prof. yongchae jeong (e-mail: [email protected]) overview on microwave circuits design
TRANSCRIPT
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1. Electronics
2. Radio Wave
3. Comparison between Analog, Digital
and Microwave,
4. Microwave Applications
5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Circuits
6. Curriculum for Microwave Engineering
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Overview on Microwave Circuits Design
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- ์ด์ : Electronics= Electron ( ์ ์ )+ics ( ํ๋ฌธ๋ช ์ ๋ฏธ์ฌ )
- ์ ์ 1 : ์ง๊ณต ์์ด๋ ๊ธฐ์ฒด , ๊ณ ์ฒด ๋ด์์์ ์ ์์ ์ด๋์ ์ฐ๊ตฌํ๋ ํ๋ฌธ ๋ฐ ๊ทธ๊ฒ์ ์ด์ฉํ๋ ๊ธฐ์
- ์ ์ 2 : ์ ์๊ธฐ์ ์ ๋ค๋ฐฉ๋ฉด์ ๊ฑธ์น ๋ฐ์ ๊ณผ ๊ทธ ๋๋๋ฌ์ง ์ ์ฉ์ฑ์ผ๋ก ์ธํด ์๊ธด ๊ฐ๋ ์ผ๋ก ์ด๊ธฐ์๋ ์ง๊ณต ๋๋ ๊ธฐ์ฒด ์์์ ์ด๋ฃจ์ด์ง๋ ์ ์ ์ด๋์ ์ด์ฉ์ ์ด์ ์ผ๋ก ํ๋ ๊ฒ์ด์์ผ๋ , 1948 ๋ ๋ฏธ๊ตญ ๋ฒจ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์์์ ๊ฐ๋ฐํ ํธ๋์ง์คํฐ์ ์ํด์ ์ง์ ์ผ๋ก ๋ณํํ์ฌ ๋ฐ๋์ฒด๋ด์ ์ ์์ ์ด๋์ ์ด์ฉํ๋ ์ด๋ก ๊ณผ ๊ธฐ์ ์ด ์ ์๊ณตํ์ ์ฃผ๋ฅ๋ก ๋ณํ
- ๊ธฐ์ ์ ํน์ง : ๋น , ์ด , ์ , ์ ์ํ ๋ฑ์ ์ ๊ธฐ ์ ํธํํด์ ์ ์กํ๊ณ ์ฒ๋ฆฌ
- ๊ณ ์ฒด ์ ์๊ณตํ ( ๋ฐ๋์ฒด ) ์ ๋ฐ์ ๊ณผ์
1. Electronics
Diode( ์ง๊ณต๊ด ๋ค์ด์ค๋ , ๋ฐ๋์ฒด ๋ค์ด์ค๋ )
Transistor( ํธ๋์ง์คํฐ )
IC(Integrated Circuit: ์ง์ ํ๋ก )
VLSI(Very Large Scale Intefration: ์ด๋๊ท๋ชจ ์ง์ ํ๋ก )
Digital ICAnalog IC, RFIC(Radio Frequency IC), MMIC(Monolithic Microwave IC)OEIC (Optoelectronic IC)
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1. Electronics
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 1. ์ ์ ๊ณตํ์ ํ๋ฆ๋
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2. Radio Wave
-Radio Wave
- ์ธ๊ณต์ ์ธ ๋งค๊ฐ๋ฌผ์ด ์์ด ๊ณต๊ฐ์ ์ ํํ๋ 3THz ๋ณด๋ค ๋ฎ์ ์ฃผํ์์ ์ ์ํ
- ๋ฌด์ ํต์ ์ ์ฌ์ฉ๋๋ ๋ฌด์ ์ฃผํ์๋ฅผ ํฌํจํ์ฌ ์ ์ธ์ , ๊ฐ์๊ด์ , ์์ธ์ , X์ , ์ฐ์ฃผ์ ๋ฑ์ ์ด์นญ
