process mapping for systems improvement

For Systems Improvement

Process Mapping:

Adapted by Mitchell W. Manningfrom the work of the Process Mapping

Training Team at GlaxoWellcome 1995-1997

Process Mapping

Process Map: A graphic representation of a process, showing the sequence of tasks; uses a modified version of standard flowcharting symbols

Mapping: The activity of creating a detailed flowchart of a work process showing its inputs, tasks, and activities in sequence

A good map is the foundation for continuous quality improvement efforts in which you analyze and agree on the most efficient routes to take under various circumstances

Continuous Improvement

Objectives

Map process as it is nowProduce a working documentRecognize that real value is in the

map’s creation

Process Definitions

Process: A sequence of steps, tasks, or activities that converts inputs to an output; adds value to the inputs by changing them or using them to produce something new

Input: The materials, equipment, information, people, money, or environmental conditions needed to carry out the process

Output: The product or service that is created by the process; that which is handed off to the customer

Types of Customers

External Customer: User of an organization’s overall product or service who is not a member of the organization

Internal Customer: User of products or services who is a member of the organization

Mapping Levels

Level 1—SystemLevel 2—Primary ProcessLevel 3—FunctionLevel 4—Task

Level 1: System

System Map: Organizational overview showing the first level of supply process and customer

How?• Interview

Who?• System owner

Why?• To get direction and establish boundaries

V PM a te r ia ls M gt

V PP rodu c tion

V PQ A

V PH R

P res ide n t

Level 2: Primary Process

Primary Process Map: A high level overview of the basic steps of a primary process

How• Interview

Who?• Process owner

Why?• Systems improvement

Level 3: Function

Function Map: A map which contains more detail and includes the major functions in the process

How?• SMEs describe functions in detail, usually through

structured brainstorming

Who?• Process owner• Direct reports

Why?• Process improvement

Level 4: Task

Task Map: A more detailed map including individual tasks or activities which make up the function

How?• SMEs describe activities in detail, usually through

structured brainstorming

Why?• Drill down to the lowest level of detail for process re-

engineering, computer system implementation, etc.• May include documents, screen prints, and data

Process Definitions

Process Participants: People who perform the steps of the process

Process Owner: Person responsible for the process and its output; key decision maker who can allot organization resources to the process participants

Stakeholder: Someone who is not a supplier, customer, or process owner; but who has an interest in the process and stands to gain or lose based on the results of the process

Process Boundaries: The first and last steps of the process; the first thing done in the process and the last thing done before delivery to the customer

Primary Process: The basic steps or activities that must occur to produce the output

Steps

Each step, task, or activity within a flowchart is depicted as a rectangle

Take out trashTake out trashWash dishesWash dishes

Sweep floor

Sweep floorSweep floor

Take out trashTake out trash

Wash dishesWash dishes

Put Steps in Sequence

Inputs• Drawn as parallelograms• Linked to the step where they are used

Outputs• Drawn as a parallelograms

Mapping Inputs and Outputs


Hot water

SoapSponge

Broom

Bag/can

InputsProcess

Kitchen cleaned

Output



Map of a of Primary Process

Parallel Process

DefinitionA process executed by someone (or

something) else that occurs simultaneously (concurrently) with the primary process

May or may not be part of the primary process

Clear tableClear table

Map of a of Parallel Process


Stack dishesStack dishesRefrigerate leftoversRefrigerate leftovers



Dry dishesDry dishes

Parallel Process

Reduces cycle timeCycle time: The total

amount of time required to complete the process, from boundary to boundary; one measure of productivity

Brown paper for background• Transportable

3x5 stick-on notes or index cards• Represent task rectangles• Use a different color for input and output

parallelograms• May use different colors to represent different

departments• Easily moved around, re-sequenced, eliminated, or

added to Pencil lines

• Erasable

Mapping Guidelines

Steps in the Mapping Process

1. BrainstormA. Brainstorm a list of tasks and activities on a

flip chart

B. Write each item “as is” rather than the “should be”– Include the boundary steps

C. Have two or three people write the items listed on 3 x 5 stick-on notes or index cards– Each task should include a verb and its object


