psychoanalytic theory in introductory psychology
TRANSCRIPT
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Psychoanalytic Theory in Introductory Psychology Textbooks 1
Running Head: PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY IN INTRODUCTORY PSYCHOLOGY
TEXTBOOKS
How Accurately Do Introductory Psychology Textbooks Present Psychoanalytic Theory?
Janice Habarth, James Hansell, & Tyler Grove
The University of Michigan
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Abstract
Previous studies have raised concerns about the adequacy of the coverage of psychoanalytic
content in undergraduate psychology textbooks. Our study investigates the accuracy and
currency of psychoanalytic content in the best-selling introductory psychology textbooks from
2005. Across the different textbooks, 2 - 18% of the paragraphs with psychoanalytic content
included inaccurate or misleading statements, and the difference between publication date and
median dates of empirical psychoanalytic references for each book ranged from 4 to 11 years.
Consistent with previous research, this study raises concerns about the overall quality and
currency, and considerable variability in the quality and currency, of the presentation of
psychoanalytic theory to undergraduates. We present suggestions both to textbook authors
wishing to include the most accurate and up-to-date information and also to instructors
concerned about selecting textbooks presenting accurate and current psychoanalytic content.
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How Accurately Do Introductory Psychology Textbooks Present Psychoanalytic Theory?
The accuracy and currency of the information presented to undergraduate students in
textbooks is an issue of crucial importance in all disciplines. With respect to undergraduate
education in psychology, over 1 million students enroll each year in introductory psychology
courses in the United States (Trimble, Stevenson, & Worell, 2003, p. iii), making this a crucial
venue for students’ first impressions of the field. Introductory textbooks in these courses
influence students’ developing conceptualizations of basic psychological principles and of the
history and present status of the field. Textbook content is necessarily influenced by current
developments and controversies in different fields, including disagreements about the relative
importance of different perspectives and theoretical orientations. However, there is no
controversy over the consensual standard that coverage of all topics be as unbiased, accurate, and
current as possible.
As noted by Park and Auchincloss (2006) in a recent review, evidence from several
different studies suggests that information regarding psychoanalytic theory presented to
beginning psychology students in introductory textbooks is not consistently meeting this
standard. For example, Bornstein (1988) reported misrepresentations, factual errors, and/or
serious omissions of key psychoanalytic concepts in a review of four abnormal psychology
textbooks. In addition, Westen (1998) found that many introductory psychology texts did not
include contemporary psychoanalytic theories. In their own study, Park and Auchincloss
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generally portrayed in these textbooks with an attitude of “respect (and)… veneration,” but that
the actual content coverage of these topics was “impoverished” (Park & Auchincloss, 2006, p.
1376).
While Park and Auchincloss’ study raises concern about the adequacy of the coverage of
psychoanalytic content in textbooks, their findings are limited to the “upper level” sample of
textbooks on which they focused. The current study involves a different, broader sample -- the
most widely used introductory psychology textbooks. We examined the bestselling introductory
psychology textbooks, presuming that these texts would have the broadest impact on
undergraduate education. Like Park and Auchincloss, we examined a number of different
variables, but the central focus of this study was the accuracy and currency of textbook content
relating to psychoanalytic theory and practice.
Methods
Textbook selection was the first step in our study. We elected to include all texts that had
at least 1.5% of the market share for the year 2005; this cutoff resulted in eleven textbooks.
(Some of these books were different (e.g., “Brief” or “Modular”) versions of books by the same
author(s); we counted each version as a separate textbook since they are sold, used, and reported
as separate texts). As illustrated in Table 1, the top-selling text accounted for nearly 10% of the
market; the second, third, and fourth best-selling texts combined approximated another 10%
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personality, psychopathology, and the treatment of psychological disorders. We defined all of
the following as psychoanalytic content for the purposes of this study:
(1) material on Freud or other prominent psychoanalytic theorists, from early
twentieth century theorists such as Carl Jung and Karen Horney to more
recent writers such as Heinz Kohut, Stephen Mitchell, Nancy McWilliams,
and Drew Westen
(2) material on psychoanalytic terms and concepts (e.g., defense mechanisms, ego
structures, object relations, stages of psychosexual development, transference,
countertransference)
(3) material on psychoanalysis in theory or practice; and
(4) material on psychodynamic therapies.
