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Projecting Islam: Narrative inSwahili poetryFarouk TopanPublished online: 21 Jul 2010.

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Journal of African Cultural Studies, Volume 14, Number 1, June 2001, pp. 107-119

ISSN 1369-6815 print; 1469-9346 online/01/010107-13 © 2001 Journal of African Cultural Studies

Projecting Islam: Narrative in Swahili poetry

FAROUK TOPAN(Department of the Languages and Cultures of Africa, School ofOriental and African Studies)

ABSTRACT This paper explores the role of the narrative in projecting themessage of Islam in Swahili poetry. It examines a selection of verses from poemswritten in the form, noting the tendency in many writers to narrate theearly events of Islam that occurred in Arabia and the neighbouring countries. Indoing so, the poets not only project the values inherent in the events but theypresent their selection and interpretation of those events. The paper also brie� yexamines the form and language of the narratives.

1. Introduction

The gradual introduction of Islam to the East African coast from around theeighth century (Horton and Middleton 2000: 48) brought with it not only anunderstanding of its doctrines and practices but also, signi� cantly, perceptions ofthe events and deeds of the early years that shaped its history. The accounts ofthese events have found expression in Swahili poetry in various forms. Thispaper attempts to explore the way Islam is projected in some poems through aconsideration of the role of narrative in Swahili poetry.

2. Narrative

Narrative in religious discourse serves an essential purpose: it reminds thebelievers of their duties and obligations, it reasserts their identity, it reinforcestheir values and gives meaning to their practices. In other words, narrativeinducts an individual – sometimes from a very early age – into the worldview ofthe faith, and, in so doing, develops imagination. According to Watson, anarration, a story, alerts the imagination of the listener so that he/she may absorbwhat the story offers. ‘At very best’ she says,

such a listener may re� ect within himself on the deeper, hidden and often unspokennuances of the story and then reach out both cognitively and affectively � rst to theworld around him as it makes more sense, and then even more wonderfully, to thatwhich transcends the natural, and awakens an awareness of Beauty, Truth,Goodness and that which is Holy (1982: 124).

The verbal art of narrative as story-telling is an integral part of Swahili culture.When the Swahili acquired the knowledge of the Arabic alphabet through theintroduction of Islam, the art of narrative was transferred to paper, not as � ctional

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108 Farouk Topan

stories but as ‘histories’ of Swahili peoples of particular places and periods, theirancestry, migration and settlement. Hence the various ‘Chronicles’ which alsonarrate the fate of ruling dynasties along the coast (most are cited in Freeman-Grenville 1962). Curiously, there does not seem to have been an attempt in theearlier centuries to narrate religious stories in prose; at least none, as far as Iknow, has survived. On the other hand, poetry has been used so extensively as amedium of conveying religious themes (including narratives) that some Westernscholars have concluded that Swahili poetry had conveyed nothing else in theearlier centuries. Harries could then state with con� dence only four decades ago:

This wider modern practice of Swahili versi� cation has led to a departure from itsearlier intention – to express the spirit and practice of Islam. Today the medium isemployed for more secular ends. Any news item may be the subject of a fewverses, but this is the tradition established during the nineteenth century by writerslike Muyaka bin Mwinyi Haji of Mombasa [d.1840], who brought poetry out of themosque and into the market-place (1962: 2).

A categorical and even more sweeping assertion was later made by Knappert inhis statement that ‘Swahili literature is entirely Islamic from its inception in 1728until the advent of German administration in 1884’ (1971: 5). Both views havebeen criticised by Shariff (1991: 37-57) who has, in turn, proposed two reasonswhy religious, rather than secular, poetry has been preserved down the centuries.The attitude of piety on the part of the poets and members of the Swahilicommunity is one reason. They had felt the need to preserve manuscripts andwriting embodying religious values, not only for purposes of conveying thosevalues to succeeding generations, but also, in so doing, to be the recipients ofthaw¨b , divine recompense (or ‘heavenly credit’ as Shariff translates it).Conversely, there was no such incentive to preserve secular poetry whoserendition, besides, was largely oral ‘in real-life situations and in everydaybusiness’ (Shariff 1991: 42). So once the event to which the poem referred hadpassed, the need to record it was felt to be redundant; and in cases where scribesdid record such poems, the context and reason for their recitation were notmentioned. On the other hand, the shared values of Islam, and the universalappeal of their topics and themes, ensured the preservation of the better poemsfor posterity. It is from this repertoire, cherished over the ages, that Westernscholars of Swahili literature have gathered their material from the last quarter ofthe 19th century to nearer the end of the 20th. With a few exceptions, almostevery such scholar has edited a religious text in an form. The worksedited by Allen (1971), Harries (1962), Hichens (1932) and the volumes ofKnappert (1967, 1971, 1983) are a few examples.

