qanat - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

8/11/2019 Qanat - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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9/10/2014 Qanat - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat 1/17

A qanat tunnel near Isfahan

QanatFrom Wikipedia, the fre e encyclopedia

A qant (Arabi c: Persia , n: is one (of a series of we ll-like ver tical shafts,connected by ge ntly sloping tunnels.Qants cre ate a reliable supply of water for human settlemen ts and irrigat ion in hot,arid, and semi-a rid climates.

The qanat technology is known to have been developed by the Persian peoplesometime in the early 1st millennium BCand spread from there slowly westward

and eastwa rd.[1][2][3][4][5]

The value of the qanat is di rectly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of the water flow. Much of the population of Iran an d other arid countries in Asia and North Africa historically depended upon the water fromqanats; the areas of population corresponded closely to the areas where qanats are possible. Although a qanat wasexpensive to construct, its long-term value to the community, and thereby to the group that invested in building and

maintaining it, was substantial. [6]

Contents

1 Etymo logy

2 Technical features

3 Features com mon to regio ns that use qanat technology

4 Impact of qanats on settlement pa tterns

5 Construction

5.1 Preparations

5.2 Excavation

6 Sharehol ders

6.1 Maintenance6.2 Restoration

7 Applications of qanats

7.1 Irrigation and drinking water supply

7.2 Cooling

7.3 Ice storage

8 Qanats by country

8.1 Asia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insideqanat.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insideqanat.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Insideqanat.JPG


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8.1.1 Afghanistan

8.1.2 China

8.1.3 India

8.1.4 Indonesia

8.1.5 Iran

8.1.6 Iraq

8.1.7 Jordan

8.1.8 Pakistan

8.1.9 Syria

8.2 Arabian Peninsula

8.2.1 Oman

8.2.2 United Arab Emirates

8.3 North Africa

8.3.1 Egypt

8.3.2 Libya

8.3.3 Tunisia

8.3.4 Algeria

8.3.5 Morocco

8.3.6 Armenia

8.3.7 Azerbaijan

8.3.7.1 International Organization for Migration and the Revival of Kahriz

8.3.7.2 KOICA and IOM's Ongoing Kahriz Rehabilitation Project in Azerbaijan8.4 Europe

8.4.1 Greece

8.4.2 Italy

8.4.3 Luxembourg

8.4.4 Spain

8.5 The Americas

9 See also

10 Notes

11 References

12 External links

Etymology


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Alluvial Fan in Southern Iran. Imagefrom NASA's Terra satellite

A typical town or city in Iran, and elsewhere where the qanat is used, has more than one qanat. Fields and gardensare located both over the qanats a short distance before they emerge from the ground and below the surface outlet.

Water from the qanats defines both the social regions in the city and the layout of the city. [6]

The water is freshest, cleanest, and coolest in the upper reaches and more prosperous people live at the outlet or immediately upstream of the outlet. When the qanat is still below grade, the water is drawn to the surface via water wells or animal driven Persian wells. Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domesticuse and garden irrigation as well. Further, air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room

(shabestan) found in many older houses and buildings. [6]

Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called jubs ( jbs ) which run downhill, with lateral branches to carry water to the neighborhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the jubs and their lateral branches. As a result, the cities and towns are oriented consistent with the gradient of the land; this is a

practical response to efficient water distribution over varying terrain. [6]

The lower reaches of the canals are less desirable for both residences and agriculture. The water grows progressively more polluted as it passes downstream. In dry years the lower reaches are the most likely to see

substantial reductions in flow. [6]

Construction

Traditionally qanats are built by a group of skilled laborers, muqanns , with hand labor. The profession historically

paid well and was typically handed down from father to son. [6]

Preparations

The critical, initial step in qanat construction is identification of anappropriate water source. The search begins at the point where thealluvial fan meets the mountains or foothills; water is more abundant in themountains because of orographic lifting and excavation in the alluvial fanis relatively easy. The muqanns follow the track of the main water courses coming from the mountains or foothills to identify evidence of subsurface water such as deep-rooted vegetation or seasonal seeps. Atrial well is then dug to determine the location of the water table anddetermine whether a sufficient flow is available to justify construction. If

these prerequisites are met, the route is laid out aboveground. [6][8]

Equipment must be assembled. The equipment is straightforward:containers (usually leather bags), ropes, reels to raise the container to the surface at the shaft head, hatchets andshovels for excavation, lights, spirit levels or plumb bobs and string. Depending upon the soil type, qanat liners

(usually fired clay hoops) may also be required. [6][8]

