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PUBLIC Deliverable 4.3 Novice-Reader Domain Models (German, Spanish)

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Project Title: INFRASTRUCTURE AND INTEGRATED TOOLS FOR PERSONALIZED LEARNING OF READING SKILL Project Acronym:

Grant Agreement number: 731724 — iRead H2020-ICT-2016-2017/H2020-ICT-2016-1 Subject: Deliverable 4.3 Novice-Reader Domain Models (German, Spanish) Dissemination Level: PUBLIC

Lead Beneficiary:

UOI

Project Coordinator:

UCL Contributors: DFKI, UB

Revision Preparation date Period covered Project start date

Project duration

V1 March 2018 Months 1-15 01/01/2017 48 Months

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Grant Agreement No 731724


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Table of content

1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3

2. INTRODUCTION: Summary of Domain Models for various populations

Summary of educational needs of Novice Readers. 3

3. Learning to read 5

3.1 Reading development in Spanish and German 6

3.2 Methodology 7

4. Domain Model for Spanish novice readers 7

4.1 Language categories included in Spanish Domain Model for Novice Readers 7

4.2 Defining difficulty 9

4.3 Phonology 9

4.4 Orthography 10

4.5 Morphology and morphosyntax 11

4.6 Syntax 12

5. Domain Model for German novice readers 13

5.1 Methodology 13

5.1.1 Selecting language categories and features 13

5.1.2 Defining difficulty 14

5.2 Language categories included in Domain Model for German novice readers 15

5.2.1 Phonology 15

5.2.2 Orthography 16

5.2.2 Derivational morphology 17

5.2.4 Morphosyntax 19

5.2.5 Syntax 20

Conclusions 21

References 22

Appendix 1 Spanish Domain Model 26

Appendix 2 German Domain Model 105


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1. EXCECUTIVE SUMMARY

This deliverable describes the underlying rationale as well as the outline of the

developed Domain Models for Spanish and German novice readers. By building on the

description included in Deliverable 4.1 –which contains the Domain Models for dyslexic English

and Greek readers -- and Deliverable 4.2 -- which contains the Domain Models for English, Greek,

and EFL -- the main aim of this deliverable is to describe the process of learning to read, the

typical developmental reading stages, and the pedagogical aspects related to reading as they

apply to Spanish and German languages. This information is the main source and the basis for

the development of the Domain Models for Spanish and German novice readers.

This deliverable is organized in the following way: in Section 2 we deal with a short

summary of Domain Models for various populations and we summarize the educational needs

of novice readers; in Section 3 we deal with the process of reading in German and Spanish and

the methodology followed for the construction of the Domain Models; in Section 4 we present

and justify the decisions in the construction of the Spanish Domain Model that is organized by

different linguistic domains (phonology, orthography, morphology, etc.); Section 5 presents de

Domain Model for German and it describes its different linguistics domains. A final section with

references is included at the end of this document.

2. INTRODUCTION: Summary of Domain Models for various

populations

The goal of this report is to describe the structure and rationale of Domain Models for Spanish and German novice readers. As described in Deliverable 4.2 (Novice-Reader Domain Models (English, Greek, EFL)), the Games, the Reader and Text Classification feed on the linguistic and pedagogical information contained in the Domain Models, which are at the core of the iRead system. Domain Models identify and organize the linguistic levels (e.g. phonological, morphological, syntactic), categories (e.g. Nouns, verbs, adjectives) and features (e.g. /a/ /p/, verb infinitive) that a given learner needs to master at any given moment in order to acquire the skill of reading. As described in Deliverable 4.1 for the Domain Model for dyslexic readers in English and Greek (Pg. 11):

“In order to address complex reading skills, the described domain models incorporate

different linguistic levels including phonology, morphology and syntax. Each linguistic level

is represented by a number of language phenomena or structures, called language

categories, each of which includes a set of specific instances, the features. For instance,

at the phonological level domain models include categories such as syllabification,

graphemephoneme correspondence (GPC) and phonemes, and a number of features for

each category such as open, closed syllables, consonant clusters and diphthongs for

syllable patterns, or consonants and vowels in the initial and internal position for the

category of phonemes. At the morphological level domain models include the categories


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of derivational and inflectional suffixes, as well as prefixes used for derivational processes.

Specific suffixes (e.g. the English past tense –ed) constitute the linguistic features of these

categories. Within the syntactic level we included categories like function words (some

features of this category would be clitics and articles), prepositions, negative particles,

embedded constructions, passives, and discourse anaphors. Orthography is also part of

the domain models with an emphasis on letter similarity.”

D4.1 Dyslexia Domain Models (English and Greek) (Pg. 11)

This allows for the specification of personalized learning trajectories which vary

depending on individual differences, such as pace of learning and/or particular strong and weak

areas.

As described in Deliverables 4.1 and 4.2, the iRead system will include different Domain

Models adapted to the needs of different target populations: Greek and English children with

dyslexia, Greek, English, German and Spanish typically developing novice readers as well as

German, Swedish, Spanish and Rumanian learners of EFL. Beyond the common aspects of

reading affecting all children, variability is high and each community targeted by iRead has its

own learning needs as well as specific requirements and particularities. Consequently, the

different Domain Models differ to the extent that they meet the needs of the population they

are devised for. Variability has been identified as affecting mainly the learning trajectories

designed for students, which are based on the concepts of difficulty and learning prerequisites

(see D4.1, Pg. 11, for a detailed description), rather than on the linguistic material itself:

“For each of the selected linguistic features included in domain models, the following types

of information are stored: (a) characteristic examples, which include typical instances of

each feature, (b) a rating of difficulty, indicating each feature’s difficulty or complexity

relative to the rest of the features within the same category, and (c) prerequisites, which

are those features that must be acquired before a feature can be addressed in the iRead

application. Difficulty is instantiated by number values that denote a scaling of the features

that belong to a single category with respect to their relative difficulty or linguistic

complexity “

D4.1 Dyslexia Domain Models (English and Greek) (Pg. 11)

The following sections present the distinct educational needs of novice readers Spanish and

German.

2.1 Summary of educational needs of Novice Readers.

As also explained in Deliverable 4.2., by the time most children are schooled at ages 5 or

6 they have already been exposed to written language. Informal teaching of individual

graphemes and patterns may have occurred, but it is not typical until they are schooled that the

formal teaching of reading starts and hence reading development is initiated.


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In 4.2. it was suggested that formal teaching to novice readers in first grade typically

provides simple, familiar stories. Novice readers’ initial strategies may include re-reading,

making prediction and contextualizing. From letter-sound associations through letter patterns

in familiar words or parts of words they slowly start using such associations to identify new,

unknown words. In this initial process, children start recognizing short words holistically,

without analysing them into their individual graphemes. Vocabulary size keeps growing and, by

the end of the first year, they can start spelling familiar words (International Reading Association

& National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1998). Reading is heavily influenced

by individual difference in cognitive and language skills. It is well attested that academic success

is largely determined by literacy, which may happen irrespective of content and/or throughout

the whole curriculum. Literacy instruction is not solely associated with language teachers, but

depending on the class, literacy comes into play. Comfortable and rich classroom environments

filled with print, literacy practice and opportunities for writing contribute to reading

development by creating proper conditions for learning.