3.

The basic unit of an (singular)/ (plural) is a verse of four lines, witheight syllables to a line. The rhyme pattern is aaab, cccb; b or its close variantsoccurs throughout the poem. The length of an varies in accordance withits topic, content and the skill of the writer. One of the longest is an account ofWorld War II composed by the Tanzanian poet, Shaaban Robert (d.1962); itconsists of three thousand verses whose rhyme at the end of the fourth line (the

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Projecting Islam in Swahili poetry 109

rhyme b) ends in the open vowel / / (Robert 1967). In the , a moving poem addressed to a daughter from an ailing mother, the

rhyme b throughout the poem (of 102 verses) is, again, / / (realized variously as/ /, / /, / /, / /, / / and even / /). I give below the opening fourverses of the poem in which the pattern aaab, cccb, dddb, eeeb is discernible.The verses also indicate the traditional method of commencing an . Apoem opens either with a call to the scribe to bring writing utensils and thechoicest paper and write down the poem (as the poet ‘dictates’ it), or itcommences with verses in praise of God and the Prophet Muhammad, coupledwith an invocation for God’s blessings. The daughter in the

serves two roles: she is not only the recipient of the poem but also itsscribe. (I have retained Allen’s version and translation in the following verses.)

1 Come here, my daughterand listen to my advice;young though you are,perhaps you will pay attention to it.

2 I have been illfor a whole yearand I have not had an opportunityto talk properly to you.

3 Come forward and sit downwith paper and ink.I have somethingthat I want to say to you.

4 Now that you are near,write In the Name of God;and bless the Prophetand his Companions.

(Allen 1971: 58-59)

Occasionally, a poet departs from the traditional way of commencing an .One such interesting example, germane to our topic, is from the

by the contemporary poet Abdilatif Abdalla (1971).

4. Prophets prior to Islam

Abdalla’s poem recounts the story of Adam and Eve from the beginning of theircreation, through the drama of temptation and disobedience, their early sojournon earth, the birth of the twins, the murder of Abel by Cain, the sorrow of Eve,the couple’s agony and repentance, and, � nally, their forgiveness by God. Thepoem is divided into six , from the Arabic word fa×l, meaning chapter or,signi� cantly, an act in a play. These are preceded by a preface; its openingverses state:

1 I am not composing [this poem] out ofignorance

I compose with understandingThe way I received [the tale] at the religious

school[as part of] the tales of the prophets.

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110 Farouk Topan

2 The tale of Adam and Eve isgood for narration.I have understood very wellour beginning as human beings.

3 I have been given [the story] as a legacyand I am narrating it to youthe elders and menso that you may listen to it/know it.

(Abdalla 1971: 1)

It is signi� cant that Abdalla begins his poem by stating with con� dence that heknows the story which he is about to relate: actually, the statement is evenstronger through the impact of the negative, ‘I am not composing [this poem] outof ignorance [literally not knowing]’. He also tells us where he himself had beentaught the story – in the , the school (usually run in the afternoons) whichSwahili children attend in order to be taught the Qur’an, and to learn aboutMuhammad and the prophets prior to him. The latter, according to the Qur’an,had preached the same message as Muhammad in essence. The narrative ofAdam and Eve is thus not simply a story, it is , a legacy, bequeathed fromgeneration to generation, conveying the morals and ethics to be instilled inchildren and adults alike.