Although the construction methods are simple, the construction of a qanat requires a detailed understanding of subterranean geology and a degree of engineering sophistication. The gradient of the qanat must be carefullycontrolled: too shallow a gradient yields no flow and too steep a gradient will result in excessive erosion, collapsing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orographic_liftinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabestanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_satellitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg


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the qanat. And misreading the soil conditions leads to collapses, which at best require extensive rework and at

worst are fatal for the crew. [8]

Excavation

Construction of a qanat is usually performed by a crew of 3-4 muqanns . For a shallow qanat, one worker typically digs the horizontal shaft, one raises the excavated earth from the shaft and one distributes the excavated

earth at the top. [8]

The crew typically begins from the destination to which the water will be delivered into the soil and works towardthe source (the test well). Vertical shafts are excavated along the route, separated at a distance of 2035 m. Theseparation of the shafts is a balance between the amount of work required to excavate them and the amount of effort required to excavate the space between them, as well as the ultimate maintenance effort. In general, theshallower the qanat, the closer the vertical shafts. If the qanat is long, excavation may begin from both ends at once.

Tributary channels are sometimes also constructed to supplement the water flow. [6][8]

Most qanats in Iran run less than 5 km, while some have been measured at ~70 km in length near Kerman. The

vertical shafts usually range from 20 to 200 meters in depth, although qanats in the province of Khorasan have beenrecorded with vertical shafts of up to 275 m. The vertical shafts support construction and maintenance of theunderground channel as well as air interchange. Deep shafts require intermediate platforms to simplify the process

of removing spoil. [6][8]

The construction speed depends on the depth and nature of the ground. If the earth is soft and easy to work, at 20meters depth a crew of four workers can excavate a horizontal length of 40 meters per day. When the vertical shaftreaches 40 meters, they can excavate only 20 meters horizontally per day and at 60 meters in depth this drops

below 5 horizontal meters per day. In Algeria, a common speed is just 2 m per day at 15 m depth. Deep, long

qanats (which many are) require years and even decades to construct. [6][8]

The excavated material is usually transported by means of leather bags up the vertical shafts. It is mounded aroundthe vertical shaft exit, providing a barrier that prevents windblown or rain driven debris from entering the shafts.These mounds may be covered to provide further protection to the qanat. From the air, these shafts look like a

string of bomb craters. [8]

The qanat's water-carrying channel must have a sufficient downward slope that water flows easily. However thedownward gradient must not be so great as to create conditions under which the water transitions betweensupercritical and subcritical flow; if this occurs, the waves that result can result in severe erosion that can damage or destroy the qanat. In shorter qanats the downward gradient varies between 1:1000 and 1:1500, while in longer

qanats it may be almost horizontal. Such precision is routinely obtained with a spirit level and string. [6][8]

In cases where the gradient is steeper, underground waterfalls may be constructed with appropriate design features(usually linings) to absorb the energy with minimal erosion. In some cases the water power has been harnessed todrive underground mills. If it is not possible to bring the outlet of the qanat out near the settlement, it is necessary torun a jub or canal overground. This is avoided when possible to limit pollution, warming and water loss due to

evaporation. [6][8]

Shareholders
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirit_levelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcritical_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Khorasanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerman


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Ancient Persian clock

Reconstruction of the scene with areal manager of the water clock, Iran

The Persians were using water clocks in 328 BC to ensure a just andexact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in Iran, especially inZeebad, dates back to 500 BC. Later they were also used to determinethe exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the Yald (winter olstice) , Tiregn (mid-summer) or Nowruz (spring equinox) - the

shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. Thewater clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for

timing the yearly calendar. [9] Water clocks, or Fenjaan , in Persiareached a level of accuracy comparable to today's standards of timekeeping. The fenjaan was the most accurate and commonly usedtimekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation, until it was replaced

by more accurate current clocks. Persian water clocks were a practicaland useful tool for the qanat's shareholders to calculate the length of timethey could divert water to their farms. The qanat was the only water source for agriculture and irrigation, so that a just and fair water

distribution was very important. Accordingly a fair and astute elder waselected to be the manager of the water clock, and at least two full-timemanagers were needed to control and observe the number of fenjaansand announce the exact time during the days and nights.

The fenjaan was a big pot full of water and a bowl with small hole in thecenter. When the bowl become full of water, it would sink into the pot,and the manager would empty the bowl and again put it on the top of thewater in the pot. He would record the number of times the bowl sank by putting small stones into a jar.