3. Learning to read

Here we briefly summarize section 4.2.1 in Deliverable 4.2 and then zoom in on the

particularities of Spanish and German readers.

Readers universally follow the patterns of decoding (i.e. establishing phonemes grapheme

correspondences) to read individual words, they increase their vocabulary knowledge, and

engage in syntactic and semantic processing (Cutting & Scarborough, 2006; Lyon, 1998; Nation

et al. 1999; Oakhil & Cain, 2011; Torgesen, 2000; Verhoeven & van Leeuwe, 2008). Success in

doing so leads to comprehension, which is the ultimate goal of reading. As with readers in any

other languages, individual differences in linguistic (Verhoven et al., 2010) and cognitive

abilities, such as short-term memory, affect reading (Baddeley, 1990, Jorm 1983; McDougal &

Hulme, 1994; Snowling, 1991; ) (see section 4.2.1 for a full description).

3.1 Reading development in Spanish and German

In terms of decoding in Spanish, Spanish-speaking children make fewer decoding errors than

children from other languages with deeper orthographies (Serrano et al., 2010). Reading in

Spanish is direct or shallow (although writing is not), given that the same graphemes always

produce the same sounds (Goikoetxea, 2006). Empirical evidence from young Spanish learners

at the onset of their literacy development shows that context-dependent consonants (as well as

word stress) are the most difficult elements for Spanish children in grades 2, 4 and 6 (ages 7, 9,

and 11 respectively).


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Regarding reading processes, beginning readers have been described as having a smaller

orthographic lexicon (in order to look up word-specific orthographic representations) and a

slower and more error-prone phonological route than more experienced readers. Consequently,

Spanish novice readers tend to use the phonological route almost exclusively. Only with practice,

more skilled and experienced readers may use the lexical route as well (Justicia et al., 1999). In

this line, the substantial proportion of rule-based errors in reading words and non-words among

Spanish young learners found by Goikoetxea (2006) also suggests a reliance on the non-lexical

route at the initial stages of reading development. Another sign of reliance on the non-lexical

route is that the proportion of word-nonword errors is larger than the proportion of nonword-

word errors among first and second graders. The lexical route is operational at these early stages

of reading development, although it is not fully developed. The amount of lexicalizations of non-

words increases with reading experience.

Beyond mere letter-sound identifications and decoding, reading fluency has been defined

as the ability to read words, pseudowords and texts with accuracy, in an expressive way, and

focusing on comprehension of content rather than form (Gómez-Zapata, Defior & Serrano,

2011). Reading fluency involves not only the ability to decode graphic symbols, but it also

requires the automatization of the decoding process after repeated exposure and practice with

texts, as well as the development of higher order processes like comprehension. The automatic

recognition of words is one of the essential skills in the development of literacy. In this line, the

main components in the design of the most dominant reading fluency intervention programmes

for Spanish novice readers include repeated reading and accelerated reading as the main

triggers of lexical route development, automatic word recognition and overall reading fluency

(Calet, Gutiérrez-Palma & Defior, 2017; Gómez-Zapata, Defior & Serrano, 2011; Huerta &

Matamala, 1995; Jiménez et al., 2007; Serrano, Bravo-Sánchez & Gómez-Olmedo, 2016; Torres,

2004).

Reading can be understood as the conversion of written language into sound chains. The

resulting sound chain is specified by the suprasegmental characteristics of the respective

language. On the one hand, German is regarded as a consistent written language that follows

the spelling rules of the target language. On the other hand, the syllable structure (Seymour et

al.) of German is very complex. This is due to a very complex vowel system (Maas 2006) which

faces a relatively small inventory of vowels. The anterior vowels ä,ö and ü as well as the

quantitative and qualitative differences of the other vowels pose particular difficulties in the

acquisition of written language. Especially because these are differences in meaning, e.g.

"wallen vs. Wahlen" or "Mitte vs. Miete". The suprasegmental characteristics of German are

responsible for the differences in quantity and quality. Morpheme constancy plays a particularly

important part in the spelling of German and thus also in semantic encoding, regulating that

words from the same semantic field have a regularity, in many cases a visual constancy as in

"Hand – Hände". In the pluralized word, the sound [ə] is coded with the letter to illustrate

to the reader the relationship to the singular word.


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3.2 Methodology

The Domain Models built for Spanish and German novice readers are based on the

Domain Models for English and Greek in the sense that they follow the same structure and methodology for defining linguistic levels, categories, features as well as a number of other aspects. Like in those two previous models, the focus is on the linguistic information necessary for reading development irrespective of linguistic and cognitive skills. The method of selecting language categories and features was common for the novice readers of English and Greek that, in turn, were based on the dyslexia models as described in Deliverable 4.1. The selection of language categories and features and their sequencing in terms of difficulty were first done on the basis of the literature, and these were later checked for frequency in general and children’s text corpora (see Section 3.1.2.1 of Deliverable 4.1 and Section 3.1 in Deliverable 4.2 for further details). For Spanish an existing general 20-million word corpus was used, and a corpus of 1.4 million words coming from children’s stories was created for this purpose and for the creation of a 20000-word dictionary to be used in iRead. For German, since we started building the Domain Model before creating the word dictionary, we used a corpus of children's texts created by MPI, childlex. It is presented in detail at Section 5.1.2.

Difficulty rankings (which will be drawn on by the adaptivity component) are still under debate among Consortium members. Evidence about difficulty will be collected via iRead games and analysed with the Rasch model of measurement, leading to different difficulty hierarchies for each population.

4. Domain Model for Spanish novice readers

4.1 Language categories included in Domain Model for Spanish Novice Readers

In order to create the Spanish Model we consulted all relevant sources to the description of

the Spanish language, the main one being the Grammar of Spanish (Real Academia de la Lengua

Española. Nueva gramática de la lengua Española, 2009). With the Greek and English Domain

Models as a reference, the Spanish Grammar helped identify the categories that were relevant

to our purposes. While there were many more, the categories and features that are relevant to

reading were selected and their level of potential difficulty consulted against the existing

literature.

The language categories and features that were included in the Spanish Domain Model for

novice readers are similar to those of the English and Greek models for novice readers. A

particularity of the Spanish Domain Model is that there exist a lot more features associated with

the linguistic level of morphology and fewer with phonology. In Table 1 below, we provide the

linguistic levels, language categories and some examples of features: Table 1. Categories and features included in Domain Model for Spanish Novice Readers


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Linguistic Level Language category Example features

Phonology GPC /ɲ/-ñ as in caña

Syllabification Diphthongs and hiatus 2-syllables, 3-syllables

Orthography Confusing letters b and d

Morphology Derivational Prefixes bi_, mono_, multi_ etc.

Derivational suffixes _ito, _ita,_cito_cita, _illo, _illa, etc.

Morphosyntax Inflectional suffixes: number and gender marking for nouns and adjectives

-o, -e for masculine -a, -e for feminine etc…

Inflectional suffixes: verbs

Indicative, imperative, subjunctive Present, past, etc…

Irregular inflection All irregular forms

Syntax Function words Articles, prepositions, pronouns, etc.