- ์ ํ์ ์ฌ์ฉ ๋ฒ์๋ ๋์ฒด๋ก 3kHz ~ 3THz ์ ์ฃผํ์๋ฅผ ๊ฐ๋ ์ ์ํ
- ๋ฌด์ ํต์ , ๋ผ๋์ค ๋ฐฉ์ก , TV ๋ฐฉ์ก , ๋ฌด์ ํญํด , ๋ ์ด๋ ๋ฑ์ ๋ชจ๋ ์ ํ๋ฅผ ์ด์ฉํ๋ ๊ฒ์ผ๋ก , ์ ํ๊ฐ ์ ์ ํ๋ ์ฃผํ์ ๋ฒ์๋ ๋งค์ฐ ๋๊ณ ์ฃผํ์์ ๋ฐ๋ผ ํ์ฅ์ด๋ ์ ํ๋๋ ํน์ฑ์ด ๋ค๋ฅด๋ฉฐ , ํ์ฌ ๊ตญ์ ์ ๊ธฐ ํต์ ํ์ฝ๊ณผ ์ ํ๋ฒ์ ์ํด ๊ด๋ฆฌ , ์ด์ฉ๋๊ณ ์๋ ๊ฒ์ ์ผ๋ถ๋ถ์ ๋ถ๊ณผ
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 2. ์ ์ํ์ ์
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2. Radio Wave
์ ํ์ ์ฑ์ง
1) ์ ํ์ ์ง์ง
: ๋์ผ ๋งค๊ฐ์ฒด๋ฅผ ํต๊ณผํ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ์ ์ง์งํ๋๋ฐ ์ฃผํ์๊ฐ ๋์์๋ก ์ง์ง์ฑ์ด ๊ฐํจ
2) ์ ํ์ ๋ฐ์ฌ ๋ฐ ๊ตด์
: ๋น์ด ๋ฌผ์์ ํต๊ณผํ ๋์ฒ๋ผ ์ ํ ๋ํ ๋ค๋ฅธ ๋ฌผ์ง๋ก ๊ตฌ์ฑ๋ ๋งค๊ฐ์ฒด๋ฅผ ํต๊ณผํ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ์๋ ๊ทธ ๋ฌผ์ง์ ๊ฒฝ๊ณ๋ฉด์์ ์ผ๋ถ๋ ๋ฐ์ฌ๋๊ณ ์ผ๋ถ๋ ์งํ๋ฐฉํฅ์ด ๋ณํ์ฌ ํฌ๊ณผ๋๋ฉด์ ๊ตด์
3) ์ ํ์ ํ์
: ์ ์ํ๋ ๋น๊ณผ ๋ง์ฐฌ๊ฐ์ง๋ก ์ ํ ๊ฒฝ๋ก์์ ์ฐ์ ๋๋ ๊ฑด๋ฌผ ๋ฑ๊ณผ ๊ฐ์ ์ฅ์ ๋ฌผ์ด ์๋ ๊ฒฝ์ฐ , ๊ทธ ๋ค์ชฝ์์ ์ ํ์ ์ผ๋ถ๊ฐ ํ์ด์ ธ ์์
4) ์ ํ์ ๊ฐ์ญ โ ์๊ฐ์ฐจ์ ์ํ ๊ฐ์ญ : ๋์ผ ๊ธฐ์ง๊ตญ์์ ๋ฐฉ์ฌ๋ ๋์ผํ ์ฃผํ์๊ฐ ์ฌ๋ฌ ๊ฒฝ๋ก๋ฅผ ๊ฑฐ์น๋ฉด์ ์ ํ์
๋๋ฌ ์๊ฐ์ ์ฐจ์ด๊ฐ ์๊ฒจ ๋ฐ์ โก ์ธ์ ์ฑ๋ ๊ฐ์ญ : ์๋ก ๋ค๋ฅธ ๊ธฐ์ง๊ตญ์ผ๋ก๋ถํฐ ๋ฐ์ฌ๋๋ ๋์ผํ ์ฃผํ์๋ก ์ธํด ์ผ์ด๋๋
๊ฐ์ญ โข ๋์ผ ์ฑ๋ ๊ฐ์ญ : ์ฌ๋ฌ ๋จ๋ง๊ธฐ๊ฐ ๋์์ ํตํ์๋๋ฅผ ํ๋ฉด ๊ฐ์ ์ฑ๋์ ์ฌ์ฉํ๊ฒ ๋๋๋ฐ ,
์ด๋ ๋ฐ๋์ชฝ์์ ๋๋ ๊ฐ์ญ
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2. Radio Wave
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 3. ์ ํ์ ์ ํ ๊ฒฝ๋ก
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โข ์ ์ํ๋ฅผ ์ด์ฉํ ๋ฌด์ ์ฅ๋น์ ์์ ๋ฐ ์์คํ
RF : 1GHzโข ์ฌ์ ์ ์๋ฏธ Microwave : 300MHz ~ 300GHz
2. Radio Wave
RF ์ ์ ์
-RF (Radio Frequency) : ๋ฐฉ์ฌ ( ๋ฐฉํ ) ์ฃผํ์
- ๋๋ต 100 ~300MHz ์ด์์ ๊ณ ์ฃผํ ๋ฌด์ ํต์ ๋ฐ ๊ณ ์ฃผํ๋ฅผ ์ด์ฉํ๋ ์์ , ๋ถํ , ์์คํ , ๊ด๋ จ ์ฅ๋น ๋ถ์ผ .