After identifying the psychoanalytic content in each textbook, paragraphs containing such
content were photocopied, cut, and randomly ordered by a research assistant. Each paragraph
was assigned a code identifying its source that was known only by the research assistant so that
the paragraphs could be coded blindly (i.e., would not be identifiable with respect to the
textbooks from which the paragraphs were excerpted). Next, the paragraphs were coded for
accuracy, and a consensus was reached by the first two authors (an advanced doctoral student
and a senior psychoanalytic faculty member, respectively) on the coding of each paragraph
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1 = at least one instance of “somewhat inaccurate” information present
2 = no inaccurate information present
Paragraphs received a rating of “0” if they included blatant factual errors that could be easily
refuted with widely available evidence. For example, if any paragraph had stated that Freud
focused primarily on the etiological significance of adult rather than childhood experiences, or
had incorrectly defined a defense mechanism, it would have received a rating of “0.” Paragraphs
received ratings of “1” if any information could be characterized as misleading, incomplete,
suggestive of a false binary, or oversimplified. For example, conflating Freud with current
psychoanalytic theory and practice would be defined as somewhat inaccurate, earning a rating of
“1” for the paragraph. Ratings of “2” were given if all psychoanalytically relevant information
in the paragraph was found to be accurate.
We also wished to determine the degree to which the textbooks included contemporary
developments in psychoanalysis, particularly empirical research relevant to psychoanalytic
theory and practice. First, we assessed all references in the previously selected paragraphs to
determine whether they were related to the psychoanalytic content. We next assessed whether
each relevant reference was empirical (i.e., reporting on or reviewing research studies) or
theoretical/historical in nature, and we counted the number of references in each textbook that fit
in these categories. Next, we calculated the mean dates of empirical references, and also noted
the most recent empirical reference for each textbook. In this way, we hoped to determine the
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Finally, we conducted a content analysis of the inaccurate (that is, paragraphs receiving
zeroes and ones) information from each textbook looking for common categories and themes.
First, we determined general categories based on the types of inaccuracy. We found that the
paragraphs fit into one or more of the following categories with respect to the types of
inaccuracies present: oversimplification, missing important information, or factual error. We
next identified specific themes that emerged from the paragraphs’ content. We found multiple
content themes and sub-themes within each category of inaccuracy (see Table 3).
Results
The 11 textbooks varied considerably with respect to their coverage of psychoanalytic
content, both in terms of quantity and quality of information. In this section, we present
descriptive statistics regarding the accuracy and currency of information from each textbook,
provide examples of information rated as accurate and inaccurate, and compare data across
textbooks. In addition, we report below on themes that emerged in the inaccurate paragraphs.
Additional data are presented in Tables 2 and 4.
Accuracy ratings. A total of 1,167 paragraphs were rated for accuracy. The average
number of paragraphs per textbook with psychoanalytic content was 106, although there was a
considerable range between the text with the fewest (81) and the greatest (145) number of
psychoanalytically-relevant paragraphs. All of the textbooks included at least one paragraph
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textbooks contained some kind of inaccurate or misleading information about psychoanalytic
theory or practice, although the different books varied substantially in their individual accuracy
(range = 2 - 18% of paragraphs with inaccuracies).
Currency ratings. With respect to currency, the textbooks’ most recent empirically-based
references connected with psychoanalytic content ranged from 1998 to 2004 (the range of
textbook publication dates was 2001-2004). In order to create a measure of currency that took
publication date into account, we calculated the difference in years between the publication date
of the book and the median date of empirical references. This difference score ranged quite
substantially, from 4 to 11 years.
Inaccuracy categories, themes, and examples. Three categories of inaccurate information
emerged from content analysis of the data: factual errors, oversimplifications, and crucial
omissions. In addition, the oversimplifications, and omissions each involved several
subcategories and themes.