Adjectives Possessive adjectives

Anaphors Personal pronouns, demonstratives, locatives, possessive pronouns

Embedding adverbial clauses, complement clauses, relative clauses

Note: a number of categories in the English and Greek models were not included because they did not apply to the Spanish Domain Model: clusters (beyond the issue of syllabification), negatives, Wh-questions, modal verbs, and quantifiers. All domain models for Greek (i.e. typically developing readers, dyslexic readers), and for English (i.e. typical readers, dyslexia, EFL) have the same features. 4.2 Defining difficulty For the Spanish Domain Model, the initial ranking of difficulty has drawn on the

literature on grammar descriptions and the acquisition of Spanish as well as the frequency of

features in a children’s and general corpus. As mentioned before, each feature’s difficulty or

complexity was defined as relative to the rest of the features within the same category. The

range of difficulty went from 1 to 6 depending on each category. This double approach of

literature and frequency is important since the difficulty of some words or features may be

mitigated by the fact that they are very frequent.


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For the purpose of calculating frequencies, a general corpus of Spanish developed by

the University of Murcia with over 20 million words as well as a child corpus of 1.4 million words

including children stories were used. The latter included stories for children ranging from age 5

to children aged 11. Frequencies were automatically obtained for each of the features in the

Domain Model and a difficulty score was subsequently given to each feature. For each group of

features the number of levels of difficulty varied.

4.3 Phonology

The Spanish system has 29 graphemes (a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, ll, m, n, ñ, o, p, q,

r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z), but 25 phonemes. Of the 29 Spanish graphemes, 24 represent a unique

sound. These graphemes can be considered context-independent, as they are always

pronounced in the same way, regardless of the other letters in the word. The main difficulty for

Spanish novice readers lies in the three context-dependent consonants, which have two possible

pronunciations and thus, a more complicated grapheme-phoneme correspondence rule (even if

they always follow that rule):

- “c”: pronounced as /k/ when followed by “a”, “o”, “u” or another consonant, and

pronounced as /Ɵ/ when followed by “e” or “i”.

- “g”: pronounced as /g/ when followed by “a”, “o”, “u” or another consonant, and

pronounced as /x/ when followed by “e” or “i”.

- “r”: pronounced as /r/ in word-initial position, or in middle position if preceded by “l”, “n”

or “s”, and pronounced /ɾ/ in all other contexts.

Other difficulties that novice Spanish readers face in terms of decoding include

grapheme “u”, which is mute in the sequences “que”, “gue”, “qui”, “gui” (pronounced as /ke/,

/ge/, /ki/, /gi/ respectively). However, it is never mute in any other context, or in the sequences

“qüe”, “güe”, “qüi”, “güi” (pronounced as /kwe/, /gwe/, /kwi/, /gwi/, respectively).

Empirical evidence from young Spanish learners at the onset of their literacy

development shows that context-dependent consonants (as well as word stress) are the most

difficult elements for Spanish children in grades 2, 4 and 6 (ages 7, 9, and 11, respectively). Valle-

Arroyo (1989) as well as Cuetos (1989) found that the most frequent type of error that early

Spanish readers made involved word stress, followed by errors that involved letter “g” and,

slightly less frequently, errors involving letters “r” and “c”. Jiménez & Hernandez (2000) also

found that errors with context-dependent consonants were the most frequent type of reading

error in Spanish dyslexic readers as well as typically-developing children in grade 2. On the

contrary, errors which involved grapheme reversal or rotation (e.g. d, b, p, q) were found to be

rather infrequent in very young children, and they fell to near zero at the age of 8 years. In this

line, more recent studies (Goikoetxea, 2006; Rello, Baeza-Yates & Llisterri, 2016) have also

claimed that context-dependent consonant errors are more frequent than errors involving


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visually similar consonants, or other consonant substitutions. The error proportions found

among context-dependent consonants are far greater than the error proportions found among

all the remaining consonants together (even including the visually similar consonants). Among

all context-dependent consonants, it has also been found that grapheme “g” is the most error-

prone consonant, since most errors involve the mispronunciation of letter g, which is sometimes

pronounced as /x/ and other times as /g/.

Other sources of the ranking of difficulty of phonemes in Spanish included the works of

Defior et al. (2008), Navarro (2007), and Gómez-Fernández (1993, 1997). An example of the

morphological level is included in Table 2 below.

Table 2 Examples of phonological level, grapheme-phoneme correspondence

id linguistic

level category

feature

type description examples exceptions difficulty PREREQUISITES

55 Phonology GPC consona

nts:

nasals

/ɲ/-ñ caña 1 1 1-8 (vowels)

57 Phonology GPC consona

nts:

oclusive

/p/-p p 1 1 1-8 (vowels)

4.4 Orthography

Visually similar consonants are the second most frequent source of error for novice

Spanish readers, but they only represent a small proportion of the total consonant errors (20%).

Besides, Goikoetxea (2006) found that there was no statistically significant difference between

orientation reversal errors (involving visually similar consonants) and other substitution errors

involving other types of consonants. By second grade, children made very few errors in reading

visually similar consonants, even less than when reading other simple consonants. Thus, when

learning grapheme-phoneme correspondences (i.e. associative learning), the paired-associate

learning of letters with competing responses (i.e. context-dependent consonants) poses more

difficulties for Spanish readers than the visual discrimination of reversible letters. Empirical

evidence also shows that consonant errors in general are more frequent than vowel errors.

Vowel errors are very uncommon, which is the usual pattern in shallow orthographies (Cossu et

al., 1995; Manrique & Signorini, 1998; Rello, Baeza-Yates & Llisterri, 2016). Table 3 below

includes some examples of the orthography level.


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Table 3 Example of orthographic level, confusing letters

id linguistic

level category feature type description examples exceptions difficulty PREREQUISITES

132 Orthography Confusing

letters

Similar letter

that mirror

each other

d dedo 1 1 1-102

All grapheme-

phoneme

correspondenc

e features

133 Orthography Confusing

letters

Similar letter

that mirror

each other

p pera 1 1 1-102

All grapheme-

phoneme

correspondenc

e features

4.5 Morphology and morphosyntax

As suggested in section 2.1 above, Spanish novice readers tend to use the phonological

route almost exclusively and only when they become more skilled and experienced they start

using the lexical route as well (Justicia et al., 1999). Morphological abilities start appearing in

third grade, one grade beyond the target grade of this project. With the appearance of multi-

syllabic words, reading abilities and comprehension start being linked. The acquisitional route

for readers is to first acquire inflectional morphology (e.g. frequent verb forms), followed by

derivational morphology (e.g. diminutives), and they move to composition and parasynthesis

(González-Trujillo, 2005).

The work of Pérez-Pereira and Singer (1984) for the order of acquisition of inflectional

morphemes was taken as a reference and this helped with the difficulty ranking of the different

inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphology in Spanish is characterized by a small amount

of prefixes (some of them already lexicalized) as compared to a large number of derivational

suffixes. Again, frequency counts for each morphological feature were run and, in combination

from what was learned from the literature, they were assigned a level of difficulty. Tables 4 and

5 below contain examples of the morphological and morphosyntactic levels.