Abdalla’s account of the story of Adam and Eve contains features which arenot present in the Qur’an. Although the Qur’an is sacrosanct as a holy text, poetsand storytellers have not felt inhibited from adding features to their narrative aslong as these do not contradict the essentials of the Qur’anic story, orcompromise its teaching.1 A story is thus embellished with details which make itmore meaningful in the local context and hence better receptive to its audience.Abdalla has adapted the story of Adam and Eve in a way that re� ects hiscreativity and imagination. He has injected two major innovations into the story:the � rst is related to the form of the itself, and the second to the reasonwhy Eve decided to tempt Adam in the � rst place.

In relation to the form of the poem, it would seem that Abdalla hasconsciously conceived of a major portion of the as a dialogue that isconducted among the three protagonists: Adam, Eve ( ) and the Devil( ). He indicates by small capital letters which character ‘speaks’ theverse. God is not included among the characters, as that would have beensacrilegious. I have noted elsewhere the skill with which the dialogue is enactedand its impact upon the drama of the (Topan 1971: 67-9); here I quotetwo verses which are part of an argument between Adam and Eve regarding theforbidden tree. Eve had come to Adam with the news that her new friend

1 Two good examples of such stories are the account of Muhammad’s journey toHeaven (the mi‘r¨j), and the story of Joseph (Yusuf). For the latter in the context ofthe Indian subcontinent, see Shackle (1995, particularly pp.182-88). The story ofmi‘r¨j has been re-told countless times in Muslim traditions; its commentaries andinterpretations range from literal to mystical and esoteric perspectives. See Knappert(1966, 1967 & 1971, volume III) for an extensive discussion of the mi‘r¨j poems inSwahili. We shall discuss below some of its features.

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Projecting Islam in Swahili poetry 111

( ) had praised the fruits of the forbidden tree, telling her that she and Adamcould not live a full life without tasting them. Adam is shocked to hear Eve talkin that vein; he suspects the hand of Satan in this. However, Eve is persistent;she asks Adam a rhetorical question:

EVE210 Do you not know, Adam

that we do not understandwhat is good and bad –that we simply eat and drink?

Adam replies with a question:

ADAM211 Come on, do explain to me

in whatever detail you wish –what do you want to knowto satisfy your heart?

The second innovative feature refers to the cause of this argument and is indeedthe kernel of the story. The Qur’an states that IblÂs ‘Satan’ had tempted bothAdam and his wife, both had transgressed, both had then asked for forgiveness,and both were forgiven. The relevant verses of the Qur’an are:

7:20 Then began Satan to whisper suggestions to them, bringing openly beforetheir minds all their shame that was hidden from them (before) he said: ‘YourLord only forbade you this tree, lest you should become angels or suchbeings as live for ever.’

20:120 But Satan whispered evil to him: he said, ‘O Adam! Shall I lead thee to TheTree of Eternity and to a kingdom that never decays?’

20:121 In the result, they both ate of the tree, and so their nakedness appeared tothem; they began to sew together, for their covering, leaves from the Garden:Thus did Adam disobey his Lord, and allow himself to be seduced.

(from the translation of A. Yusuf Ali 1978)

Despite the clarity of the last sentence, Muslim traditions have focussed on the� gure of Eve ( ) as the culprit who had succumbed to the whispers of Satan.Abdalla follows in this wake, but introduces an ingenious reason for herdisobedience. It starts with Adam himself, when he tells Eve of an amazing treewhose fruits turn into young women, the who are there to servethose in Heaven (verses 173/4). Eve gets angry at Adam for mentioning this treeand, out of jealousy, asks Adam to refrain from ever approaching it. She thenmentions it to Satan who exploits her feelings of jealousy to the point where shenow begs him to show her how she could prevent Adam from marrying theseother women.

SATAN283 Say [you are ready], and I will teach you a

secretwhich will be like magic:your husband will never everthink of leaving you.

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284 As for those other womenhe will not arrange any marriage;both of you will love each otherwith pure hearts and minds.

EVE285 Alright, then, teach me a plan

of wiles and meansof putting Adam in chainsso that he does not marry [others].SATAN

286 If you want Adam’s desire for youto increase and overwhelm himthen you must have childrenborn of you and him.

287 Then, believe me, he willparticipate in their upbringing,and, I swear, he will not rememberto marry these women [of Heaven].