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2. Radio Wave
์ฃผํ์ (Frequency) ์ ์ ์
โข ์ ์ํ๊ฐ ์์ง์ด๋ ๋ณด์ด์ง ์๋ ๊ธธ ( ์ง์ ๋ ์ฃผํ์๋ฅผ ํตํ์ฌ ์ ๋ณด๋ฅผ ๊ตํ )
โ ํ์ฅ ๋ ์ง๋์๋ฅผ ๊ธฐ์ค์ผ๋ก ํ ์ฝ์
โข 1 ์ด ๋์์ ์ผ์ ํ ์ฃผ๊ธฐ๋ก ์ง๋ํ๋ ํ์ [Hz]
m/s) 103( Hz 8 cc
f
โข
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 4. ์ฃผํ์์ ๊ฐ๋
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2. Radio Wave
ํ 1. ๋ฌด์ ์ฃผํ์ ๋์ญ
* ์์ ์ ์ธ RF ๋์ญ
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2. Radio Wave
*Microwave ๋์ญํ 2. Microwave ๋์ญ
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3. Comparison between Analog, Microwave, Digital
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 5. Analog ์ Digital
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4. Microwave Applications
Super Heterodyne ๋ฐฉ์ : ์์ ๊ธฐ์ ๊ฐ๋๋ฅผ ๋์ด๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ๊ณ ์ฃผํ ์ฆํญ๊ธฐ์ ์ด๋์ ํฌ๊ฒ ํ๋ค๋ ๊ฒ์ ํ๋๊ฐ ์์ผ๋ฏ๋ก , ๊ณ ์ฃผํ ์ ํธ๋ฅผ ํ๋ฒ ์ฃผํ์๊ฐ ๋ฎ์ ์ฆ๊ฐ ์ฃผํ์๋ก ๋ณํ์์ผ ์ด๊ฒ์ ์ฆํญํ ํ์ ๋ณต์กฐํ์ฌ ์ ์ฃผํ ์ฆํญ์ ํ๋ ๋ฐฉ์์ผ๋ก ํ๋ก๊ฐ ๋ณต์กํ๊ณ ๊ฐ๊ฒฉ์ด ๋น์ธ์ง๋ง , ๊ฐ๋์ ์ ํ๋๊ฐ ํฅ์๋๊ณ ๊ด๋์ญ์ ๊ฑธ์ณ ์ฃผํ์ ์ถฉ์ค๋๊ฐ ์ฐ์
Direct Conversion (Zero IF) ๋ฐฉ์ : IF ๋ฅผ ์ฌ์ฉํ์ง ์์ผ๋ฏ๋ก ์ฑ๋์ ์ ํ๋์ ๊ฐ๋๊ฐ ๋จ์ด์ง๊ธด ํ์ง๋ง , IF ๋จ์ ์ฌ์ฉํ์ง ์๊ธฐ ๋๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ๊ฒฉ๋ฉด์์ ์ ๊ฐ์ด๊ณ ๊ณต๊ฐ์ ์ ์ฝํ ์ ์์ผ๋ฏ๋ก ์๊ณ ๊ฐ๋ฒผ์ .
IF (Intermediate Frequency) : ์ฃผํ์๋ณํ๊ธฐ์ ์ํด ์์ ์ ํ์ ์ฃผํ์์ ๊ตญ๋ถ ๋ฐ์ง๊ธฐ ์ฃผํ์ ์ฐจ์ ํด๋นํ๋ ์ฃผํ์ ( ์์ ์ธก ), ์ผ๋ฐ์ ์ผ๋ก ์ค๊ฐ ์ฃผํ์๋ ์์ ์ฃผํ์๋ณด๋ค ๋ฎ๊ฒ ํ์ฌ ์ฆํญํ๊ธฐ ์ฝ๊ณ ์ ํ๋ ๋ฐ ์ถฉ์ค๋๋ฅผ ๋๊ฒ ํ๋ ๊ฒ
๋ฌด์ ๋ฐ ์ด๋ ํต์ ์์์ RF[Super Heterodyne ๋ฐฉ์ ]
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 6. Super heterodyne ํํ์ AM ์์ ๊ธฐ์ ๊ธฐ๋ณธ์ ์ธ ์์
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
์ผ๋ฐ์ ์ธ ์์คํ ๊ตฌ์กฐ
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4. Microwave Applications
Direct Conversion ๋ฐฉ์
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4. Microwave Applications
Super Heterodyne ๋ฐฉ์
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
RF ์ Microwave ๋ฅผ ์ฌ์ฉํ๋ ์ด์
โข ๊ณ ์ฃผํ์์ ๋ ๋์ ๋์ญ์ผ๋ก ์ ๋ฌ ( ์ ๋ณด ์ด๋ฐ ๋ฅ๋ ฅ )
โข ์์์ง๋ ์์คํ ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ ์์์ ํฌ๊ธฐ ๋ฌธ์
โข ๋์์ ์์ด ๋์ ์๋๋ฅผ ์๊ตฌ
โข ์ํ ๋ ์ด๋์ ์ํ ๋์ ์ ๊ธฐ์ ์ธ ํฌ๊ธฐ์ ๋น๋ก
โข ์์ ํ์ฅ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅธ ์ํ ๋์ ๊ธธ์ด ๋ฌธ์ ํด๊ฒฐ
โข ์ ํธ๊ฐ ์ ๋ฆฌ์ธต์์ ํ์ง ์์ผ๋ฏ๋ก ์ง์๊ณผ ์์ฑ๊ณผ์ ํต์ ์ด ๊ฐ๋ฅ
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4. Microwave Applications
*RF ์์ฉ๋ถ์ผ
ํ 3. RF ์์ฉ๋ถ์ผ
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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4. Microwave Applications
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5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Engineering
Network Analyzer:
ํ๋์ ๊ธฐ๊ณ ์์ ์ฃผํ์ Source ์ Spectrum Analyzer ๊ฐ ๋ค์ด ์ ์ด ์ , ์ ๋ ฅ๊ณผ ์ถ๋ ฅ์ ์ฃผํ์ ์ ํธ๋ถํฌ๊ฒฐ๊ณผ๋ฅผ ์๋ก ๋๋์ผ๋ก์จ S ํ๋ผ๋ฏธํฐ๋ฅผ ์ธก์ ํ๋ ์ฅ๋น
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 7. 8510C Network Analyzer Systems, 45 MHz
to 110 GHz
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Scalar Network Analyzer : magnitude