Table 4 Examples of morphological level, suffixing

id linguistic

level category

feature


149 Morphology Suffixing Derivatio

nal

NOUN: (_esa)

feminine

_esa 2 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,156-

159,163,165,173,174

,176,177,180,187,18

9,190,191,192-


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Table 5 Examples of morphosyntactic level, suffixing

4.6 Syntax

In the literature about the acquisition of Spanish syntax, there is not an exhaustive list of

features with complete information about their order of acquisition by Spanish children. Helpful

but partial lists of features (e.g. relative clauses) and their acquisition order do exist (e.g.

Fernández & Aguado, 2007; Pérez-Pereira, 1996) but they do not provide a complete map of the

acquisition of syntax. Function words, which typically carry limited meaning and typically

contribute functional information (articles, prepositions, pronouns, among others) were

obtained from standardized grammar descriptions (Real Academia de la Lengua Española. Nueva

Gramática de la Real Academia Española de la Lengua, 2009). For the detection of syntactic

patterns related to voice, word order or embedding, we again used descriptive grammars as well

as the literature on acquisition of syntactic patterns (Ojea, 2001; Perales, 2012).

197,199,209,216,223

,230,233,234,237

150 Morphology Suffixing Derivatio

nal

NOUN:

profession

(_triz)

_triz, _tor

_dor

2 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153

-

159,161,163,164,165

-

170,172,174,176,177

,180,181,187,189-

198,199,202,209,210

,216,223,228,229,23

0,233,234,235,237

id linguistic level category feature


138 Morphosyntax Suffixing Inflectio

nal/gram

matical

NOUN/ADJEC

TIVES:

number

marking (_s)

_s 1 1 1-137

139 Morphosyntax Suffixing Inflectio

nal/gram

matical

NOUN/ADJEC

TIVES:

number

marking (_es)

_es 2 2 1-137,138


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Table 6 Examples of syntactic level, anaphors

5. Domain Model for German novice readers 5.1 Methodology

5.1.1 Selecting language categories and features

Creating the domain model required for us to research for specific linguistic knowledge

in order to ensure that the rules created would adhere to the rules of German grammar as much

as possible. In addition, the need to establish levels of complexity for the linguistic rules could

only be resolved by studying not only grammar books but studies on speech pathology and

dyslexia as well.

During the research stage, a spreadsheet file was populated with rules, notes and

examples on them. The rules were separated in eight categories; rules for prefixes, suffixes,

vowels, consonants, nominal declension, verb conjugation, syllabification and syntax. Every

category would occupy one sheet in the spreadsheet file and out of these categories all of them

are completed except for syntax. Then, we clustered features that could be grouped together in

bigger categories, and we populated our Domain Model. Our final Domain Model includes the

categories included in Table 7 below.

id linguistic

level category

feature


306 Syntax Anaphors clitics Direct object

pronouns:

when

attached to a

verb

_lo, _la,

_los, _las

1 Syntax

307 Syntax Anaphors clitics Indirect

object

pronouns:

when

attached to a

verb

_me, _te,

_le, _nos,

_os, _les

1 1 Syntax


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Table 7. Categories and features included in Domain Model for Geman Novice Readers

Linguistic Level Language Area Example feature German

Novice

Phonology

GPC:Vowels /a/-a yes

GPC:Vowels-Diphthongs /ɛːɐ/-är yes

GPC:Consonants /t/-t yes

Clusters /ʃʀ/-schr yes

Morphology Prefixes unter- yes

Suffixes -los yes

Morphosyntax

Suffixes -en yes

Agreement werden_PRESENT+infinitive yes

Circumfixes ge-,-et yes

Syntax

Function words und yes

Embedding Relative clauses yes

Anaphors Prepositions yes

Clause structure W- clauses yes

Binding no

Agreement no

Orthography -

Visual processing

Letter confusion

(due to visual similarity) yes

Syllabification VC-VC yes

Vocabulary -

Word recognition

High frequency words yes

High frequency loan words yes

5.1.2 Defining difficulty

Defining the complexity of linguistic rules relies not only on the properties of the rule,

but also on the frequency that it appears in the language, and how many prerequisites it requires

in order to be acquired. Some phenomena may seem linguistically challenging but are so

frequent in the language that native speakers do not perceive them as difficult, for example the

verb sein (to be) is a highly irregular verb; however its forms are some of the most frequent

words in the German language and as a result will have a low complexity level.

In order to be able to determine how frequent a feature is in the German language, and

specifically in children’s texts, we had to find an appropriate corpus sufficiently large in size and

built on children’s texts. Our own corpus was yet not processed, so we opted for using the corpus


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childLex (Schroeder et al., 2015). childLex is a cooperation project with the University of

Potsdam and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences. The corpus contains over 10 million

words, contained in a selection of 500 children’s and reading books. The books cover the age

range of 6-12 years and can be queried either in total or in three different age groups (6-8, 9-10,

11-12 years) separately. Most of the linguistically and psychologically relevant variables are

provided for about 200,000 different words. The form used was the spreadsheet database used

to build the childLex website’s API and is available in the project’s website.

In addition to consulting frequency, we also used resources of German linguistics, such

as grammars and specialized linguistics books, as well as articles on language acquisition in

children and, whenever available, specifically in German children. They will be presented in

detail below, alongside the description of each category.

5.2. Language categories included in Domain Model for German novice readers

5.2.1 Phonology

Vowels are traditionally more challenging than consonants, regarding their linguistic

properties. In addition, German makes a distinction between long and short vowels, and the

pairs are not always orthographically distinct. Also, German possesses many short and long

diphthongs which have proven to be difficult and are acquired in later stages of speech

acquisition. The difficulty of vowels was calculated based on their phonological properties, their

length, their existence in a diphthong or not, and whether they were in a rhotic cluster.

Consonants also proved to be challenging, because some important consonants of

German are not fully acquired by the time children enter primary education (Bowen, 1998). In

addition, German possesses many consonant clusters, homorganic and heterorganic. Based on

the Index of Phonetic Complexity (IPC Chart) (Jakielski, 1999) presented in the following table,

the factors that influence the difficulty of a word’s phonemes are based not only on the sound

qualities of the phonemes, but also on their position in the word and the existence of phonemic

clusters.

Table 8 Factors affecting the difficulty of a word’s phonemes in German

Factor Easy (0 points) Difficult (1 point)

Consonant by place Labials

Coronals

Glottals

Dorsals

Consonants by manner Stops

Nasals

Glides

Fricatives

Affricates

Liquids

Vowel by class Monophtongs

Diphthongs

Rhotics


Page 16

Word shape Ends with vowel Ends with consonant

Word length Monosyllabic

Bisyllabic

More than three syllables

Singleton consonant by place Reduplicated (e.g. CV-CV) Variegated (e.g. CV-VC)

Contiguous consonants No clusters Clusters

Cluster type Homorganic (made of phonemes with

similar features)

Heterorganic

We followed a similar method as the one presented in the IPC chart (Dworzynski et al.,

2004), only that phonemes got an additive score, instead of a "1" value. In respect to "consonant

by place", every dorsal consonant (/k, g, χ, ç, j, ŋ, ʀ, ʔ/) in a word was given one point, whereas

other consonantal articulation places received no points. "Consonant by manner" corresponds

to different articulation manners and every fricative, affricate and liquid received one point (/f,

v, s, z, h, χ, ç, j, ʀ, ʃ, ʒ, pf, ts, l/).

