Gender and migration: evidence from qualitative and quantitative

research in Africa and Asia

Priya Deshingkar University of Sussex

Overview• Consortium focus on links between internal and regional migration and

poverty • Research question – Under what circumstances does migration help poor

people move out of poverty? Sub themes: rural-urban migration and gender • Five global regions: East, West and Southern Africa and also South and

Southeast Asia• Global and regional research programme; global meant to be comparative

and regional responds to local policy priorities

• Gender embedded in all the comparative research undertaken by the Consortium; together with other axes of social differentiation such as class, ethnicity and age

• Regional research coverage of gender variable due to research priorities, team capacities and also the view that inequality and disadvantage affecting both men and women are important e.g. race

• Next round of research builds on HH surveys to drill deeper into specific issues including projects with a sole focus on gender

Quantitative Household Surveys • 1200 migrant and non-migrant at rural areas of origin. • Different types of migration including short term and return• Completed in Ghana, Indonesia and Bangladesh; scheduled for Kenya

and Zimbabwe • Gender-disaggregated data on the migration decision, recruitment,

migrant occupations, education, remittances, use of remittances, subjective assessments of change in poverty and wellbeing;

• With these data we can determine: – Differences in characteristics of HH with male and female

migrants– Differences in remittance patterns and spending– Causal relationships (to the extent possible); causes of

inequality

Migration and Poverty in Ghana Centre for Migration Studies

• Migration is mainly internal (66% of 1387 HH) rest mainly regional

• Male dominated (62%); female migrants younger and less educated – why? probing

• Change over the past five years: HH with male internal migrants more likely to say their situation is adequate – but international migrant HH report no change or deterioration, needs further probing

• HH with internal male migrants more likely to be remittance dependent and(de facto) female headed

• Female migrants remit less – occupations different – petty trade and low level service providers e.g. Kayayei

Ghana (contd)• Spending pattern different in HH with female

migrants possibly due to their poorer situation prior to mig - HH with male mig less likely to report consumption as main use and more likely to spend on education

• Return migration female dominated, reasons include marriage, possibly failed migration?

• HH with returnees more likely to report deterioration in circumstances if working in private sector

• Qual research probing these inequalities further

Issues being probed further

• The structures that perpetuate gender inequality in rural society, appear to influence migrant labour market outcomes – the extent to which this occurs not clear

• Informal discussions with female migrants in Accra show that they perceive this as an opportunity and better than options available locally – counterfactuals needed

• Esp true of divorced, separated and those escaping abuse and conflict. Young aspire to a city life – migrate without parental approval – need to investigate further

Financing Migration, Generation Remittances and the Building of Livelihood Strategies, Asia Research Institute

• Mixed methods research 201 Indonesian FDWs in Singapore

• Market intermediaries and brokers widespread

• Highly organised but not always regulated

• Brokers take first 8 months of pay• Governments do not include DW

under employment law; employers not accountable

• Exploitation – long working hours, days off at discretion of employer

• Despite hardship 73% improved consumption; 66% education of children; 39% land and housing, 10% health, 9% enterprise and 3% debt repayment (3 per cent)

• Policy to reduce costs and risks

Analysis and remaining questions

• Emp opp in Indonesia for women limited but they can access remunerative labour markets through recruitment agents

• Economic impacts positive and may result in long term improvement for the HH esp through education

• But structures of oppression and exploitation – recruitment industry and lax policy env – lead to negative welfare outcomes for the individuals in the short term

• Need to better understand aspirations, decision making, agency and transformation of gender roles within the HH.

Migration for Construction Work in South Asia RMMRU

• India, Bangladesh and Nepal• 150 migrant interviews at destination – smaller number of interviews at source • Male dominated; young, married, mainly circular to earn and remit• Other axes of social differentiation important ;historically disadvantaged

communities stuck in the lowest jobs with limited upward mobility• Skills strongly correlated to earning capacity positive impacts on households at

destination greater among households with skilled migrants• Limited possibilities for acquiring skills through formal programmes; most acquired

informally on the job. But this was limited to men. Women never graduated to skilled work

• The few female workers were systematically underpaid – gender stereotypes about the nature of the work and their abilities.

• Similar prejudices seen against those belong to the “scheduled tribes” in India• Remittances spent on improved consumption, house improvement, education, land

– education levels higher among HH with a migrant

Remaining issues

• Both men and women are disadvantaged – unaware of rights, at the mercy of recruiters, emp-gov collusion = weak implementation of labour law

• Within that space – women more disadvantaged, earnings and working conditions

• Agency? Not clear whether they are negotiating patriarchal norms and limits within their societies of origin or with employers and recruiters

• Not clear what the impacts on HHs are in terms of changes in gender relations and cultural norms

• .

Social networks and migration in Zimbabwe, Centre for Applied and Social Sciences

• 3 diverse regions with diverse migration streams Masvingo, Matabeleland and Mashonaland

• Gendered impacts of migration and remittances. Whether the feminization of migration is restructuring social relations within the family and community

• Women well represented in migration –negotiating cultural barriers that have previously confined them to the home

Zim continued• Increase since economic crisis. SA main

destination for cross border – work as DWs or in restaurants

• Women remit more often and more in kind but less in value than men

• Women want to be seen to be homebuilders; counter to stigmatisation – spend on children’s education and consumption

• Social and economic empowerment of women; return migrants setting up businesses

Critical review of Statistics on foreign labour in South Africa: African Centre fro Migration and Society

• Three papers: First comprehensive review of statistics on foreign labour in South Africa, indicates data are unreliable due to their focus on formal employment and undercounting of flows.

• However show marked increase in labour migration from other SADC countries.

• Refers to low rates of female migration compared to other regions

• Recommends – collecting gender/sex disaggregated data on temporary work permits– Quarterly Labour Force Survey migration module and municipal-level

surveys with sex disaggregated data

Consolidating work on gender• Indepth qualitative research on occupations that are important

for poor migrants – construction work and domestic work – Ethiopia, Ghana, Indonesia and Bangladesh – impacts on gender roles and responsibilities; empowerment; resource allocation in left behind families

• Projects with a gender focus - followup qual research with HH previously surveyed.– Household Economics; – Gender Dynamics: the potential rearrangement of gender roles and

relations before, during and after migration; – Re-integration Processes– Youth Aspirations

• Systematic reviews on domestic work and construction work which include a discussion on gender related evidence.

Some Policy Lessons• Recognise the feminisation of internal and regional

migration flows• Better regulate exploitative recruitment industry• Recognise certain categories of workers as employees• Recognise the developmental potential of even the lowest

forms of migration• Recognise agency and small positive changes in women’s

economic and social position• Provide access to cheap and safe saving and remittance

schemes • Improve access to services and social protection to reduce

the costs and risks of migration for women and girls