Some of the most egregious examples of misinformation in the texts involved factual
errors (as noted above, these paragraphs received ratings of ‘0’). For example, one text stated
that the psychoanalytic approach focuses primarily on adulthood experiences, two other texts
stated that current psychodynamic therapies tend to last no longer than 10 or 20 sessions, and an
additional text stated that psychoanalysts must hold a Ph.D. or M.D. degree. In fact,
psychoanalytic approaches usually focus on how past experiences affect current functioning
(Westen, 1998; Wolitzky, 2006), psychodynamic therapies range in length from short-term to
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In addition to these errors of fact, each of the texts included paragraphs with somewhat
inaccurate or misleading information. These paragraphs received ratings of ‘1’ and their content
mostly involved oversimplifications or crucial omissions. One major theme of
oversimplification involved statements that psychoanalytic constructs are scientifically
untestable. While there has been longstanding debate about the scientific status of
psychoanalysis (Kernberg, 2006; Wallerstein, 2006), it is misleading to suggest that
psychoanalytic principles (such as unconscious motivation or the lasting influences of early
developmental experiences) are beyond the scope of science. Indeed, as several textbooks noted,
contemporary research on psychoanalytically relevant constructs is relatively common, including
investigations of mental representations and developmental influences (e.g., Fonagy, Gergely, &
Target, 2007) and social psychological research on implicit motives and memories (see
Bornstein, 2005 and Westen, 1998 for a review research in these and other areas). Other
contemporary research that is based on or consistent with psychoanalytic theories includes
Williams and Moulds’ (2007) cognitive research on mental avoidance; Solms’ (2005) and Stein,
Solms, and van Honk’s (2006) studies linking neuroscience and psychoanalytic theories; and
Shevrin, et al’s (1996) work on unconscious processes, among many others.
A related inaccuracy that emerged centered on statements about the irrelevance of
psychoanalytic theory to contemporary psychology. Such statements overlook the many ways in
which contemporary psychological research and clinical practice have been influenced by, and
continue to parallel, psychoanalytic principles. For example, mainstream research on constructs
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Another major theme of oversimplified content involved conflating Freud or Freudian
ideas with contemporary psychoanalytic theory or practice. Such a presentation overlooks work
by Gabbard (2007), Kernberg (2001), McWilliams (2004), Westen (1998), Wolitsky (1996), and
many others that delineate how significantly contemporary psychoanalytic thinking differs from
Freud’s original theories. Additional common themes of inaccurate or misleading information
included in this category included the following: false binaries between traditional Freudian
psychoanalysis and all other (very short-term) psychodynamic therapies; misleading
characterizations of some contemporary therapies (e.g., interpersonal therapy (IPT) as unrelated
to psychodynamic therapy; conflation of distinct defense mechanisms such as repression and
suppression; implications that psychoanalytic theory is focused on only universal principles, with
no concern for individual differences or environmental effects on development; and
oversimplified definitions or descriptions of psychoanalytic concepts or applications (e.g.,
overemphasizes the role of repression in Freud's theories or psychoanalytic theories in general).
The third and final inaccurate content category involved missing information (omissions)
and included the following two themes: (1) incomplete definitions or descriptions of
psychoanalytic concepts and (2) missing links between psychoanalytic principles and other
theories and perspectives. One example that fit both themes highlighted the dangers of gender,
racial, or class bias in psychoanalytic theories, presenting this information as if bias were unique
to psychoanalytic theories and not equally relevant to other theoretical perspectives in
psychology (e.g., Kupers, Ross, & Frances, 2005; Sue, 2003).
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based on instinctual drives omits information about contemporary psychodynamic approaches
such as object-relations theory and self-psychology. It also presents psychoanalytic theory in an
oversimplified manner, conflating Freud’s early theories with contemporary psychoanalytic
theories.
Discussion
While our findings on accuracy and currency are encouraging in some respects, they are
troubling in others. It is encouraging to note, for instance, that all of the textbooks cite some
contemporary empirical research relevant to psychoanalytic concepts. On the other hand, the
accuracy of information to which students are exposed in these books is, on average, not
adequate, and it varies widely by textbook. Approximately nine percent of the paragraphs across
textbooks contained at least somewhat inaccurate information, and in one textbook 18% of
psychoanalytically-relevant paragraphs were rated as inaccurate or somewhat inaccurate
In making sense of the variable presentation of psychoanalytic theory in different
textbooks, it is important to acknowledge that psychoanalysis has been a particularly
controversial theory within academic psychology. Many of the criticisms of psychoanalysis
have had merit, particularly with respect to some of the earliest psychoanalytic theories.