The place where the clock was situated, and its managers, were collectively known as khaneh fenjaan . Usuallythis would be the top floor of a public house, with west- and east-facing windows to show the time of sunset andsunrise. There was also another time-keeping tool named a staryab or astrolabe, but it was mostly used for superstitious beliefs and was not practical for use as a farmers' calendar. The Zeebad Gonabad water clock was inuse until 1965, when it was substituted by modern clocks.

.[9]

Maintenance

The vertical shafts may be covered to minimize blown-in sand. The channels of qanats must be periodicallyinspected for erosion or cave-ins, cleaned of sand and mud and otherwise repaired. For safety, air flow must beassured before entry.

Restoration

Some damaged qanats have been restored. To be sustainable, restoration needs to take into account manynontechnical factors beginning with the process of selecting the qanat to be restored. In Syria, three sites werechosen based on a national inventory conducted in 2001. One of them, the Drasiah qanat of Dmeir, was completed
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dmeir&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drasiah&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowruzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tireg%C4%81nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yald%C4%81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeebadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A2%D8%A8.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG


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Wind tower and qanat used for cooling.

Yakhchal in Yazd Province

in 2002. Selection criteria included the availability of a steady groundwater flow, social cohesion and willingness to

contribute of the community using the qanat, and the existence of a functioning water-rights system. [10]

Applications of qanats

Irrigation and drinking water supply

The primary applications of qanats are for irrigation, providing cattle with water, and drinking water supply. Other applications include cooling and ice storage.

Cooling

Qanats used in conjunction with a wind tower can provide coolingas well as a water supply. A wind tower is a chimney-likestructure positioned above the house; of its four openings, the oneopposite the wind direction is opened to move air out of thehouse. Incoming air is pulled from a qanat below the house. Theair flow across the vertical shaft opening creates a lower pressure(see Bernoulli effect) and draws cool air up from the qanat tunnel,mixing with it. The air from the qanat is drawn into the tunnel atsome distance away and is cooled both by contact with the cooltunnel walls/water and by the transfer of latent heat of evaporationas water evaporates into the air stream. In dry desert climates thiscan result in a greater than 15C reduction in the air temperaturecoming from the qanat; the mixed air still feels dry, so the

basement is cool and only comfortably moist (not damp). Windtower and qanat cooling have been used in desert climates for

over 1000 years. [11]

Ice storage

By 400 BC Persian engineers had mastered the technique of storing ice in the

middle of summer in the desert. [12]

The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains. But in amore usual and sophisticated method they built a wall in the eastwest direction

near the yakhchal (ice pit). In winter, the qanat water would be channeled to thenorth side of the wall, whose shade made the water freeze more quickly,increasing the ice formed per winter day. Then the ice was stored in yakhchals specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators. A large underground space withthick insulated walls was connected to a qanat, and a system of windcatchers or

wind towers was used to draw cool subterranean air up from the qanat to maintain temperatures inside the space at

low levels, even during hot summer days. As a result, the ice melted slowly and was available year-round. [12]

Qanats by country
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windcatcherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakhchalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_heathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazd_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakhchalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qanat_wind_tower.svg


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Probable diffusion of Qanat technology

Karez gallery near Turpan, Xinjiang,China

Asia

Afghanistan

The Qanats are called Kariz in Dari (Persian) andPashto and have been in use since the pre-Islamic

period. It is estimated that more than 20,000 Karizes

were in use in the 20th century. The oldest functional Kariz which is more than 300 years old and 8kilometers long is located in Wardak province and is

still providing water to nearly 3000 people. [13] Theincessant war for the last 30 years has destroyed a number of these ancient structures. In these troubled timesmaintenance has not always been possible. To add to the troubles, as of 2008 the cost of labour has become veryhigh and maintaining the Kariz structures is no longer possible. Lack of skilled artisans who have the traditionalknowledge also poses difficulties. A number of the large farmers are abandoning their Kariz which has been in their families sometimes for centuries, and moving to tube and dug wells backed by diesel pumps.

However, the government of Afghanistan is aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts are beingmade to repair, reconstruct and maintain (through the community) the kariz. The Ministry of Rural Rehabilitationand Development along with National and International NGOs is making the effort.

There are still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces are reported to have unintentionally destroyedsome of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local

community. [14] Some of these tunnels have been used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment

underground. [15]

China

The oasis of Turpan, in the deserts of Xinjiang in northwestern China,uses water provided by qanat (locally called karez ). The number of karez systems in the area is slightly below 1,000, and the total length of

the canals is about 5,000 kilometers. [16]

Turpan has long been the center of a fertile oasis and an important tradecenter along the Silk Road's northern route, at which time it was adjacentto the kingdoms of Korla and Karashahr to the southwest. The historical

record of the karez extends back to the Han Dynasty. The Turfan Water Museum is a Protected Area of the People's Republic of China becauseof the importance of the Turpan karez water system to the history of thearea.