Vector Network Analyzer : magnitude, phase
time domain frequency domain
Linear Device ๋ง ์ธก์ ๊ฐ๋ฅ (Frequency Doubler, Mixer ๋ฑ์ ์ธก์ ๋ถ๊ฐ๋ฅ )
Delay Reflection ์ธก์
(1 port device)SWRS-parameter(S11, S22)Reflection Coefficient Impedance Return Loss
Transmission ์ธก์
(2 port device)Gain or Insertion LossS-parameter(S11, S22)Transmission CoefficientInsertion PhaseGroup Delay
5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Engineering
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Spectrum Analyzer:
1-port ์ธก์ ์ฅ๋น๋ก ๊ณ์ธก๊ธฐ ์ ๋ ฅ๋จ์์ ์ด๋ ์ฃผํ์ ์ฑ๋ถ์ด ๊ฐ์ง๋๋์ง๋ฅผ ํ์ํ๋์ฅ๋น , Phase Noise ๋ ์ธก์ .
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 8. 8563EC Portable Spectrum Analyzer, 9 kHz to 25.6 GHz
5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Engineering
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Noise Figure Meter (or Analyzer):
์ก์์ ์์๋ก ๋ฐ์์ํค๋ Noise Source ์ ์ก์์ง์๋ฅผ ์ธก์ ํ๋ Noise Figure meter ๋ก ๊ตฌ์ฑ , ํ๋ก์ ์์ ๋ถ ์์คํ ์ ์ก์์ง์๋ฅผ ์ธก์ , Tuner ๋ฅผ ์ฌ์ฉํ์ฌNoise Figure Parameter ๋ฅผ ์ถ์ถ ๊ฐ๋ฅ , ์ ์ก์ ์ฆํญ๊ธฐ์ ์ก์์ง์ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์ ์์ ๋ถ
์ ์ก์์ง์ ์ธก์ ์ํ์์ ์ธ ์ฅ๋น
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 9. N8975A Series Noise Figure Analyzer
5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Engineering
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Power Meter: Power ์ธก์
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 10. E4418B Single-Channel Power Meter
5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Engineering
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Probe Station:
Wafer ๋ฐ Chip sample ๋ฑ ์ ์ ์์๋ค์ ์ ์ , ์ ๊ธฐ์ ํน์ฑ ๋ฐ ๋ฌผ์ฑ ์ฐ๊ตฌ์ ์ฃผ๋ก ์ฌ์ฉํ๋ ์์ ํ์นจ์ฉ ์ฅ๋น . ์ฃผ๋ก I-V, C-V, ๊ฐ์ข ํ๋ผ๋ฏธํฐ ๋ฐ Wafer ์ ์ ๋ขฐ์ฑ์
ํ ์คํธ
๊ทธ๋ฆผ 11. Cascade Microtech Probe System
5. Measurement Systems for Microwave Engineering
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์ ์๊ธฐํ (Electromagnetics):
Vector ๋ฐ scalar, ์ ์ ๊ณ , ์ ์ ์ฒด์ ์ ์ ์ฉ๋ , ์์ฑ์ฒด์ ์ธ๋ํด์ค , ์ ์๊ณ์ ํน์ฑ์ ์ตํ๊ณ ์๋ณ๊ณ์์ Maxwell ๋ฐฉ์ ์์ ํตํด ๊ธฐ๋ณธ์ ์ธ ์ ์๊ธฐ์ ํ์์ ์ด
ํด
ํ๋ก์ด๋ก (Circuit Theory):
ํค๋ฅดํํธํ๋ฒ์น , RLC ์๋ต , Laplace ๋ณํ , Fourier ๋ณํ ๋ฑ์ ์ฌ๋ฌํ๋ก ์ด๋ก ๋ค ์ ๋ํ ์ดํด
๋ฌผ๋ฆฌ์ ์ (Solid State Electronic Device):
๋ฐ๋์ฒด ์์์ ํน์ฑ๊ณผ ๋์์ ์๋ฆฌ , ๋ค์ด์ค๋์ ํธ๋์ง์คํฐ์ ์ดํด
์ ์ํ๋ก (Electronic Circuit):
๋ค์ด์ค๋ , ๋ฐ์ดํด๋ผ ํธ๋์ง์คํฐ , FET ์ ๊ฐ์ ์ ์์์์ ๋์์๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ์ต๋ํ๋ฉฐ , ์ด๋ค์ ์์ ํธ ๋ชจ๋ธ์ ์ด์ฉํ ์ฆํญํ๋ก์ ํด์๊ณผ ์ค๊ณ ๊ธฐ๋ฒ์ ํ์ต
์ด๊ณ ์ฃผํ๊ณตํ (Microwave Engineering):
์ ์ก์ ์ด๋ก , ์ด๊ณ ์ฃผํ ํ๋ก๋ง๋ถ์ , ์ ํฉ์ด๋ก ๋ฐ ๊ฐ์ข ์ด๊ณ ์ฃผํ ์์ ๋ฐ ์ฆํญ๊ธฐ ์๋ํ ์ดํด
๋ฌด์ ํต์ ํ๋ก ๋ฐ ์คํ (Wireless Communication Circuits and Experiments):
๋ฌด์ ํต์ ์์คํ ์ ๊ตฌ์ฑํ๊ณ ์๋ ์ฃผ์ ํ๋ก์ ๋์ ๋ฐ ์ค๊ณ ๋ฐฉ๋ฒ์ ํ์ต
์ ํ๊ณตํ (Wave Propagation Engineering):
๋๊ธฐ ์ค์์์ ์ ํ์ ์ ํ ๊ณผ์ ๊ณผ ์ํ ๋์ ์ค๊ณ์ด๋ก ํ์ต
6. Curriculum for Microwave Engineering
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 37
Memoryless system
A system is called โmemorylessโ if its output does not depend on the past values of its input.