Table 9 Examples of phonological level, grapheme-phoneme correspondence

id linguistic level category feature


48 Phonology GPC Vowels /ɛ/-e gerne 1 None

49 Phonology GPC Vowels /ɛː/-ä später 2 48

5.2.2 Orthography

Syllables can be defined in two ways: phonetic syllables and orthographic syllables. For

the project's needs, we used orthographic syllables, and defined a word's difficulty based on the

number of syllables it has. However, we plan to use a more detailed way to define syllabic

structure difficulty, as we have conducted research on this and compiled 12.500 possible syllabic

structures for German words.

In order to extract these structures, the CELEX data set was used (Baayen et al., 1995),

which is available from the University of Pennsylvania and on the website celex.mpi.nl. For

German, the total number of lemmas in CELEX is 51,728, along with 365,530 inflected forms.

The data set contains detailed information on orthography (variations in spelling, hyphenation),

phonology (phonetic transcriptions, variations in pronunciation, syllable structure, primary

stress), morphology (derivational and compositional structure, inflectional paradigms), syntax

(word class, word class-specific subcategorizations, argument structures) and word frequency

(summed word and lemma counts, based on recent and representative text corpora). We

compiled a list of all the lemmas and their orthographic syllables, and use this list in order to


Page 17

derive the syllable patterns found in the data base and their frequencies. An example of

syllabification is included in Table 10 below.

Table 10 Examples of the orthographic level, syllabification

id linguistic

level category

feature


179 Orthography Syllabification

Syllable

count in

word

3-syllable Ab‧ma‧chung 2 178

In addition, we included high-frequency words that are lexicalized and therefore get a

low difficulty score, and also high-frequency loan words, which do not abide to the rules of

German phonology and orthography, but are also frequent enough to be lexicalized. Finally, we

added rules for letter confusion in the orthographic level, and we aim to extend this category

with more knowledge from common spelling mistakes.

5.2.3 Derivational Morphology

Prefixes are dependent morphemes that are placed before the root of a word in order

to change its meaning. Prefixes do not change the category of a word therefore there is overlap

between the word categories in which we can find a prefix. However, it is interesting to make a

distinction between the word categories in which a prefix can appear; a prefix may have a higher

frequency in, for example, adjectives instead of nouns, and this could affect a prefix’s

complexity. Moreover, in German, prefixes that appear in the infinitive form of a verb are

sometimes separated in conjugation (“trennbare Verben”) which could be a factor to increase

complexity. Two arguments could be made for the complexity of separated prefixes; the first

argument is that they would be more complex than a normal prefix since the speaker needs to

remember the cases where the prefix is separated or not; however one could argue that since

these prefixes are seen as different words in the same semantic space (i.e. the same verb

paradigm) it would be easier for the speaker to recognize the prefixes as different words,

therefore making the task of recognizing a prefix less complex. Since the audience to be given

these rules is young and somewhat inexperienced with complex words, we are going to assume

that they are not exposed to too many verbs with separable prefixes, therefore this could be a

factor for higher complexity.

The prefixes were collected using German grammars (Altmann et al., 2005; Elsen, 2011;

Römer, 2006; Fabricius-Hansen et al., 2012). Our measure for determining complexity for

prefixes was heavily influenced by frequency which was calculated based on the childlex corpus.

Frequencies for the same prefix in different word categories were calculated separately. From

there complexity was determined based on frequency and whether the prefix appeared in a verb

and whether it was separable or not.


Page 18

Suffixes are dependent morphemes at the end of the word stem which bring semantic

changes and also sometimes change the category of the word. Suffixes are separated into

derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes; derivational suffixes are the ones who cause

semantic changes in the root of the word and inflectional suffixes do not change semantically a

word but they affect its syntactic position or add some specific information (e.g. tense, gender

etc.). On this section we are going to examine derivational suffixes, since inflectional suffixes

belong in Morphosyntax.

Since suffixes may change the category of the word, they have to be classified based on

the target word category that they create. Another aspect of complexity regarding derivational

suffixes is the fact that they are usually combined with inflectional suffixes in surface form (e.g.

-isieren is composed of -isier- and -en). This requires extending linguistic knowledge in order to

be identified therefore these cases will be assigned a higher complexity. Also, suffixes show a

high degree of allomorphy, that is, one morpheme may have many different forms but still be

the same morpheme. Finally, grammars [AK05] have identified many suffixes that come from a

different language and should not be considered material to be taught to younger children.

Suffixes, like prefixes, were collected by German grammars and were separated based

on their word category, and their frequency was estimated based on the childlex corpus. Suffixes

that show allomorphy or are composites were assigned a higher complexity.

Table 11 Examples of morphological level, derivational suffixes

id linguistic

level category feature type description examples exceptions difficulty PREREQUISITES

126 Morphology Derivational

suffixes

Derivational

suffixes -

People –

Noun

-er, -erin, -

är, -ärin

Lehrer,

Lehrerin,

Funktionär,

Funktionärin

1 None

5.2.4 Morphosyntax

Nominal declension includes the way articles, adjectives and nouns are declined in a

language. German shows very interesting nominal declension, because the paradigm is different

not only based on a words root but also based on its syntactic properties. On this category, we

will examine morphemes in a word level and not based on their agreement with other syntactic

elements. First of all the declension of articles is examined. All of them received a difficulty level

of 1 since they are small words which are very frequent in the vocabulary. Moving on to

adjectives, German has three declining paradigms for adjectives when they are in a noun phrase;

strong, mixed and weak inflection. Since it is not possible to determine which one is the most

frequent, complexity was measured based on the paradigm’s inflectional suffixes; Weak


Page 19

inflection is marked as the easiest one because it only includes two variations of inflectional

suffixes, strong inflexion is next in difficulty because the inflectional suffixes follow the same

declension pattern as the definite article, and mixed inflection is considered to be the most

difficult one. Concerning nouns, the different possible suffixes for every case were identified.

There is overlap between cases, however this could potentially be resolved when the syntax

category is introduced. All nouns, normal and weak, are covered. A part of nominal declension

not covered for now is the stem changes from a short vowel to a long one, in the plural number.

This can be addressed once a morphological parser is implemented.

Table 12 Examples of the morphosyntactic level, inflectional suffixes

id linguistic level category Feature type description examples exceptions difficulty PREREQUISITES

167 Morphosyntax

Inflection

al

suffixes

Noun

declension,

Normal cases,

Nominative,

Plural

-er, -e, -s Kinder,

Radios 1 178

Verb conjugation is examined only for tenses that are created with one word; tenses

that are build with modal verbs are addressed in the Syntax category. The tenses we examined

are present simple and past simple. Their paradigms are analyzed based on person and number.