India

In Karnataka, India, a Qanat-type structure called Suranga is used to tap underground water. However, these arerarely in use these days.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surangahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turpan_water_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_Areas_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karashahrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korlahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turpanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardak_provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashto_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dari_(Persian)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kariz_(water_supply)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjianghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turpanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turfan_water_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg


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This qanat surfacing in Fin is from aspring thought to be several thousandyears old, called The Spring of

Solomon ("Cheshmeh-ye Soleiman").It is thought to have been feeding theSialk area since antiquity.

A Kariz surfacing in Niavaran,Tehran. It is used for watering thegrounds of The National Library of Iran.

There are karez (qanat) systems in Gulburga, Bidar and Burhanpur (Kundi Bhandara) as well. The system in Bidar with 21 vertical shafts is said to extend for about two kilometers, with 21 vertical shafts, of which a few have beenclosed by builders and developers, leaving 17 visible today. The karez vertical shafts are used by farmers andneighborhood settlements. The Indian Heritage Cities Network Foundation (IHCNF) has been working towardsconservation of the Karez system. During its survey, IHCNF also discovered a royal bath (Bagh-e-Hammam)

probably of the Bahmani period. Local knowledge claims the presence of a terra cotta pipe from the karez mouthto Bagh-e-Hammam.

Indonesia

It has been suggested that underground temples at Gua Made in Java reached by shafts, in which masks of a green

metal were found, originated as a qanat. [17]

Iran

In the middle of the twentieth century, an estimated 50,000 qanats were

in use in Iran, [6] each commissioned and maintained by local users. Of these, only 25,000 remain in use as of 1980.

One of the oldest and largest known qanats is in the Iranian city of Gonabad, and after 2,700 years still provides drinking and agriculturalwater to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than 360meters and its length is 45 kilometers. Yazd, Khorasan and Kerman arezones for known for their dependence on an extensive system of qanats .

In traditional Persian architecture, a Kariz ( ,is a small Qanat (usually within a network inside an urban setting. The Kariz is the structurethat distributes a qanat to its final destinations.

Iraq

A survey of qanat systems in the Kurdistan region of Iraq conducted bythe Department of Geography at Oklahoma State University (USA) on

behalf of UNESCO in 2009 found that out of 683 karez systems, some380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 in 2009. Reasons for thedecline of qanats include "abandonment and neglect" prior to 2004,"excessive pumping from wells" and, since 2005, drought. Water shortages are said to have forced, since 2005, over 100,000 people whodepended for their livelihoods on karez systems to leave their homes. Thestudy says that a single karez has the potential to provide enoughhousehold water for nearly 9,000 individuals and irrigate over 200hectares of farmland. UNESCO and the government of Iraq plan torehabilitate the karez through a Karez Initiative for CommunityRevitalization to be launched in 2010. Most of the karez are inSulaymaniyah Governorate (84%). A large number are also found in Erbil Governorate (13%), especially on the

broad plain around and in Erbil city. [18]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbil_Governoratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulaymaniyah_Governoratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khorasan_(Province)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonabadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gua_Made&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niavaranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kariz_(water_supply)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qanat_Niavaran.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sialkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fin_(garden)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qanat_Kashan.jpg


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Jordan

Among the qanats built in the Roman Empire, the 94 km long Gadara Aqueduct in northern Jordan was possibly

the longest continuous qanat ever built. [19] Partly following the course of an older Hellenistic aqueduct, excavationwork arguably started after a visit by emperor Hadrian in 129-130 AD. The Gadara Aqueduct was never quitefinished and was put in service only in sections.

Pakistan

The Chagai district is in the north west corner of Balochistan, Pakistan, bordering with Afghanistan and Iran.Qanats, locally known as karezes , are found more broadly in this region. They are spread from Chaghai district allthe way up to Zhob district. A number of them are present in Qilla Abdullah and Pishin districts. Karezes are alsoextensively found in the neighbouring areas of Afghanistan such as Kandahar. The remains of karezes found indifferent parts of the district are attributed to the Arabs.