2. SortA. Find a large, flat surface on which to lay out

the notes

B. Read the stick-on notes while moving around the work surface

C. Remove any tasks that have to do with “inspection,” “revision,” “rework,” or “fix”

D. Remove any tasks that may belong to another administrative/management process

2. SortE. Examine each remaining task and place it into one of

two stacks/categories Tasks which absolutely must occur Tasks which occur sometimes

*Team must be unanimous to put a task in the “must occur” pile

*“Must occur” pile represents primary process

F. Discard any duplicated tasks

G. If different people, departments, or functions perform some of the tasks, code the stick-on notes with a colored dot coordinated to the individual, department, or function


3. Select flowchart format• Flowcharts may run either vertically or

horizontally based on the amount and nature of the available wall space


4. Prepare work fieldA. Attach brown paper firmly in place

according to the format chosen and the available working surface


5. Place primary process notesA. Place the first step of the process (boundary) at the top of

the first pageB. Place the last step (boundary) at the bottom of the last pageC. Draw ovals around the boundary steps with a marker (see

below)D. Place the remaining steps in sequenceE. Leave space between steps for the insertion of things laterF. Do not draw any lines or arrows yetG. Save the “sometimes occur” notes

(Boundary step)


6. Check for reasonablenessA. Consider each step of your

primary process; is it necessary to produce the output?

B. Have any important steps been forgotten? If so, add them


Characteristics of a Truly Useful Map

The map must describeThe map must allow flexibilityThe map must build alternative paths,

depending on circumstances or personal preference

The map must represent the process as it is, not as it ought to be

Alternative Path

DefinitionA path through a flowchart

comprised of one or more optional tasks off the mandatory primary path

Preceded by a decision diamond

?

Decision Diamond

Definition Used for a decision leading to an

alternative path Depicted by a square stick-on

note turned 45 degrees Always poses a question and

requires an answer Most often, will lead to yes/no

alternatives

?

Pick up son from baseball

practice?

Drive to playground

Drive to playgroundDrive homeDrive home

no

yes

Alternative Paths

Decision Diamond

Each “sometimes occurs” task requires a decision diamond

There is usually a three-step thought process for creating and placing a “sometimes occurs” step with its decision diamond

Three-Step Process

Pair a “sometimes” task with a blank decision diamond

Why would you do that optional step? Write it in question form

Place the pair (diamond and its task) in its appropriate sequence within the process with the “no” line being connected to the next task box in the primary process

Get out of carGet out of car?

Sometimes Task

Get out of carGet out of car

Self-servicepump?

yes

Get out of carGet out of car

Self-servicepump?

yes

no

Give order to attendant

Give order to attendant

Alternative Paths

Multiple Response Paths

Multiple Decisions

Decision Questions

Should be specific and objective (measurable)

Everyone should interpret the question the same way

Many of the decisions in the “as is” version may be quite subjective

?

Inspection Point

Finds errors before they reach the customer

Decision diamond typically requiring a “pass/fail” answer

Failures cause the process direction to reverse itself

Rework Loop

DefinitionThe result of a failed inspection pointAdds steps to the process and

generally leads back to the inspection diamond

Rework Loop

Adds to cycle timeAdds to cost

no

yes

Inspect

Pass?Correct

Do-Over Loop

DefinitionAnother result of a failed inspection

pointLeads to an earlier step in the processSteps must be repeatedAssociated with scrap

Do (Re-do)

no

yes

Inspect

Pass?

Next step

Do (Re-do)

Do-Over Loop

Inspection Points

Represent standardsShould be specific, objective, and

measurableIf the above criteria are not met, this is

an area for improvement

Eliminate or Minimize Non-Value-Added Steps

This is one of the most important steps of improving a process

Look for “approval” and “for-your-information” steps

Value-Added Step

DefinitionA step that contributes

to customer satisfactionA customer would

notice if it were eliminated

Customer Requirements

DefinitionThe needs, wants, and

expectations of your customers, in their words

Question your customers about their requirements

Ask, “Does this step add value in our customers’ eyes? What would happen to the customer if this step were eliminated?”