However, contemporary researchers and theorists have directly addressed some of the limitations
– for example, by undertaking empirical studies examining psychoanalytic claims and
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Another consideration relevant to interpreting the results of this study is the daunting
challenge of including current and accurate information from psychology’s wide range of
subfields and theoretical positions. It is not reasonable to expect textbook authors to be experts
on the huge array of topics and theories that are covered in an introductory psychology textbook.
On the other hand, the review and editorial process in textbook development ought to be able to
ensure that accuracy and currency of textbooks are up to consensual, if not to ideal, standards.
Recommendations and Limitations of the Study
Two main recommendations emerge from this study: first, that psychology textbook
authors and publishers consult with experts in psychoanalytic theory and research to ensure that
the psychoanalytic content in textbooks is both accurate and reflective of contemporary theory
and empirical research; and second, due to the variability in quality that we observed in this
sample, that instructors carefully evaluate accuracy and currency of information before selecting
textbooks for their courses. Because of the history of controversies surrounding psychoanalytic
theory and practice, it is particularly important that undergraduate education present
psychoanalytic information that is as free as possible from bias. Based on this study, a few
content areas within psychoanalytic theory stand out as needing special attention from instructors
because textbook content tends to be relatively inaccurate. These include: how the field has
progressed since Freud (e.g., object relations, relational theories, and feminist psychoanalytic
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The major limitation of this study is that we cannot compare the accuracy and currency of
textbook material on psychoanalysis with the accuracy and currency of content related to other
theoretical perspectives. Because we did not examine accuracy and currency in other content
areas, we cannot claim that the coverage of psychoanalysis is less adequate, although we suspect
that this is so based on personal experience and anecdotal accounts. Similar studies of the
accuracy and currency of coverage of other theoretical perspectives would be illuminating.
Nonetheless, we feel confident that this study does demonstrate that the contemporary textbook
coverage of the psychoanalytic perspective, in general, falls short of consensual standards. We
are hopeful that this study will focus attention on the problem, leading to a raising of the bar in
this area which will offer instructors and students the kind of high quality information that is
crucial for higher education in psychology.
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Myers, D. G. (2004a). Psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
Myers, D. G. (2004b). Psychology (7th ed. in modules). New York: Worth Publishers.
Myers, D. G. (2005). Exploring psychology (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.
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Table 1
Top Selling Introductory Psychology Textbooks from January, 2006
Text Market Share
Myers, D. G. (2004). Psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. 9.50%
Myers, D. G. (2005). Exploring psychology (6th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. 4.30%
Hockenbury, D. H., & Hockenbury, S. E. (2006). Psychology (4th ed .). New York: Worth
Publishers. 3.30%
Weiten, W. (2004). Psychology: Themes and variations (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 2.80%
Huffman, K. (2004). Psychology in action (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2.60%
Coon, D. (2004). Introduction to psychology (10th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole
Publishing Co. 2.20%
Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (2006). Psychology (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2.20%
Weiten, W. (2005). Psychology: Themes and variations (briefer version, 6th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth. 2.10%
Myers, D. G. (2004). Psychology (7th ed. in modules). New York: Worth Publishers. 1.60%
Feldman, R. S. (2002). Essentials of understanding psychology (6th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill. 1.50%
Kassin, S. (2003). Psychology (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1.50%
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Table 2
Descriptive Data by Textbook
Author, Text Date
Median
Date of
Empirical
References
# Pages in
Textbook
# Paragraphs
with
Psychoanalytic
Content
%
Psychoanalytic