For memoryless linear system,
y(t)=x(t)
where is a function of time if the system is time variant
For a memoryless nonlinear system, the input-output relationship can be approximated with a polynomial,
where j are in general functions of time if the system is time invariant
For memoryless and time-variant systems,
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
txtxtxty 3
3
2
210
txtxtxty 33
221
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 38
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Harmonics If a sinusoid is applied to a nonlinear system, the output generally exhibits frequency components that are integer multiples of the input frequency.
if x(t)=Acost, then
where the input frequency (): โfundamentalโ
the higher-order terms(n, n:integer): โharmonics.โ
Even-order harmonics result from j with even j and vanish if the system has
odd symmetry, i.e., if it is fully differential.
The amplitude of the nth harmonic consists of a term proportional to An and
other terms proportional to higher powers of A.
tA
tA
tA
AA
ttA
tA
tA
tAtAtAty
3cos4
2cos2
cos4
3
2
3coscos34
2cos12
cos
coscoscos
33
22
33
1
22
33
22
1
333
2221
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 39
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Gain Compression
The small signal gain (1)of circuit is usually obtained with the assumption that harmonics are negligible.
In most circuits of interest, the output is a โcompressiveโ or โsaturatingโ function of input. At high input level, gain is a decreasing function of A.
smallnot is @cos4
3
small is @cos
3cos4
2cos2
cos4
3
2
3
31
1
3
3
2
2
3
31
2
2
AtA
A
AtA
tA
tA
tA
AA
ty
0,0,04/3 31312
31 A
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 40
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
1-dB compression point(P1dB): The input signal level that causes the small signal gain to drop by 1dB.
Fig. 7 Definition of 1dB compression point
To calculate the 1-dB compression point,
3
1
3
11 145.0
3
41087.0
dBA
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 41
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Desensitization and blocking
When the desired signal is fed to circuit with a strong interferer, the โaverageโ gain of the circuit is reduced because of a large interferer : โdesensitizationโ
interferer:cos signal,:coscoscos 22112211 tAtAtAtAtx
tAAtA
tA
ttAAttAAtt
A
tAttAAttAAtA
tAtAtx
1
2
211
3
13
2
33
2
21
2
2121
2
2
2
111
3
13
2
33
22
2
1
2
2121
2
2
2
11
33
13
3
22113
3
3
cos2
3cos
4
3
cos
2
2cos1cos3coscos33coscos3
4
coscoscos3coscos3cos
coscos)(
tAAAAty 1
2213
31311 cos
2
3
4
3
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 42
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
For A1 << A2,
For 3<0 and sufficiently large A2, the overall gain drops zero, and we
say the signal is โblockedโ in RF design.
Many RF receivers must be able to withstand blocking signals 60 to 70dB
greater than the wanted signal. Filter, Matching circuits, etc.
tAAty 11
2231 cos
2
3
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 43
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Cross Modulation
When a weak signal and a strong interferer pass through a nonlinear system, the transfer of modulation on the amplitude of the the interferer to the amplitude of the weak signal is occurred.
The desired signal at the output contains amplitude modulation at m and 2m.
)indexmodulation,1(cos)cos1(cos 2222 mttmAtA m
ttmtmm
AAA
ttmAtAtAty
mm
m
1
22221311
222113111
coscos22cos22
12
3
coscos1cos3cos
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 44
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design Intermodulaton
When two signals with different frequencies are applied to a nonlinear system, the output in general exhibits some components that are not harmonics of the input frequencies. Intermodulation distortion(IMD)
Fundamental components
Intermodulation products:
tAtAtx 2211 coscos
3
22113
2
22112
22111
coscoscoscos
coscos
tAtAtAtA
tAtAty
tAAAA
tAAAA
2
2
123
3
2321
1
2
213
3
131121
cos2
3
4
3
cos2
3
4
3: ,
2cos4
32cos
4
3: 2
2cos4
32cos
4
3: 2
coscos:
121
2
23
121
2
23
12
212
2
1321
2
2
1321
212122121221
tAA
tAA
tAA
tAA
tAAtAA
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 45
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
The interest IM products are the third-order IM products at 22-1 and 21-
2.