Brainstorm creative ways to eliminate or shorten particularly time-consuming crucial steps

Eliminate or Minimize Non-Value-Added Steps

Develop and Apply Standards

Each inspection point must clearly specify the conditions to “pass”

Must have objective, measurable inspection criteria

Process Standard

DefinitionPrecise, measurable

statement of an acceptable level, quantity, or other characteristic

Develop and Apply Standards

1. Select an inspection point for which you will begin developing measurable standards/criteria

2. Using the flip chart, brainstorm a list of possible standards

3. Reduce the list using the criteria of criticality, objectivity, measurability, and practicality

4. Agree on standards for each inspection point in the process

Move Inspection Points Forward

1. Decide where the process error is likely to occur

2. Create an inspection point as close to the error-producing step as possible

Eliminate the Need for Inspection Points

1. Identify the inspection point to be eliminated2. Brainstorm a number of ideas for elimination3. Evaluate each idea for its strengths and

weaknesses4. Develop a solution and plan its

implementation5. Try out the solution6. Continue to monitor for errors (check) to see

if your solution has worked7. Rearrange and redraw affected sections of the

map

PDCA

Chart and Evaluate Inputs and Suppliers

1. Select process steps for which there are multiple inputs

2. Brainstorm inputs

3. Fill in the name of the supplier for each input

4. Rate each input as a 1) Needs attention now

2) Postpone for later action

3) No attention needed

5. Develop requirements for inputs rated “1”

6. Judge your inputs against your requirements

7. Share findings with your suppliers and negotiate improved inputs

Total Cycle Time

DefinitionThe time it takes to

complete a process, from boundary to boundary

Sometimes called actual cycle time

Theoretical Cycle Time

DefinitionThe sum of the times required to

perform each step in the processDoes not account for hand-off or wait

timesTheoretically, the shortest possible

time to complete the process

Cycle-Time Studies

The difference between total and theoretical cycle times represents the opportunity for improvement

Look for bottlenecks and other inefficiencies

Develop solutions and try them out

Take cycle-time measures of your changed process

Adjust and adapt until your changes reliably reduce total cycle time

PDCA

Conduct a Cycle-Time Study

Move Steps into Another Process

Means of uncluttering a process and minimizing cycle time

Move one or more steps to an earlier time, making them part of a different, less time-sensitive process

Look for anything that can be done ahead of time

Design a Parallel Process

Occurs simultaneously with the primary process

Reduces cycle time

Clear tableClear table


Stack dishesStack dishesRefrigerate leftoversRefrigerate leftovers



Dry dishesDry dishes


Identify steps that could be done by someone else, in parallel

Map the parallel process so that all can see exactly what would occur

Evaluate the idea by thinking of all the pluses and minuses of such a reorganization


Automate or Mechanize Steps

Reduces cycle time, errors, or bothIdentify steps that could be done by

someone (or something) elseMap the new processEvaluate the idea by thinking of all the

pluses and minuses

Sub-process Level 3 Function

The smaller steps that comprise one process step; the next level of detail

Has all the same characteristics of a primary process, such as decision diamonds, parallel processes, and inspection points

Each step in the sub-process can be further broken down into its elements or tasks (sub-sub-process, or Level 4 Task)

Map the sub-processes and sub-sub-processes when• A primary step has been identified as a potential

problem area• No further improvement at the primary process

level can be found• You want to understand your process even

better

Mapping Sub-processes

To collaboratively gain an even deeper understanding of how the process works

Gain new insights and to understand how your process affects other processes

Get Feedback on Map

Process Mapping Guidelines

Use brown paper for backgroundUse stick-on notes or index cards

• Represent task rectangles• Different colors to represent

input/output parallelograms or different departments

• Turn 45 degrees to represent decision diamonds

Process Mapping Guidelines for Teams

Boundary steps represented by oval drawn with a marker

Connector nodes represented by circle drawn with a marker

Process arrow showing direction of flow drawn initially with pencil

Process Mapping Symbols

Symbols to be used for coding of tasks, activities, documents, etc.

• Telephone: Conversation

• Computer 1: Mainframe

• Computer 2: Client/Server

• Computer 3: PC

• Light Bulb: Bright idea

• Chain: Interface

• Clouds: Thought, issue, “Don’t forget this”

Process Mapping Symbols continued

Red: Manually generated documentBlue: Computer generated report/

documentYellow: Batch record documentOrange: Regulatory documentGreen: Computer print screenPurple: Management report

Process Mapping Colors

Summary

A map is a tool for the organization to use

Dozens of maps form a detailed systemThis is true systems thinking

process mapping for systems improvement

Business

process process owner

process process boundaries

process mapping process

process improvement

work process

primary process level

customer primary process

level of supply process