In addition, irregular verbs are listed in separate rules for the same tenses this is received a low

frequency score because they’re very frequent in written and oral communication.

5.2.5 Syntax

Function words are the ones whose purpose is to contribute to the syntax rather than

the meaning of a sentence, and they are articles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, interjections,

prepositions, conjunctions, particles, expletives and pro sentences. They were, again, collected

from German grammar books, and their difficulty was calculated based on their frequency.

Given that function words are usually very frequent in text, they received lower difficulties.

In order to determine syntactic patters, we first resorted to studying German grammars

(Altmann et al., 2007; Altmann et al., 2010; Koukidis, 1999), as well as German schoolbooks

(Brunold et al., 2011; Burgel et al., 2010, Gisela et al., 2013; Wetter, 2006; Wetter, 2013;

Namour, 2012, Wachendorf et al., 2015) and German methods for foreign language speakers

(Kuhn et al., 2010), in order to gain an understanding of what is expected to be taught to novice

readers, in what order of difficulty, and what the prerequisites for this knowledge would be.


Page 20

We determined syntactic patterns in the following way; we took examples from our

resources and ran them through our syntactic parser, which returns every word per sentence

tagged using an evolution of (universal) Stanford dependencies, Google universal part-of-speech

tags, and the Interset interlingua for morphosyntactic tagsets. We then used the tags of each

word to create patterns, signifying the presence of a phenomenon or not (e.g. if the word is an

adjective and has the amod tag and is mapped to the word in position X, this means that it is an

attribute to the noun which is in position X in the sentence). Thus, we can account for more

complex cases of agreement, or cases where there is a more unexpected sentence structure (as

German has free word order in sentences, prepositions that can be positioned before or after

their object, separable verbs, etc.). We also used the same method to determine the presence

of tenses that are created with auxiliary or modal verbs. Finally, we determined structures for

simple sentences, based on Stanford dependencies, as it is not feasible for German to determine

a structure based only on parts-of-speech.

Table 13 Examples of the syntactic level, function words

id linguistic level category feature type description examples exceptions difficulty PREREQUISITES

207 Syntax Function

words

Prepositions

With

accusative

bis, durch,

entlang, für,

gegen,

ohne, um,

wider

2 None

249 Syntax Discourse

anaphors

Definite

pronoun

DET=det,Pr

onType=Art

Die

Wohnung

wird

durchsuc

ht.

1 184,157

272 Syntax Clause

structure

Simple clause,

bitransitive

verb

nsubj+root

+iobj+obj

Sie bot

mir ein

Stück

Kuchen

an.

2 268,270

Conclusions Deliverable 4.3 has summarized general information about how children learn to read that was included in Deliverable 4.1 and Deliverable 4.2. It has extended the description to the specific process and patterns involved in the learning of German and Spanish. It has also provided arguments and evidence for the selection and sequencing in terms of frequency and has made methodological decisions explicit.


Page 21

The task of creating a Domain Model that represents all the linguistic features of a language and that is also adapted to the learning needs and capacities of children involves knowledge from various fields (Linguistics, Psycholinguistics, Education) as well as well-grounded linguistic intuitions. These models can certainly be extended or revised with new information that we acquire from studying and trial runs with children in educational settings.


Page 22

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Appendices

Appendix I. Spanish Domain Model for Novice Readers

ID Languistic level Category Feature Examples Difficulty level of feature

Prerequisites

1 Phonology GPC /a/-a casa, amo, pala 1 none

2 Phonology GPC /e/-e espejo, en, elefante 1 none

3 Phonology GPC /i/-i idiota, isla, imán 1 none

4 Phonology GPC /o/-o oso, polo, piso 1 none

5 Phonology GPC /u/-u útil, uno, cuna 1 none

6 Phonology GPC /j/-i peine, ciego, caigo 1 none

7 Phonology GPC /j/-y none

8 Phonology GPC /w/-u huevo, pausa, aunque 1 none

9 Phonology Syllabification /aj/-ai aire, caigo, traigo 1 1,6

10 Phonology Syllabification /aj/-ay hay 1 1,7

11 Phonology Syllabification /aw/-au pausa, causa, aula 1 1,8

12 Phonology Syllabification /ej/-ei afeitar, peine, aceite 1 2,6

13 Phonology Syllabification /ew/-eu neutro, Europa, fideuá 2 2,8

14 Phonology Syllabification /je/-ie tierra, pie, tierno 1 2,6

15 Phonology Syllabification /ja/-ia hacia, piano, anciano 1 1,6

16 Phonology Syllabification /jo/-io radio, piojo, adiós 1 4,6

17 Phonology Syllabification /ju/-iu viuda, ciudad, triunfo 2 5,6


Page 27

18 Phonology Syllabification /oj/-oi boina, oigo, sóis 1 4,6

19 Phonology Syllabification /oj/-oy hoy, soy, doy 1 4,7

20 Phonology Syllabification /wa/-ua cuatro, cuadro, agua 1 1,8

21 Phonology Syllabification /wj/-ui fui, cuidado, arruinado 1 5,6

22 Phonology Syllabification /wj/-uy muy, huy, 2 5,7

23 Phonology Syllabification /we/-ue fuego, luego, puedo 1 2,8

24 Phonology Syllabification /wo/-uo cuota, monstruo, continuo 2 4,8

25 Phonology Syllabification /a/ + /e/ caerse, paella, faena 1 1,2

26 Phonology Syllabification /a/ + /i/ país, raíz, maíz 1 1,3

27 Phonology Syllabification /a/ + /o/ tira(d)o, ahorcado, caos 2 1,4

28 Phonology Syllabification /a/+ /u/ baúl, Raúl, Saúl 1 1,5

29 Phonology Syllabification /e/+ /a/ peatón, afea, airea 1 2,1

30 Phonology Syllabification /e/ + /e/ leer, creer, afee 1 2

31 Phonology Syllabification /e/+ /o/ feo, leo, reo 1 2,4

32 Phonology Syllabification /e/ + /i/ reí, freí, leí 2 2,3

33 Phonology Syllabification /e/ + /u/ reúne, neúmeno, feúcho 2 2,5

34 Phonology Syllabification /i/ + /a/ día, alegría, energía 1 1,3

35 Phonology Syllabification /i/ + /e/ ríe, confíe, enfríes 1 2,3

36 Phonology Syllabification /i/ + /o/ río, pío, lío 1 3,4

37 Phonology Syllabification /o/ + /a/ toalla, almohada, boa 1 1,4

38 Phonology Syllabification /o/+ e/ Noé, poeta, roedor 2 2,4

39 Phonology Syllabification /o/ + /i/ egoísta, oído, arcoíris 1 3,4

40 Phonology Syllabification /o/ + /o/ zoo, microondas, coordinar 1 4

41 Phonology Syllabification /u/ + /a/ púa, evalúa, grúa 3 1,5

42 Phonology Syllabification /u/ + /o/ acentúo, dúo, flúor 3 4,5


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43 Phonology Syllabification /a/ + /a/ azahar, Abraham, albahaca 3 1