Paragraphs
with Inaccurate
Information
Coon, Introduction to Psychology
(10th ed.) 2004 1996 758 110 5.5%
Feldman, Essentials of
Understanding Psychology (6 th ed.) 2002 1996 559 85 7.1%
Hockenbury & Hockenbury,
Psychology (4th ed.), 2006 1997 670 145 2.1%
Huffman, Psychology in Action (7 th
ed.) 2004 2000 595 112 5.4%
Kassin, Psychology (4th ed.) 2003 1998 745 106 7.5%
Myers, Psychology (7 th ed.) 2004 1995 741 87 18.4%
Myers, Psychology(7 th ed. in
modules) 2004 1996 752 86 16.3%
Myers, Exploring Psychology (6 th
ed.) 2005 1998 581 81 13.6%
Wade & Tavris, Psychology (8 th
ed.) 2006 1998 639 83 14.5%
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Table 3
Categories, Sub-categories and Themes of Inaccurate and Misleading Information about Psychoanalysis*
Oversimplifications (84)
Omissions of Important
Information (13)
Global Critiques
not Backed by
Evidence (11)
Overgeneralizations
of Partial Truths (43)
False Binaries (11)Conflation of Distinct
Concepts (21)
Oversimplified
Definitions or
Caricatures (17)
(no sub-categories)
(no distinct
themes) dismissive of Freud, and/or implies that Freud and/or
psychoanalytic theory has little to no remaining influence in
the field of psychology (13)
false binary between
dynamic and interpersonal
or cognitive therapies (7)
conflates (or implies
conflation of) Freud or
Freudian ideas with
contemporary
psychoanalytic theory or
practice (16)
states that
psychoanalysts and
dynamic therapists
try to unearth
memories in explicit
detail (4)
missing information
about other theories/
perspectives as they
relate to psychoanalysis
(2)
states or suggests that psychoanalytic concepts are
untestable, or incommensurate with science, or that there is
no empirical evidence supporting them OR states that
psychoanalysts and/or psychodynamic therapists reject
empirical data (21)
false binary between long-
term psychoanalysis and
all other (very short-term)
therapies OR between
analysis of the past and
dynamic treatment in the
present (4)
states or suggests that
psychoanalysis is focused
only on universal
principles, with no concern
for individual differences
or environmental affects on
development (7)
other oversimplified
definition or
description of a
psychoanalytic
concept or
application (16)
missing information
about psychoanalysis
(incomplete definitions,
contradictory
descriptions, or missing
contemporary
information) (12)
states or suggests that psychoanalysis is very rare in
contemporary society (6)
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states or suggests that all current psychodynamic therapies
are short-term (7)
*number of coded paragraphs in parenthesis; some paragraphs fit multiple categories and themes
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Table 4
Examples of Inaccurate and Accurate Information in Introductory Psychology Textbooks
Examples of Factual Errors
(Rating = 0)
Examples of Oversimplified Psychoanalytic Content
(Rating = 1)
Examples of Omissions of Psychoanalytic Content
(Rating = 1)
“(The psychoanalytic approach) stresses
innate, inherited structure of personality while
emphasizing importance of adulthood
experience” (Feldman, 2002, p. 430).
“…a major remaining problem with Freud’s theory
is insurmountable: Whatever value it may have
clinically, it has been almost impossible to verify
scientifically” (Coon, 2004, p. 522).
“Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective assumed that, beginning in childhood, people
repress intolerable impulses, ideas, and feelings…However, many of today’s
psychologists have turned away from Freud to two contemporary perspectives: learning
and biological” (Myers, 2004a, p. 629); MISSING: reference to contemporary
psychoanalytic theories
“Today, for instance, psychodynamic therapy
tends to be shorter, usually lasting no longer
than three months or twenty sessions…”
(Wade & Tavris, 2006, p. 616).
“Psychoanalysts argue that (homosexuality" stems
from family dynamics and the child's
overattachment to a parent of the same or opposite
sex” (Kassin, 2003, p. 333).
“The concept of drive was derived from Walter Cannon’s (1932) observation that
organisms seek to maintain homeostasis…” (Weiten, 2005, p. 262); MISSING: Freud’s
work on drives that pre-dates 1932
“…to become a psychoanalyst, you must have
an M.D. or Ph.D. degree plus further
specialized training…” (Coon, 2004, p. 29).
“What is original about Freud's ideas is not good,
and what is good is not original (the unconscious
mind is an idea that dates back to Plato” (Myers,
2005, p. 438).
“Today's bio-psycho-social perspective is replacing these Freudian explanations (of
depression) with biological and cognitive explanations” (Myers, 2004b); MISSING: bio-
psycho-social perspectives could include psychodynamic as well as biological and
cognitive theories