Eve is curious as to how they may have children; Satan explains that the onlyway to do so is � rst to eat of the forbidden tree. Abdalla uses love and jealousyas catalysts that propel the characters into an act of transgression. Interestingly,Abdalla utilises the same symbol of the tree to achieve his goal: just as God hadasked them not to eat of the forbidden tree, so is Adam forbidden fromapproaching the Tree of Women. While God’s wish is thwarted, Eve’s seems tohave been obeyed. What emerges from Abdalla’s poem is the poet’s skilful useof human emotions to create a plausible cycle of cause and effects involving love,jealousy, birth, a bond between mother and children.2

Another plausible insertion in a Qur’anic narrative is in the story of Joseph,of Said Karama. The elaborates on the story in

620 verses, providing insights into the poet’s interpretation of the events (similarto some of the examples provided by Shackle referred to earlier).3 One of theseconcerns the role of Gabriel ( ) who was the intermediary between Godand the prophets. As such, he was the archangel who was closer to them than theothers ( , , ). In the story, the brothers throw Yusuf intothe well and then go on their way. No other detail is given in the Qur’an exceptthat God puts a message in his heart that he will ‘one day tell them the truth ofthis their affair while they know (thee) not’ (12: 15). Karama expands this act inthe following verses, providing a caring balance to the unkindness of thebrothers:

74 By the will of Godin less than � fteen secondsGabriel descended [from Heaven] –An unheard of wonder.

2 Curiously, Adam’s role seems detached in relation to his children – almost theopposite of what Satan had predicted in verse 287 quoted above.

3 The poem is endorsed by the then Chief Qadhi of Kenya, Mohamed Kassim Mazruy,who provides ten verses at the end of the poem in its support.

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Projecting Islam in Swahili poetry 113

75 In the twinkling of an eyeGabriel alightedto save Josephfrom coming to any harm.

76 Gabriel caught himbefore he could reach the groundand slowly placed the Prophetin a safe place.

5. Muhammad and his companions

Adam and Joseph represent the period prior to the propagation of Islam, though,as indicated earlier, the Qur’an considers their teaching to have been Islamic, andit is with this perspective that the poets recount their deeds. When we come toMuhammad himself and the formative period of Islam in Arabia, the focus shiftsto events that are relatively within recent history. This does not inhibit the poetsfrom being imaginative, or from creating and narrating legends that are farremoved from the given ‘facts’, but it does bring about, for some, aconsciousness of participating poetically (and emotionally) in events that theybelieve to have actually occurred. One such poet is Ali Muhsin Barwani whosepoem on the life of Muhammad is, surprisingly, the � rst full-length onthe subject (Barwani 1981). This is stated in the introduction to the byanother well-known Swahili poet, scholar, and, at the time, the Chief Qadhi ofKenya, Abdulla Saleh Farsy. Both Farsy and Barwani had lived in Zanzibar priorto the revolution of 1964; Farsy had been a pupil of Barwani’s father (a renownedMuslim scholar in his own right) and Barwani himself had been Farsy’s pupil.The relationship goes a step further in that Barwani utilises Farsy’s biography ofthe Prophet, a popular work in Swahili prose, as one of his sources but at thesame time retaining the freedom to depart from it. Farsy states in theintroduction that he respects Barwani for putting forward arguments where hediffers from Farsy’s views in his prose narrative (1981: xviii).4

The life and image of the Prophet had been conveyed to the Swahili mainlythrough classes, sermons in mosques, talks over the radio and, most importantly,through the celebrations of the maulid, the anniversary of the birth of Muhammadwhen speeches are made and poems (qasida) are read. As Farsy points out, thereare in existence poems in Swahili on Muhammad, some of which are in the

form, but these are generally short and not as comprehensive asBarwani’s work. , a poem of 1324 verses, is systematic in itsapproach to Muhammad’s life, beginning with his birth and going through themajor events of the Prophet’s mission until his death after the conquest ofMakkah in 632 AD.

4 While neither writer states what they have differed about, Farsy is known (later in life)to have disapproved of the celebrations of maulid, the anniversary of the birth ofMuhammad. On the other hand, Barwani states in verses 34 and 35 that thiscelebration is not an innovation ( ) but a , a desirable Prophetictradition whose reward will be good on the Day of Judgment.