44 Phonology Syllabification /i/ + /i/ chiíta, antiinflmatorio, antiimperialista

3 3

45 Phonology Syllabification /u/ + /e/ licúe, evalúe, hindúes 3 2,5

46 Phonology GPC /jaw/-iau miau, semi_automático 4 1-8

47 Phonology GPC /jew/-ieu antieuropeo 4 1-8

48 Phonology GPC /waj/-uai guay 4 1-8

49 Phonology GPC /waw/-uau guau 4 1-8

50 Phonology GPC /jaj/-iai criáis, limpiáis 4 1-8

51 Phonology GPC /jej/-iei enviéis, viera 4 1-8

52 Phonology GPC /wej/-uei averigüeis, buey 4 1-8

53 Phonology GPC /m/-m malo, mesa, melón 1 1-8

54 Phonology GPC /n/-n no, nota, negro 1 1-8

55 Phonology GPC /ɲ/-ñ daño, guiño, niño 1 1-8

56 Phonology GPC /N/-n 1 1-8

57 Phonology GPC /p/-p pala, perro, pico 1 1-8

58 Phonology GPC /t/-t tos, tarta, pato 1 1-8

59 Phonology GPC /d/-d dos, dedo, dado 1 1-8

60 Phonology GPC /ʧ/-ch coche, chorizo, pecho 1 1-8

61 Phonology GPC /f/-f gafas, fuerza, fondo 1 1-8

62 Phonology GPC /l/-l Lola, pelo, fatal 1 1-8

63 Phonology GPC /ɾ/-r pero, cero, coro 1 1-8

64 Phonology GPC /s/-s sí, siesta, suerte 1 1-8


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65 Phonology GPC /b/-b beso, boca, boda 2 1-8

66 Phonology GPC /b/-v vaso, vuelo, vino 2 1-8

67 Phonology GPC /k/-c carro, cubo, casa 2 1-8

68 Phonology GPC /k/-qu quilo, queso, quince 2 1-8

69 Phonology GPC /k/-k kárate, kiwi, koala 3 1-8

70 Phonology GPC /θ/-c cigüeña, cinco, cerdo 2 1-8

71 Phonology GPC /θ/-z zona, zapato, zanahoria 2 1-8

72 Phonology GPC /g/-g goma, gato, paga 2 1-8

73 Phonology GPC /g/-gu guerra, guitarra, gusano 2 1-8

74 Phonology GPC /x/-g gigante, girar, gesto 2 1-8

75 Phonology GPC /x/-j cajón, jota, 2 1-8

76 Phonology GPC /ʝ/-ll llorar, paella, lluvia 2 1-8

77 Phonology GPC /ʝ/-y ya, hoyo, yeso 2 1-8

78 Phonology GPC /r/-r risa, rata, rosa 2 1-8

79 Phonology GPC /r/-rr jarra, marrón, carro 2 1-8

80 Phonology GPC /b/-b baca, beber, boca 2 1-8

81 Phonology GPC /b/-v vaca, veneno, verano 2 1-8

82 Phonology GPC /k/ carro, cosa, cuidado 3 67,70,71

83 Phonology GPC /θ/ cero, cerilla, cinturón 3 67,70,71

84 Phonology GPC /g/ guisante, pingüino, guerra 3 72,73

85 Phonology GPC /g/ gajas, gota, gusto 3 72,73

86 Phonology GPC /x/ gente, gitano, geranio 3 74,75


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87 Phonology GPC /x/ jardín, jefe, jirafa, jota, jugar 3 74,75

88 Phonology GPC /r/ ropa, rojo, reja 1 01-ago

89 Phonology GPC /r/ sierra, carro, zorro 1 78,79

90 Phonology GPC /ɾ/ paro, cero, coro 2 78,79

91 Phonology GPC /r/ rojo, reja, roto 1 78,79

92 Phonology GPC /ks/ examen, relax, extranjero 1 64,67

93 Phonology GPC /ʧ/ pecho, techo, chocolate 1 60

94 Phonology GPC /j/ rey, rayo, yeso 1 2,7

95 Phonology GPC /j/ ralla, malla, falla 1 2,7

96 Phonology GPC /i/ isla, hilo, rico 1 3,7

97 Phonology GPC /i/ y 1 3,7

98 Phonology GPC /θ/ centro, cedro, cianuro 2 70,71

99 Phonology GPC /θ/ zona, zeta, zarza 2 70,71

100 Phonology GPC / / hola, hielo, hotel 1 01-ago

101 Phonology GPC / / quemar, quiero, que 1 68

102 Phonology GPC / / guisar, guisante, guerra 1 84

103 Phonology Syllabification V y, o, u 1 1-102

104 Phonology Syllabification VV hielo, aula, huevo 1 1-102

105 Phonology Syllabification CV si, no, la 1 1-102

106 Phonology Syllabification CVV fiera, aceite, abuela 2 1-102, 103-105, 112

107 Phonology Syllabification CCV crema, blanco, bravo, 2 1-102, 103-105, 112

108 Phonology Syllabification CCVV pleito, Braulio, hidráulico 2 1-102, 103-105, 112

109 Phonology Syllabification VC árbol, alma, altar 2 1-102, 103-105, 112

110 Phonology Syllabification VCC instrumento, instrucción, inspiración

3 1-102, 103-109, 112


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111 Phonology Syllabification VVC austero, auspiciar, huerto 3 1-102, 103-109, 112

112 Phonology Syllabification CVC cantar, cargo, cerdo 1 1-102

113 Phonology Syllabification CVCC construir, constreñir, instrumento

3 1-102, 103-109, 112

114 Phonology Syllabification CVVC cuento, ciento, fuente 2 1-102, 103-105, 112

115 Phonology Syllabification CVVVC apacigüáis, 3 1-102, 103-109, 112

116 Phonology Syllabification CCVC grande, blando, frasco 2 1-102, 103-105, 112

117 Phonology Syllabification CCVCC transatlántico, transtornado, transformar

3 1-102, 103-109, 112

118 Phonology Syllabification CCVVC triente, cliente, crianza 3 1-102, 103-109, 112

119 Phonology Syllabification 2_syllable 1 1-102

120 Phonology Syllabification 3_syllable 1 1-102,119





125 Phonology Syllabification Open: V, VV, CV, CVV

y, oí, hola, ella, cielo, suelo, cada, misa, quiero

1 1-102, 103-106

126 Phonology Syllabification Open: V, VV, CV, CVV, Closed: VC and vice versa

árbol, alma, altar 2 1-102, 103-106, 109


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127 Phonology Syllabification Open: V, VV, CV, CVV or Closed: VC, VCC with Complex: CCV

blanco, amable, pueblo, brazo, brinco, brisa, claro, incluir, clave, cráter, cromo, criada, drama, dromedario, ladrón, flaco, flojo, fluor, fruta, frita, frota, globo, glaciar, gladiador, grande, gruta, gramo, plato, plácido, plena, premio, pronto, prisa, trampa, trompa, trapo

2 1-102, 103-107, 109,110


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128 Phonology Syllabification 2 consonants cansar, ganso, tenso, objetivo, objeto, absurdo, acción, traductor, adjetivo, ignorar, esmeralda, simpático, gimnasio, inmenso, enriquecer, trasplante, aceptar, escenario, español, estación, esmero, atleta, excepto, expansión