If the difference between 1 and 2 is small, the components at 21-2 and
22-1 appear in the vicinity of 1 and 2 .
Fig. 8 Intermodulation in a nonlinear system
If a weak signal accompanied by two strong interferers experiences third-
order nonlinearity, then one of the IM products falls in the band of interest,
corrupting the desired component.
Fig. 9 Corruption of a signal due to intermodulation between two interferers
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 46
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
IP3 This parameter is measured by a two-tone test in which A is chosen to be
sufficiently small so that higher-order nonlinear terms are negligible and the gain is relatively constant and equal to 1.
As A increases, the fundamentals increase in proportion to A, whereas the third-order IM products increase in proportion to A3.
Fig. 10 Growth of output components in an intermodulation test
Horizontal coordinate : Input IP3(โIIP3โ)
Vertical coordinate: Output IP3(โOIP3โ)
IP3 is used as a measure of linearity and a unique quantity that by itself can serves as a means of comparing the linearity of different circuits.
3
4
3
13
IPA
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 47
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Fig. 11 (a)Calculation of IP3 without extrapolation, (b)graphical interpretation of (a)
The actual value of IP3, however, must still be obtained through accurate extrapolation to ensure that all nonlinear and frequency-dependent effects are taken into account.
only) caseA (Class 23 dBmin
dBdBm
PP
IIP
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 48
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Calculation of an overall input third intercept point in terms of the IP3 and gain of the individual stage.
Two nonlinear stages in cascade
Fig. 12 Cascaded nonlinear stages
The overall OIP3:
, 3
13
2
12112
3
3
2
211 tytytytytxtxtxty
33
3
2
213
23
3
2
212
3
3
2
2112
txtxtx
txtxtxtxtxtxty
2 3
3
3
122113112 txtxty
23
4
3
3
122113
113
IPA
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 49
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
The alternate overall OIP3:
where AIP3,1 and AIP3,2 represent the input IP3 points of the 1st and 2nd stages.
From the result, 1 increases, the overall IP3 decreases. This is because with higher gain in the first stage, the second stage senses larger input levels producing greater IM3 products.
31
34
3
34
1
2
4
31
2
IP3,2
2
12
2
IP3,1
3
1
2
12
3
111
3
3
122113
2
3
AA
AIP
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 50
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Noise Thermal noise (or Johnson noise, Nyquist noise)
- The agitated charge carrier random motion noise being caused by thermal
vibration of bound charge
- White noise up to 1013 Hz
- Noise power: P=kTB
where k: Boltzman constant (1.3810-23 J/ยบK)
T: Absolute temperature
B: System bandwidth
Ex.]The available power in a 1Hz bandwidth from a thermal noise source
P=kT=410-23 [W/Hz]=-174dBm/Hz @room temperature
Shot noise (or Schottky noise)
- The transfer noise of charge across an energy barrier (ex. A PN junction,
IDS in MOSFET)
-
where q=1.6 10-19[C] (electron charge), Idc:dc current through the device
BqIii dcdcsS 22
,
2
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 51
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Flicker noise - Random trapping noise of charge at the oxide-silicon interface of MOSFETs
- Dominant at low frequencies in the semiconductor devices
- Must be considered in the design ultra wideband amplifiers (dc~10GHz) and
microwave oscillator
Plasma noise
- Random motion noise of charges in an ionized gas as a plasma, the
ionosphere, or sparking electrical contacts
Quantum noise
- The quantized nature of charge carriers and photons
- Often insignificant relative to other noise sources
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 52
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Input-Referred Noise The noise of a two-port system can be modeled by two input noise
generators: a series voltage source and a parallel current source. In general, the correlation between the two sources must be taken into account.
Fig. 13 Representation of noise by input noise generators
Fig. 14 (a)MOS amplifier, (b) equivalent input noise generators
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 53
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Noise Figure Signal-to-noise ratio(SNR): The ratio of the signal power to the total noise
power.
where SNRin : The SNR measured at the input
SNRout : The SNR measured at the output
Friis equation:
The noise contributed by each stage decreases as the gain preceding the
stage increases, implying that the the first few stages in a cascade are the
most critical.
Figure)(Noiseout
in
SNR
SNRNF
111
)1(2121
3
1
21
mppp
m
ppp
tot AAA
NF
AA
NF
A
NFNFNF
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 54
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
Noise Sensitivity of RF receiver
The minimum signal level that the system can detect with acceptable signal-to-noise ratio.
where Psig: The input signal level per unit bandwidth
PRs: The source resistance noise power per unit bandwidth
The overall signal power is distributed across the channel bandwidth, B :
The minimum signal level that the system can detect with acceptable SNR:
where Pin,min: The minimum input level that achieves SNRout,min
B: Bandwidth [Hz]
outout
in
SNR
PP
SNR
SNRNF Rssig
outSNRNFPP Rssig
out, BSNRNFPP Rstotsig
log10dBmin,outdBdBm/Hzmin,in BSNRNFPP RsdBm
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 55
7. Basic Concepts in Microwave Circuit Design
In dB scale,
Dynamic Range The ratio of the maximum input level that the circuit can tolerate to the
minimum input level at which the circuit provides a reasonable signal quality.