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114 Farouk Topan

Barwani gives us three reasons why he has composed the (ix - xii).The � rst relates to the genre itself; he has felt that the life of Muhammad in apoetic form would be easier for people to relate to, to memorise and even tochant. The second reason is for the poet himself and the reader to empathize withthe events in the Prophet’s life, to feel what he had felt as the mission wentthrough its various stages. The third reason for composing the poem is to make itpossible for people to draw inspiration from that life; hence, incidentally, the titleof the which translates as ‘the good example’. Farsy elaborates on thispoint; I quote it in its entirety as it captures some of the reasons for projectingIslam in poetry:

One of the good qualities of this is that it clearly demonstrates andemphatically focuses our attention on those aspects in the life of the Prophet, maypeace be upon him, which are very important in guiding our lives properly asMuslims in East Africa. Perseverance, patience in misfortunes, bravery in � ghtingfor one’s rights, justice in government and the judiciary, the removal ofdiscrimination based on colour, race/tribal af� liation, the building of unity, beinggenerous, to be more determined to achieve the welfare of your friends than tofurther your own personal interests – we must learn all these qualities, and similarones, from the life of this amazing man, Prophet Muhammad, may peace be uponhim. (Farsy in Barwani 1981: xvii)

Barwani comments also on the language of the , emphasizing thehistorical background of the genre and the use of the Arabic script in the past. Heis keen to retain the Arabic pronunciation of Swahili words of Arabic origin, andprovides a list of Arabic characters, explaining how some of these should bepronounced in the recitation of the poem (Barwani 1981: xvi).

The second poem whose events are projected to the formative period of Islamis the entitled , composed in Bagamoyo between 1850 and1855. Its author, Mgeni bin Faqihi, is said to have been born on the island ofTumbatu, just off the northern tip of Zanzibar. He was a teacher who had movedto Mbweni, Bagamoyo, to teach Islam in the religion classes of the town. Theeditor of the version which I draw from, van Kessel, tells us that the poem used tobe recited on particular occasions among the Swahili, such as ‘funeralwakes’ and weddings. Some individuals who were known for their expertise inthis � eld are also mentioned. As the poem runs to 4584 verses, van Kessel tellsus that the recitation of the full poem at ceremonies used to be straddled overthree or four evenings (Faqihi 1980: vii).

What is the poem about? The narrative is based on an Arabic book, Futâ½ al-Yaman, which gives an account of the conquest of Yemen, then ruled by aruthless king; his cruelty earned him the nickname of the ‘the head of the ghoul’

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Projecting Islam in Swahili poetry 115

(ra’s al-ghâl). Muhammad and his companions directed their attention to thatcountry after receiving a plea from a woman whose children had been killed bythe king. The battle lasted for nine months, but the Muslims � nally vanquishedthe king, some of whose children became Muslims. Van Kessel suggests that asYemen was mythologically associated with Eden, defeating Ras al-Ghul was in asense vanquishing Satan (Faqihi 1980: vii). Be that as it may, it is interesting thata teacher of religion in Bagamoyo should have read about this con� ict anddecided to write a poem about it. Faqihi himself explains:

25 There is an amazing storywritten in a bookin the language of the Arabs:it is a good story.

26 Know that that storyhas a clear accountof the battles for the Yemen[fought] during the time of the Prophet.

27 I saw it, and I read itand I understood its meaning.It soothed my heartas I re� ected on it.

28 I considered whether I couldcompose it as a poem –my heart then led meto a way that pleased me.

29 I wanted to translate itinto Swahilisince only a few peopleunderstand its Arabic content.

30 So I undertook the burdenof following [closely] its Arabicand to make clear its wordsand to narrate it all to you.

6. Language

A poetic composition involves the writer in an engagement with language at alevel above the ordinary. Where the language is religious in nature, the elicitedmeaning draws on a system of beliefs and values shared by a people as part oftheir history. I have elsewhere discussed the process through which Swahiliacquired religious concepts and terminology (Topan 1992). Swahili poemsconvey Islamic concepts and teaching in metaphors and images drawn fromMuslim traditions and folklore. An excellent example in this respect is the storyof the Prophet’s journey to Heaven, the mi‘r¨j, which has been expanded farbeyond its simple narration in the Qur’an. The journey – � rst from Makkah toJerusalem (known speci� cally as isr¨’), and thence to the seven heavens (the partknown as mi‘r¨j – is divided into several stages in which Muhammad is taughtthrough enquiry and observation; his resolve and wisdom are also put to the test.According to Knappert (1971), there are � ve editions of the journey in Swahilipoetry; I draw from the version written in 1896 by Muhiuddin bin Sheikh al-

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Barawi, and edited and translated by Knappert (1966).5 The images in thefollowing verses are shown and explained to Muhammad by Gabriel as they goon their journey. They demonstrate the consequences of doing good or evil whileon earth. Each action is narrated through a juxtaposition of the act and itspunishment/reward, expressed � guratively. For instance, in verse 20 quotedbelow, raw meat is used as a metaphor for illicit sex outside of marriage. Otherexamples are selected from the verses comprising the events seen on the journey.20

¼

22

¼

24

20 After that they saw bad people eating,raw meat, and they left uneaten the well-cooked meat.Gabriel said: ‘Those are the adulterers when they have ended (their lives),women and men who are going around endlessly [i.e. without redemption]’ …

22 After that they went on and saw a river of blood,There were people in it, they went in and ate poison.Gabriel said: ‘Those people have eaten forbidden food;6This is their reward with which they will be rewarded tomorrow on the day of

resurrection.’ …24 After that they went and saw unhappy people

Cutting their [own] tongues with scissors, but they (the tongues) came back [i.e.returned to normal]

That is their condition, when they have cut their tongue off, They (the tongues)grow again.

Gabriel said: ‘They are the liars who do not have Reason [good speech/words].’7

Another striking metaphor in the poem is Bur¨q, the half-human winged mule (ahorse in some traditions) whom Muhammad used as his mount through theheavens.8 While there are interpretations which take Bur¨q literally as described,mystics who consider the journey as a metaphor for spiritual union with theDivine, interpret Bur¨q as love. Love of God (½ubb) is the ‘swift steed whichcarries the mystics to their beati� c vision’ (Knappert 1966: 116).

5 I have placed in square brackets an alternative translation where I feel Knappert’s canbe elaborated or replaced.

6 Although I have retained Knappert’s translation, it should be noted that the phrase does not only refer to food but to any commodity that is consumed

unlawfully; it could, for instance, also refer to property or money which does notlawfully belong to a person.

7 I prefer to translate either as good speech or good words, i.e. the words of liarsare not good, as in the English phrase: ‘they are not good at their word(s)’.

8 See Knappert (1966: 115-6) for a brief review of Bur¨q in Muslim literature.

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Projecting Islam in Swahili poetry 117

Another example of a metaphor whose application isuniversal may be found in the Swahili poem, ‘Thecamel and the gazelle’ ( )where the letters that spell the name of Muhammad inArabic are taken as a symbol for the human body, andthus mankind (Figure 1 gives one such representation).I quote Allen’s translation:

47 The form of man [ins¨n, human being] holds yourname, my trusted one, from the crown of the head tothe soles of the feet. 48 First the initial mim, the headis its sign; the two hands are he; 49 the second mim isthe trunk, and the curve of the dal is the feet on whichman walks (Allen 1971: 87). Fig. 1

I end with an example of a poem whose projection is, so to speak, ‘reversed’.The poem is not on events in Arabia but on a theme that is common in Muslimliterature as it is derived from the Qur’an. This is the ephemeral nature of humanlife on earth. It is a theme which is re� ected through the metaphor of a city thathas now decayed and is in ruins. The , ‘The Soul’sAwakening’, is a well-known poem among the Swahili; it was written in thedecade between 1810 and 1820 by Sayyid Abdalla bin Nasir. The poet islamenting the passing away of a glorious period in the history of Pate, a city inthe Lamu archipelago off the coast of Kenya. As he re� ects on the greatness thatwas Pate, the poet’s mind also turns to the transitoriness of life. The powerfulrulers of Pate have long passed; their grand buildings now lie in ruins. I givebelow translations of the same verses from two editions: the rhymed translationof Hichens (Nasir 1972 [1939]: 81) and a free translation by James de Vere Allen(Nasir 1977: 66):49 50

51

49 Their mansions bright, with empty echoes ring;High in the halls the � uttering night-bats cling.Thou hear’est no outcry; no sweet murmuring;The spiders, o’er the couches, spin their skein.