Syria

Qanats were found over much of Syria. The widespread installation of groundwater pumps has lowered the water

table and qanat system. Qanats have gone dry and been abandoned across the country. [20]

Arabian Peninsula

Oman

In Oman from the Iron Age Period (found in Salut, Bat and other sites) a system of underground aqueducts calledFalaj were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels. Thereare three types of Falaj: Daudi ( ) with underground aqueducts, Ghaili ( requiring a dam to collect the (water, and Aini ( whose source is a water spring. These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dryland (environment. According to UNESCO, some 3,000 aflaj (plural) or falaj (singular), are still in use in Oman today.

Nizwa, the former capital city of Oman, was built around a falaj which is in use to this day. These systems date to before the Iron Age in Oman. In July 2006, five representative examples of this irrigation system were inscribed as

a World Heritage Site. [21]

United Arab Emirates

The oasis of Al Ain in the United Arab Emirates continues traditional falaj (qanat) irrigations for the palm grovesand gardens.

North Africa

Egypt

There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The Kharga Oasis is one that has been extensively studied. Thereis evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BC water brought in qanats was being used. Theqanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharga_Oasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Ainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(political)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizwahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falajhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandaharhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pishin_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qilla_Abdullahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhobhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagai_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Pakistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagai_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_civilizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadara_Aqueducthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire


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The falaj irrigationsystem at Al Ain Oasis

Exit of a foggara in Libya

a basin behind a small dam at the end. The width is approximately 60 cm, but the height ranges from 5 to 9 meters;it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran).

From there the water was used to irrigate fields. [8][22]

There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved bydriving a side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage)into the hill of Ayn-Manwr to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock

presumably at points where water seeped from the rocks are evident. [22]

Libya

David Mattingly reports foggara extending for hundreds of miles in the Garamantesarea near Jarma in Libya: "The channels were generally very narrow - less than 2 feetwide and 5 high - but some were several miles long, and in total some 600 foggaraextended for hundreds of miles underground. The channels were dug out andmaintained using a series of regularly spaced vertical shafts, one every 30 feet or so,

100,000 in total, averaging 30 feet in depth, but sometimes reaching 130." [23]

Tunisia

The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar tothat of the Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steepmountain range such as the eastern ranges of the Atlas mountains. Rainfall in themountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. Thefoggara, 1 to 3 km in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water.Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over a ten-meter width, with width reckoned by the size of plot that the available

water will irrigate. [24]

Algeria

Qanats (designated foggaras in Algeria) are the source of water for irrigation in large oases like that at Gourara. The foggaras are also foundat Touat (an area of Adrar 200 km from Gourara). The length of thefoggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers.

Although sources suggest that the foggaras may have been in use as early as 200 AD, they were clearly in use bythe 11th century after the Arabs took possession of the oases in the 10th century and the residents embraced Islam.

The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution weirs that meter flow to the various canals,each for a separate user.

The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient inthe vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter the foggara. The moist air of theagricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite direction to the water run-off. In the foggara it condenses
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gourarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_mountainshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jarma&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garamanteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Mattinglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foggara_01.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg


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Water "metering" through adistribution weir on a foggara inAlgeria

on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This

condensed moisture is available for reuse. [25]

Morocco

In southern Morocco, the qanat (locally khettara ) is also used. On themargins of the Sahara Desert, the isolated oases of the Draa River valley

and Tafilalt have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14thcentury. In Marrakech and the Haouz plain, the qanats have beenabandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area,half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The Hassan Adahkil Dam'simpact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the

loss of half of the khettara. [20]

The black berbers ( haratin ) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and

repair these systems. Their work was hazardous. [7]

Armenia

Qanats have been preserved in Armenia in the community of Shvanidzor, in the southern province of Syunik, bordering with Iran. Qanats are named kahrezes in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of themwere constructed in XII-XIVc, even before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005.Potable water runs through I, II and V kahrezs. Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition. In the summer,especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.

Azerbaijan

The territory of Azerbaijan was home to numerous kahrizes many centuries ago. Archaeological findings suggestthat long before the ninth century AD, kahrizes by which the inhabitants brought potable and irrigation water to their settlements were in use in Azerbaijan. Traditionally, kahrizes were built and maintained by a group of masons calledKankans with manual labour. The profession was handed down from father to son.

It is estimated that until the 20th century, nearly 1500 kahrizes, of which as many as 400 were in the NakhichevanAutonomous Republic, existed in Azerbaijan. However, following the introduction of electric and fuel-pumped wellsduring Soviet times, kahrizes were neglected.

Today, it is estimated that 800 are still functioning in Azerbaijan. These operational kahrizes are key to the life of many communities.