DR bases the definition of the upper end of the dynamic range on the
intermodulation behavior and the lower end on the sensitivity.
โSpurious-free dynamic rangeโ(SFDR)
min
mindBmmin,in log10dBm/Hz174
SNRF
SNRBNFP
min
3
min3
min,inmax,in
3
2
3
2
SNRFP
SNRFFP
PPSFDR
IIP
IIP
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 56
8. RF Transceiver Architectures Primary criteria in selecting transceiver architectures: Complexity Cost Power dissipation Number of external components But IC technologies makes once seemed impractical design to return as plausible solutions.
RF Transceiver Architecture Heterodyne Homodyne Image-reject Digital-IF Subsampling receivers Direct-conversion and two-step transmitters
Transmitter: Narrowband modulation, amplification, and filtering to avoid leakage to adjacent channels Receiver: Able to process the desired channel while sufficiently rejecting strong neighboring interferers. Fig. 15 a)Transmitter and b)receiver front ends of a wireless transceiver
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 57
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Terminology Band: The entire spectrum in which the users of a particular standard are allowed to
communicate (e.g., the GSM receive band spans 935 MHz to 960 MHz) Channel: The signal bandwidth of only one user in the system (e.g. 200KHz in GSM) Band selection: The operations that reject out-of-band interferers
Channel selection: The operations that reject out-of-channel(usually in-band) interferers.
Isolation between TX and RX
Finite attenuation of the transmitted signal in the receive band
Desensitization of LNA by PA output leakage
NADC and GSM systems avoid by offsetting the
transmit and receive time slots, but analog FDD
standards (e.g., AMPS, CDMA) require high
isolation.
Fig. 16 Desensitization of LNA by PA output leakage
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 58
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Heterodyne receiver (or Downconversion mixing, Downconversion) Primary the signal band is translated to much lower frequencies
Relax the Q required of the channel-select filter.
The translation is carried out by means of a mixer.
RF signal: Bocos1t
LO signal: Aocosot o=1- 2
Some of output signals(IF):
1o=1(1-2)=2 or 21-2
Output of LPF: 2 (a)
Fig. 17 (a)Simple heterodyne downconversion
(b)inclusion of an LNA to lower the
noise figure
(b)
RF IF
LO
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 59
8. RF Transceiver Architectures Problem of Image
- For x1(t)=A1cos1t and x2(t)=A2cos2t, the low pass filtered product of x1(t) and x2(t) is of the form cos(1-2)t, no different form cos(2-1)t
- In a heterodyne architecture, the bands symmetrically located above and below the LO frequency are downconverted to the same center frequency.
Image frequency
- If RF signal is centered around 1 (= LO- IF), the image is around 2LO- 1(= LO+ IF) and vice versa.
Image rejection filter in front of mixer is
designed to have a relatively small loss in
the desired band and a large attenuation
in the image band
Fig. 18 Problem of image in heterodyne reception Fig. 19 Image rejection by means of a
filter
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 60
8. RF Transceiver Architectures Two cases corresponding to high and low values of IF
1) High IF Leads to substantial rejection of the image 2) Low IF High Q Allows great suppression of nearby interferers.
The trade-offs parameters in choice of IF
- Amount of image noise - The spacing between the desired band and the image - The loss of the image-reject filter Trade-off between image rejection and channel selection.
Fig. 20 Rejection of image versus suppression of
interferers for (a)high IF and (b)low IF
An important drawback of the heterodyne architecture - The image reject filter is realized as a passive, external component because of high Q.
- This requires input/output matching of LNA to 50, where LNA is inevitable more severe trade offs between the gain, noise figure, stability, and power dissipation in the amplifier.
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 61
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Dual IF topology
Multiple downconversion technique performs partial channel selection at progressively lower center frequencies, thereby relaxing the Q required of each filter.
Most of todayโs RF receivers : 2-stages of downconversion(โDual-IFโ)
Fig. 21 Dual-IF heterodyne receiver
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 62
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Homodyne Receivers (or Directโconversion, Zero IF)
The LO frequency is equal to the input carrier frequency. Channel selection requires only a low pass filter with relatively sharp cutoff characteristics.
Fig. 12(a) operates properly only with double-sideband AM signals because it overlaps positive and negative parts of the input spectrum.
For frequency and phase modulated signals, the downconversion must provide quadrature output so as to avoid loss of information. This is because the two sides of FM or QPSK spectra carry different information and must be separated into quadrature phases in translation to zero frequency.
