shetland, SW: Sandwich, TO: Tonga,

ACTIVITY

CARTOGRAPHIC SKILLS

1. On a copy of Figure 1.2 plot the location of the recent 9.0+ M w magnitude earthquakes, and the largest recent volcanic eruptions.

2. Make notes on what you notice about these locations.

Dra� Dra� Dra� African and Pacific mantle plume positions

Dra� African and Pacific mantle plume positions

AP: Altiplano, AS: Aegean, AT: Anatolia, BS: Banda, BU: Burma, CL: Caroline, EA: Easter, GP: Galapagos, JF: Juan de Fuca,

Dra� AP: Altiplano, AS: Aegean, AT: Anatolia, BS: Banda, BU: Burma, CL: Caroline, EA: Easter, GP: Galapagos, JF: Juan de Fuca,

JZ: Juan Fernandez, KE: Kermadec, MA: Mariana, NA: North Andes, NH: New Hebrides, ON: Okinawa, PA: Panama,

Dra� JZ: Juan Fernandez, KE: Kermadec, MA: Mariana, NA: North Andes, NH: New Hebrides, ON: Okinawa, PA: Panama,

RI: Rivera, SL: Shetland, SW: Sandwich, TO: Tonga,

Dra� RI: Rivera, SL: Shetland, SW: Sandwich, TO: Tonga,

Dra� Map of crustal plates, plate boundaries and mantle plumes.

Dra� Map of crustal plates, plate boundaries and mantle plumes.

Dra� Dra�


In the enclosed sample chapter from our AS/A level Book 1, you will get a glimpse of all the features we’ve created to help all your students succeed in geography.

4


CHAPTER


1

Distribution of tectonic hazards Causes of tectonic hazards There are several major crustal plates (for example Africa), minor plates (for example Cocos), and

micro-plates (for example Sunda) (Figure 1.2). These plates o� en move in di� erent directions

and at di� erent speeds, creating di� erent types of plate boundary and therefore variations in

earthquake and volcanic activity. Most earthquake and volcanic activity is found in zones along

the plate boundaries. The boundary which creates earthquakes with a magnitude of 9 M w or

higher ( Moment Magnitude Scale ) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and

a continental plate (a destructive plate boundary with subduction ). However, there are also

earthquakes near the middle of plates ( intra-plate ) associated with ancient faults, which resulted

from the solid crust cracking during its long journey over millions of years. There is also volcanic

activity near the centre of some plates ( hot spots ). This is either the result of the upwelling of hot

molten material from the core/mantle boundary (for example Hawaii, Pacifi c Plate) or from the

top of a huge mantle plume just under the crust (for example Nyiragongo, African Plate). It is also

possible that large meteorite impacts create symmetrical hot spots on opposite sides of the planet

when they collide with the Earth.

Learning objectives

1.1 To understand that the global distribution of tectonic hazards can be explained by the processes operating at plate boundaries and intra-plate locations.

1.2 To understand that the plate tectonic theory was developed to explain plate movements and the magnitude of tectonic hazards.

1.3 To understand that the physical processes, linked to earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis, explain the causes of tectonic hazards.

1.1 To understand that the global distribution of tectonic hazards can be explained by the

1.2 To understand that the plate tectonic theory was developed to explain plate movements and

1.3 To understand that the physical processes, linked to earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis,

Why are some locations more at risk from tectonic hazards?

ACTIVITY

1. Study Figure 1.2 and consider the plate boundaries and movements.

a. Identify three locations with convergence of an oceanic and a continental plate.

b. Describe what is happening in the Indian Ocean between Australia and India. Why is this signifi cant for the people living around the coasts of this ocean?

c. Describe what is happening in and around New Zealand.

d. Describe what is happening in the Middle East.

Extension

Investigate the ancient crustal plate called Zealandia. GNS Science (Te Pu Ao) may be a useful source.



) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and

Dra� ) is associated with convergence between an oceanic plate and

destructive plate boundary

Dra� destructive plate boundary with

Dra� with subduction

Dra� subductionearthquakes near the middle of plates (

Dra� earthquakes near the middle of plates ( intra-plate

Dra� intra-plate ) associated with ancient faults, which resulted

Dra� ) associated with ancient faults, which resulted



activity near the centre of some plates ( Dra� activity near the centre of some plates ( hot spotsDra�

hot spotsmolten material from the core/mantle boundary (for example Hawaii, Pacifi c Plate) or from the Dra� molten material from the core/mantle boundary (for example Hawaii, Pacifi c Plate) or from the

just under the crust (for example Nyiragongo, African Plate). It is also Dra� just under the crust (for example Nyiragongo, African Plate). It is also


Key terms linked to the specification are highlighted in the text to help students build their geographical vocabulary.

Synoptic links matching the specifications are highlighted in the text and accompanied by detailed explanations to help students bring themes, ideas and concepts together.

32

Tectonic processes and hazards2.1


ACTIVITY

NUMERICAL AND STATISTICAL SKILLS 1. Is there a correlation between the magnitude of an earthquake and the number of deaths caused? Geographically it would make sense that the stronger the earthquake the greater the damage and loss of life would be. A hypothesis can be established, and a correlation analysis called Spearman’s Rank can be used to help prove, or disprove this. a. Complete a copy of Table 1.10 by fi lling in the missing values in the four rows. b. Only two pieces of information are needed to solve the formula, n (the number of items), in

this case 20, and ∑d 2 , which is 590.5. The formula is rs = 1 − 6∑d2

n3 − n Carry out the calculation. c. The result will be somewhere between +1 (perfect positive correlation) and −1 (perfect negative correlation), with 0 indicating no correlation. The signifi cance of the result must then be tested against values already calculated and usually presented in a table. With statistical work geographers usually use a 95 per cent (or 0.05) confi dence level, recognising that the physical (and human) world is complex! With a sample size of 20 the signifi cance value is 0.450. This means that if a positive result is equal to or higher than this, then it can be accepted with 95 per cent certainty that there is a positive correlation between the two variables. (Similarly, if a negative result is −0.45 or lower then there is a 95 per cent certainty that there is a negative correlation between the two variables). Is the result of this calculation signifi cant? d. Write a geographical explanation of the result. Consider factors such as the acceptance of the hypothesis, the location of the countries involved, the types of plate boundary involved, population densities, the level of development of the countries, magnitude and intensity, why the correlation was not even greater.

Contrasting scales of tectonic hazard

Maths tip

When carrying out the Spearman’s Rank correlation analysis there are two common errors to avoid:

• When ranking values that are equal, it is necessary to allocate an average (mean) rank to each. For example, in this data set there are six earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of 8.3, these occupy rank positions 12 to 17. However, as the rank values are crucial to the calculation they cannot all be called 12th=. The total ranks they occupy must be added up and divided by 6 (as there are six of them): So 12+13+14+15+16+17 = 87 ÷ 6 = 14.5. Each of these must be given the rank 14.5. The next rank would then be 18.

• When solving the formula do not forget the 1 – at the front of it! This statistical technique can be very useful with fieldwork data to show whether two things are correlated or not.

Dra� Dra� When carrying out the Spearman’s Rank correlation analysis there are two common errors to

Dra� When carrying out the Spearman’s Rank correlation analysis there are two common errors to When ranking values that are equal, it is necessary to allocate an average (mean) rank to Dra� When ranking values that are equal, it is necessary to allocate an average (mean) rank to each. For example, in this data set there are six earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of 8.3, Dra� each. For example, in this data set there are six earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of 8.3, these occupy rank positions 12 to 17. However, as the rank values are crucial to the calculation

Dra� these occupy rank positions 12 to 17. However, as the rank values are crucial to the calculation

Dra�


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