2 1-102,105,109


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129 Phonology Syllabification 3 consonants across syllables

estrella, hermanastro, estrépito, entrar, centrar, encontrar, hombre, hambre, cumbre, simple, imprimir, instante, tendré, ingresar

3 1-102, 105, 107, 109, 112


temblar, tendré, ingresar, escribir, extra, ancho, ancla, desprecio, espléndido, sorpresa, inspirar, percha, enfrente, increíble, obstinado, expresar, transformar, explicar, desgracia

4 1-102,107,109,112


saldrá, pulcro, esclavo, actriz, mezcla, disfrutar, resfriado, disfraz, disfrutar, inflar, maltrato, perplejo, inglés, transmitir, colchón, instrumento, inscribir

5 1-102,107,109,112,130

132 Orthography Confusing letters dedo 1 01-ago

133 Orthography Confusing letters peso 1 01-ago

134 Orthography Confusing letters beso 1 01-ago

135 Orthography Confusing letters queso 1 01-ago

136 Orthography Confusing letters 01-ago

137 Orthography Confusing letters 01-ago

138 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN/ADJECTIVES: number marking (_s)

casas, cosas, mesas, perros, carros

1 1-137


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139 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN/ADJECTIVES: number marking (_es)

camiones, coles, torres 2 1-137,138

140 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN/ADJECTIVES: common gender marking (_o, _e) masculine

piloto, oso, padre, jarabe 1 1-137

141 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN/ADJECTIVES: common gender marking (_a ) feminine

casa, taza, pera, nube, nave, base

1 1-137

142 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN: common gender marking (_e) for both femenine and masculine

el conserge, la conserge, el chimpancé, la chimpancé

4 1-137,140,141,143-145

143 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN: common gender markiing (_ista) for femenine and masculine

artista, fonambulista, especialista

2 1-137,140,141


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144 Morphosyntax unused feature unused feature

145 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN: common gender marking (Ø) neutral

general, sol, árbol 2 1-137,140,141

146 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN: frequent reversed gender marking (_a, _o, _e)

la mano, la madre, la clase, el fantasma, el idioma

3 1-137,140,141,143-145

147 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN: words taking both genders

el/la azúcar, el/la mar, el/la calor, el/la astronauta, el/la turista

4 1-137,140,141,143-146

148 Morphosyntax Suffixing NOUN: gender polisemy. Meaning changes

el capital, la capital 5 1-137,140,141,143-147

149 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: (_esa) feminine

alcaldesa 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237


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150 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: profession (_triz)

actriz, emperatriz,actor, pastor, espectador

4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

151 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_ción, _sión, _ión)

consumición, reunión, explosión

1 1-137,140,141,143-145

152 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_miento)

sufrimiento 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

153 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_je)

fichaje, forraje 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

154 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_dura)

torcedura 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,


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191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

155 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_e)

desfile, cruce 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

156 Morphology Suffixing nevada 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,187,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223,230,233,234,237

157 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_ido)

pitido 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

158 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_ón)

agarrón 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

159 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent

maldad 1 1-137,140,141,143-145


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derivation (_dad)

160 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_tad)

libertad, 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

161 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_idad)

solidaridad 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

162 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_nte)

cantante 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

163 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: frequent derivation (_ía)

policía 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

164 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent

sencillez 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-


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derivation (_ez)

159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

165 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_eza)

torpeza 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

166 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_icia)

pericia 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

167 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ura)

mordedura 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237


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168 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_or)

dulzor 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

169 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivationm (_era)

ceguera 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

170 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ismo)

sensacionalismo 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

171 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation _azgo)

noviazgo 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,21


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6,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

172 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ato)

califato 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

173 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_dero/a)

fregadero, regadera 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

174 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ero/a)

carnicero, tendera 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

175 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_torio/a)

ambulatorio, recusatoria 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237


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176 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ario/a)

cuestionario/ 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

177 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ista)

trompetista 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

178 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation ( _erío/a)

griterío 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

179 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation ( _ío)

monjío 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

180 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ero/a)

tendero, tomatera 1 1-137,140,141,143-145


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181 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_al)

dineral, ojal 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

182 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_ar)

olivar, ajuar 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

183 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_edo/a)

robledo, arboleda 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237


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184 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_iza)

caballeriza 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

185 Morphology Suffixing NOUN: less frequent derivation (_dura)

armadura 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

186 Morphology Suffixing NOUN&ADJS: diminutives

perrito,gatita, chiquitín, flaquillo, chiquitica, gordete, pequñina

1 1-137,140,141,143-145

187 Morphology Suffixing NOUN&ADJS: augmentatives

mandón, peleona, padrazo, madraza, orejotas, narizotas

3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237


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188 Morphology Suffixing NOUN&ADJS: derogatives (_ucho/a)

delgaducho 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

189 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_al)

central 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

190 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_ar)

espectacular 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

191 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_ario/a)

bancario, bancaria 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

192 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_ero/a)

casero, casera 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227


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193 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_íco/a)

metálico, eléctrica 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227

194 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_ista)

artista 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

195 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_ístico/a)

periodístico, artística 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,187,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223,230,233,234,237

196 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_(t)ivo/a)

deportivo, atractiva 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

197 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_oso/a)

aceitoso, aceitosa 2 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,159,163,173,174,180,186,189,190,191,194,196,199,209,223-227


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198 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (V_ble)

lavable 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

199 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (V_dero/a)

verdadero, verdadera 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

200 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (V_dor/a)

ensordecedor, ensordecedora

4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

201 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (V_nte)

sorprendente 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,21


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6,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

202 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (A_ísimo/a)

carísimo, carísima 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237

203 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (A_il)

gracil 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

204 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_ano/a)

aldeano, aldeana 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,216,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237


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205 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_eño/a)

norteño, norteña 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

206 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (N_izo/a)

rojizo, rojiza 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

207 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (V_dizo/a)

resbaladizo, resbaladiza 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237

208 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: frequent suffixes and derivations (V_(t)orio/a)

definitorio, definitoria 4 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,151,153-159,161,163,164,165-170,172,174,176,177,180,181,187,189-198,199,202,209,210,21


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6,223,228,229,230,233,234,235,237

209 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: less frequent derivations (N_ento/a, N_iento/a)

polvoriento, polvorienta 1 1-137,140,141,143-145

210 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: less frequent derivations N_udo/a)

orejudo, orejuda 3 1-137,140,141,143-145,151,152,156-159,163,165,173,174,176,177,180,187,189,190,191,192-197,199,209,216,223,230,233,234,237


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211 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: less frequent derivations (N_ico/a)

telefónico, telefónica 5 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161--170-177,180-182,184,187-198,199-202,204,208-210,214,216,220,223,228,229,230,231-237


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212 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: less frequent derivations (N_uzco/uzca)

negruzco 6 1-137,140,141,143-145,147,149,150,151,153-159,161-185,187-198,199-210,211,213-219,220-223,228,229,230,231-237


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213 Morphology Suffixing ADJECTIVES: less frequent derivations (N_ástico/a)

gimnástico, gimástica 5

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