Fig. 22 (a) Simple homodyne receiver,
(b) homodyne receiver with
quadrature downconversion
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 63
8. RF Transceiver Architectures Two advantages over a heterodyne counterpart.
1)The image problem is circumvented because IF=0. As a result, no image filter is required, And the LNA need not drive a 50-Ohm load.
2)The IF SAW filter and subsequent downconversion stages are replaced with low pass filters and base band amplifiers are amenable to monolithic integration.
Direct conversion has number of issues do not exist or are not as serious in a
heterodyne receiver.
Channel selection: Rejection of out-of-channel interferers by an active low-
pass filter is more difficult than by a passive filter, fundamentally active
filters exhibit much more severe noise-linearity-power trade-offs than do
their passive counterparts.
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 64
8. RF Transceiver Architectures DC offsets
- Since in a homodyne topology the downconverted band extends to zero
frequency, extraneous offset voltages can corrupt the signal and saturate the
following stages.
- LO leakage: From capacitive and substrate coupling and, if the LO signal is
provided externally, bond wire coupling, the isolation between the LO port
and the inputs of the mixer and the LNA is not infinite.
- Self-mixing: The leakage signal
appearing at the inputs of the LNA
and the mixer from LO signal is
mixed with LO signal, thus producing
a DC component at C.
- A large interferer leaks from the LNA
or mixer input to the LO port and is
multiplied by itself.
Fig. 23 Self mixing of (a) LO signal , (b) a strong interferer
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 65
8. RF Transceiver Architectures I/Q Mismatch - For phase and frequency modulation schemes, a homodyne receiver must incorporate quadrature mixing. - Either the RF signal or the LO output by 90o phase shifting
The shifting the RF signal generally entails severe noise-power-gain trade-offs, making it more desirable to use the topology of quadrature generation in LO path.
Fig. 24 Quadrature generation in
(a) RF path,
(b) LO path
Fig. 25 Effect of I/Q mismatch on a demodulated QPSK waveform; (a)gain error (b)phase error
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 66
8. RF Transceiver Architectures Even-Order distortion - Two strong interferers close to the channel of interest experience nonlinearity such as in the LNA. - Mixers exhibit a finite direct feedthrough from the RF input to the IF output.
Thus, a fraction of vRF(t) appears at the output with no frequency translation. (Ex.: 30 ~ 40 dB in typical differential mixers)
- Even order distortion demodulates AM components.
Fig. 26 Effect of even-order distortion on interferers
- Differential LNAs and mixers can suppress even-order distortion. 1) Balun (single ended ant. to differential LNA) (difficult!!) 2) NF increasing due to insertion loss of balun
tAtAtx 2211 coscos
tAA 21212 cos
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 67
8. RF Transceiver Architectures Flicker noise - Flicker noise arises from random trapping of charge at the oxide-silicon interface of MOSFETs. Represented as a voltage source in series with the gate, the noise density is
where K: A process-dependent constant and negligible at high frequencies.
- In particular, since the downconverted spectrum extends to zero frequency, the 1/f noise of devices substantially corrupts the signal, a severe problem in MOS implementations.
LO leakage - Leakage of the LO signal to the antenna and radiation creates interference in
the band of other receivers using the same wireless standard. - The design of the wireless standard and the regulations of the Federal
Communications Commission(FCC) impose upper bounds on the amount of in-band LO radiation, typically between โ50dB and โ80dBm.
12
fWLC
KV
OXn
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 68
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Hartley Architecture The RF input is mixed with the quadrature phases of the local oscillator
(cosLOt and sinLOt), low-pass filters the resulting signals and shifts one by 90o before adding them together.
Fig. 27 Hartley image-reject receiver
Key point: The signal components at B and C have same polarity, whereas the image components have opposite polarities.
The input signals: x(t)=ARFcosRFt+ Aimcosimt
where ARFcosRFt : The desired channel signal
Aimcosimt : The image channel signal
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 69
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Signals of at point A and B
Signals of at point C and output port
The RF signal is down-converted with no corruption by the image.
tAt
Atx
tA
tA
tA
tA
ttA
ttA
ttAttAttAtAtx
imLOim
RFLORF
B
imLOim
LORFRF
imLOim
RFLORF
FPL
imLOimLOim
RFLORFLORF
imLOimRFLORFLOimimRFRFA
cos2
cos2
sin2
sin2
sin2
sin2
sinsin2
sinsin2
cossincossinsincoscos
..
tAtxtxtx
tA
tA
tx
LORFRFCBIF
imLOim
LORFRF
C
cos)()()(
cos2
cos2
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 70
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Weaver Architecture
The weaver architecture replaces the 90 stage of the Hartley architecture by a second quadrature mixing operation.
Assume 2<< 1
Fig. 28 Weaver image-reject receiver
Fig. 29 Graphical analysis of Weaver architecture
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Microwave Circuits Design Lab. 71
8. RF Transceiver Architectures
Digital-IF Receivers
The 1st IF signal is digitized, and โmixedโ with the quadrature phases of a digital sinusoid, and low-pass filtered to yield the quadrature baseband signals.
Digital processing avoids the problem of I and Q mismatch.
Fig. 30 Digital-IF receiver