50 Where once in wall-niches the porcelain stood,Now wildling birds nestle the � edgling brood;The omened owl hoots ’midst the solitude,And, faring there, strange wild-fowl make complain.

51 The vultures perch the rails, once rare arrayed,The supple-throated doves fanfaronnade,Or, clapping-winged, start out the shadows’ shade,Where dreying wood-pigeon and swallow preen.

(Nasir/Hichens 1972 [1939]: 81)

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118 Farouk Topan

Their lighted mansions echo emptily;185 High in the painted rafters � utter bats.

There are no murmurings, no happy shouts,And on carved bedsteads spiders spin their webs.Where once in wall-niches the porcelain stoodAre now the ragged nests of wild birds.

190 Owls hoot in the solitude of the ruined hallsAnd quail and gamebirds scuttle and cry below.On painted curtain-rails now vultures perch,And young doves pout and coo between themselvesOr start, and � ap their wings, and whirr away.

195 Swallows build their nests, and wood-pigeons.(Nasir/de Vere Allen 1977: 66):

7. Conclusion

I have attempted to show the way Swahili poets have utilised the form andmedium of poetry to put forward their perception of the message of Islam. The‘projection’ in the poem is twofold. There is, � rst, the transmission of themessage and the values that underlie it. Although I have not discussed the poemsas a whole, I should state that each is engaged in transmitting particular values.Being obedient to the will of God, for instance, is central to the story of Adamand Eve; the triumph of justice in the narrative of Joseph and his brothers, anddetermination to confront evil in the story of the evil ruler of Yemen, Ras al-Ghul. The other aspect we have come across in the poems discussed above is thetendency of the poets to discuss events that took place in the early period ofIslam. The projection, conceptually and geographically, is overseas to the landwhere the Prophet had lived and to the events which he had experienced. Suchan outlook, however, is different in ; although the values beingprojected are Islamic, the scene of the narrative is Swahili.

We have also considered, albeit brie� y, the language used in the poems, and,in particular, the use of the metaphor in the narratives. Metaphors are used asone of the means of creating what Licht has termed ‘mimesis’ in the narration ofa story. The term refers to the degree of reality invested in the story. Accordingto Licht, what stories do

... is to reproduce reality, to create an image of it; in most cases, it is ordinaryhuman reality, and therefore eternally interesting. Many other works of literaturedo this; it is a basic aesthetic phenomenon technically called mimesis (1978: 10).

Mimesis is created by a poet through his/her tripartite role as a ‘historian’, as anarrator, and as a craftsman. As a historian, s/he assembles ‘facts’, interpretsthem and makes his or her selection. Barwani, for example, tells us what he hasomitted from his poem on the life of Muhammad. He has not included a detailedgenealogy of Muhammad, or an account of the battle of Hunayn; on the otherhand, he has included a section on the Islamization of Sayyidna ‘Umar (who laterbecame the second caliph after Muhammad’s death) as this story had movedBarwani (1981: ix). As a narrator, the poet arranges scenes, chooses the detailsof the characters, and gives them appropriate dialogue. I have discussed thisaspect above in relation to Abdalla’s skill of allocating verses to Adam, Eve andSatan. And, � nally, a poet is an artist who practices his/her craft with diligence

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Projecting Islam in Swahili poetry 119

and skill. In our examples, the poet had to operate within his/her own chosenform of the . The result of these three aspects of a poet’s role is thecreation of the poem as a text which is whole and indivisible. The , inparticular, is also meant to be chanted or sung, and, sometimes, performed.

FAROUK TOPAN can be contacted at Department of the Languages and Culturesof Africa, School of Oriental and African Studies, London WC1EH 0XG;email: ft@soas.ac.uk.

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