International Organization for Migration and the Revival of Kahriz

In 1999, upon the request of the communities in Nakhichevan, taking into consideration the needs and priorities of the communities, especially women as the main beneficiaries, IOM began implementing a pilot programme torehabilitate the kahrizes. By 2011 IOM rehabilitated more 143 kahrizes with funds from the United Nations
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhichivan_Autonomous_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakhichevan_Autonomous_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syunikhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shvanidzorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haratinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draa_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foggara_02.jpg


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat 13

Development Programme (UNDP), European Commission (EC), Canada International Development Agency(CIDA), Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and the Bureau of Population, Refugees, andMigration, US State Department (BPRM) and the self-contribution of the local communities.

KOICA and IOM's Ongoing Kahriz Rehabilitation Project in Azerbaijan

In 2010, IOM began a kahriz rehabilitation project with funds from the Korea International Cooperation Agency(KOICA) which aims to fully renovate a total of 20 kahrizes in the mainland of Azerbaijan. Of these 20 kahrizes,already 16 have been rehabilitated and four are currently under rehabilitation. IOM will complete the works by theend of 2012.

Europe

Greece

The Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos runs for 1 kilometre through a hill to supply water to the town of

Pythagorion. [26] It was built on the order of Polycrates around 550 BC. At either end of the tunnel proper, shallowqanat -like tunnels carried the water from the spring and to the town.

Italy

The 5,653 m long Claudius Tunnel, intended to drain the largest Italian inland water, Fucine Lake, was constructed

using the qanat technique. It featured shafts up to 122 m deep. [27] The entire ancient town of Palermo in Sicily wasequipped with a huge qanat system built during the Arab period (8271072). Many of the qanats are now mappedand some can be visited. The famous Scirocco room has an air-conditioning system cooled by the flow of water ina qanat and a "wind tower", a structure able to catch the wind and use it to draw the cooled air up into the room.

Luxembourg

The Raschptzer near Helmsange in southern Luxembourg is a particularly well preserved example of a Romanqanat. It is probably the most extensive system of its kind north of the Alps. To date, some 330 m of the total tunnel

length of 600 m have been explored. Thirteen of the 20 to 25 shafts have been investigated. [28] The qanat appearsto have provided water for a large Roman villa on the slopes of the Alzette valley. It was built during the Gallo-Roman period, probably around the year 150 and functioned for about 120 years thereafter.

Spain

There are still many examples of galeria or qanat systems in Spain, most likely brought to the area by the Moorsduring their occupation of the Iberian peninsula. Turrillas in Andalusia on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de

Alhamilla has evidence of a qanat system. Granada is another site with an extensive qanat system. [29]

The Americas

Qanats in the Americas, usually referred to as filtration galleries, can be found in the Nazca region of Peru and in

northern Chile. [20] The Spanish introduced qanats into Mexico in 1520 AD. [30]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programmehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sierra_de_Alhamilla&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turrillashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzettehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_villahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmsangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raschp%C3%ABtzerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily#Arab_Sicily_.28827.E2.80.931091.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicilyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palermohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fucine_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_International_Cooperation_Agencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bureau_of_Population,_Refugees,_and_Migration,_US_State_Department&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Agency_for_Development_and_Cooperationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canada_International_Development_Agency&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme


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http://en.wi kipedia.org/wiki/Qanat 14/17

See al so

Ab Anbar

Acequia

Menara gardens

Oa sis

Tra ditional water sources of Persian antiquity

Ya k hchal, ancient natural refrigerators in Persia

Notes

1. ^ Wilson, Andrew (2008). "Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply". In John Peter Oleson. Handbook of

Eng ineering and Technology in the Classical World (New York: Oxford University Press). p. 291f. ISBN 978-0-

19-973485-6.

2. ^ Goldsmith, Edward. The qanats of Iran (http://www.edwardgoldsmith.org/1031/the-qanats-of-iran/).3. ^ "The quanats of Iran" (http://users.bart.nl/~leenders/txt/qanats.html). Bart.nl .

4. ^ "Qanats" (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/qanats.pdf). Water History .

5. ^ "K areez (kariz, karez, qanat)" (http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/kareez/index.htm). Heritage

Inst it ute.

6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Kheirabadi, Masoud (1991). Iranian Cities: Formation and Development . University of

Tex as Press. ISBN 0-292-78517-8.

7. ^ a b Article titled Etymological Conduit to the Land of Qanat by Dr. V. Sankaran Nair, 2004

(htt p://www.boloji.com/environment/24.htm)

8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Smith, Anthony (1953). Blind White Fish in Persia . London, George Allen & Unwin. ISBN

none.

9. ^ a b conference of Qanat in Iran - water clock in persia1] 1383 [

(htt p://www.aftabir.com/articles/view/science_education/technical/c3c1183387267p1.php/%D9%82%D9%86%D8

%A7%D8%AA-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-

%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C-

%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86)

10. ^ We ssels, K. (2000), Renovating Qanats in a changing world, a case study in Syria, paper presented to the

Inte r national Syposuim on Qanats, May 2000, Yazd, Iran, quoted in:WaterHistory.org:Qanats(htt p://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/), accessed on October 25, 2009

11. ^ Bahadori MN (February 1978). "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture". Scientific American 238 (2):

144 54. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0278-144 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144).

12. ^ a b Yakchal: Ancient Refrigerators (http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?/archives/1045-Yakhchal-

Anc ient-Refrigerators.html)

13. ^ " K arez: Afghanistan's Traditional Irrigation System." The Alternative Development Knowledge Network. link

(htt p://www.adkn.org/en/agriculture/article.asp?a=67)
http://www.adkn.org/en/agriculture/article.asp?a=67http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?/archives/1045-Yakhchal-Ancient-Refrigerators.htmlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/http://www.aftabir.com/articles/view/science_education/technical/c3c1183387267p1.php/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Allen_%26_Unwinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Smith_(explorer)http://www.boloji.com/environment/24.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-78517-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/kareez/index.htmhttp://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/qanats.pdfhttp://users.bart.nl/~leenders/txt/qanats.htmlhttp://www.edwardgoldsmith.org/1031/the-qanats-of-iran/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973485-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Peter_Olesonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(classical_archaeologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakhchalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_water_sources_of_Persian_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menara_gardenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acequiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab_Anbar


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Refer ences

English, Paul Ward, The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World

(htt p: //www.jstor.org/stable/986162) , in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 112,

14. ^ Michael M. Phillips Learning a Hard History Lesson in 'Talibanistan':To Accommodate New Troops, the U.S.

Mili tar y Expanded a Base and Inadvertently Disrupted Ancient Afghan Canals

(htt p://online.wsj.com/article/SB124224652409516525.html), The Wall Street Journal, May 14, 2009

15. ^ Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. "Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated

Bibl iography." (http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101) US Army Corps of Engineers, Army Geospatial Center.

16. ^ Oasis at Turpan in northwestern China uses water provided by karez .

(htt p://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/)

17. ^ Fior ella Rispoli, 'Unmasking a mystery: the curious case of the Gua Made Green masks' Current World

Archaeology 43 (Oct/Nov 2010), 42-9.

18. ^ U NESCO:Water shortage fueling displacement of people in northern Iraq, UNESCO study finds

(htt p://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=46631&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html), October

2009, accessed on October 25, 2009

19. ^ Mathias Dring. "Wasser fr Gadara 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt"

(htt ps://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf).

Quer schnitt 21: 2535. p 25, 32

20. ^ a b c History from Waterhistory.org (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/)21. ^ U NESCO:Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman (http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207/), accessed on October 25, 2009

22. ^ a b Michel Wuttmann, "The Qanats of 'Ayn-Manwr, Kharga Oasis, Egypt", in Jasr 2001, p. 1 (pdf)

(htt p://www.achemenet.com/pdf/jasr/jasr2000.1.pdf).

23. ^ T he 153 Club Newsletter (112,): 1419. July 2007 reprinted from Current world Archaeology

24. ^ "Water: symbolism and culture" (http://www.institut.veolia.org/en/cahiers/water-symbolism/water-

sym bolism/practical-issues.aspx)

25. ^ An excellent UNESCO article with numerous clear photographs showing the Foggara in Algeria

(htt p://www.mappeonline.com/unesco/atlas/data/photographical%20inventory/A17photograph.htm)

26. ^ *A postol, Tom M. (2004). "The Tunnel of Samos" (http://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdf) (PDF).

Eng ineering and Science (1): 3040

27. ^ Gr ewe, Klaus: Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau , Mainz 1998, ISBN

3-8053-2492-8, pp.94-96

28. ^ Pier re Kayser and Guy Waringo: Laqueduc souterrain des Raschptzer, un monument antique de lart de

lin gnieur au Luxembourg (http://www.raschpetzer.lu/doc/RaschpVersionDeFr.pdf). Retrieved 2 December 2007.

29. ^ (Spanish) Water supplies in Granada

(htt p://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/ghi/02143038/articulos/ELEM8484120249A.PDF) - A good visible qanat can

be s een to the west of the church of San Lorenzo, a suburb of Segovia, irrigating what were huertas (marketgar dens).

30. ^ Libyan web site on qanats (http://web.archive.org/web/20041016133645/www.qanat.info/en/colloge.php)
http://web.archive.org/web/20041016133645/www.qanat.info/en/colloge.phphttp://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/ghi/02143038/articulos/ELEM8484120249A.PDFhttp://www.raschpetzer.lu/doc/RaschpVersionDeFr.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3805324928http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Document_Formathttp://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_M._Apostolhttp://www.mappeonline.com/unesco/atlas/data/photographical%20inventory/A17photograph.htmhttp://www.institut.veolia.org/en/cahiers/water-symbolism/water-symbolism/practical-issues.aspxhttp://www.achemenet.com/pdf/jasr/jasr2000.1.pdfhttp://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdfhttp://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=46631&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlhttp://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Geospatial_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineershttp://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journalhttp://online.wsj.com/article/SB124224652409516525.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_American_Philosophical_Societyhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/986162


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9/10/2014 Qanat - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedi a


Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Qanat .

No. 3 (Jun. 21, 1968), pp. 170181, (at JSTOR)

Motiee H, Mcbean E, Semsar A, et al. (December 2006). "Assessment of the Contributions of Traditional

Qanats in Sustainable Water Resources Management"

(http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cijw/2006/00000022/00000004/art00005). Journal of

Water Resources Development 22 (4): 57588. doi:10.1080/07900620600551304

(http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F07900620600551304).

Madani K (2008). "Reasons behind Failure of Qanats in the 20th Century"

(http://scitation.aip.org/vsearch/servlet/VerityServlet?

KEY=ASCERL&smode=strresults&maxdisp=25&possible1=Madani%2C+Kaveh&possible1zone=a

uthor&OUTLOG=NO&aqs=true&viewabs=ASCECP&key=DISPLAY&docID=1&page=0&chapter

=0&aqs=true). World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008 : 18.

doi:10.1061/40976(316)77 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1061%2F40976%28316%2977). ISBN 978-0-7844-

0976-3.

Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. "Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated

Bibliography," (http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101) US Army Corps of Engi, Army Geospatial Center.

Ozden, Dursun Directed & Written by; ANATOLIAN WATER CIVILIZATION & ANATOLIAN

KARIZES-QANATS, The Documentary Film & Book, 2004-2011 Istanbul, Turkey.

http://www.dursunozden.com.tr

Ozden, Dursun; Directed & Written by; ANATOLIAN WATER CIVILIZATION & ANATOLIAN

KARIZES-QANATS, The Documentary Film & Book, 2004-2011 Istanbul, Turkey.

"http://www.dursunozden.com.tr"

External links

" (http://www.dursunozden.com.tr "

(http://www.dursunozden.com.tr/anatolianwatercivilation/anatoliankarez,Turkey)

WaterHistory.org Article on Karez in Turpan, Xinjiang, China (http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/)World Wildlife Fund Editorial on Karez in Afghanistan

(http://www.panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/opinions/news.cfm?uNewsID=2637)

Useful information on Qanat provided by Farzad Kohandel, in arabic)

(http://web.archive.org/web/20040715213146/http://www.qanat.info/) and in english

(http://web.archive.org/web/20050205102218/http://qanat.info/en/index.php)

Qanat (http://www.livius.org/q/qanat/qanat.html)

Information on Qanats (includes photo of access shafts from above)
http://www.destinationiran.com/Kariz_(Qanat).htmhttp://www.destinationiran.com/Kariz_(Qanat).htmhttp://www.livius.org/q/qanat/qanat.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20050205102218/http://qanat.info/en/index.phphttp://web.archive.org/web/20040715213146/http://www.qanat.info/http://www.panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/opinions/news.cfm?uNewsID=2637http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/http://www.dursunozden.com.tr/anatolianwatercivilation/anatoliankarez,Turkeyhttp://www.dursunozden.com.tr/http://www.dursunozden.com.tr/http://www.dursunozden.com.tr/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Geospatial_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Army_Corps_of_Engi&action=edit&redlink=1http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0976-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1061%2F40976%28316%2977http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://scitation.aip.org/vsearch/servlet/VerityServlet?KEY=ASCERL&smode=strresults&maxdisp=25&possible1=Madani%2C+Kaveh&possible1zone=author&OUTLOG=NO&aqs=true&viewabs=ASCECP&key=DISPLAY&docID=1&page=0&chapter=0&aqs=truehttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F07900620600551304http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/cijw/2006/00000022/00000004/art00005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTORhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Qanat


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