2.1 Introduction Energy is an essential ingredient for human life on earth. It is used in all

activities of society, for preparing meals, making cloth, building house and other

activities. Human beings have needed and used energy at an increasing rate for

their sustenance and well-being. One of the important requirements of energy for

man is in the form of food. A brief description of the profile of energy is presented

in this chapter.

2.2 Types of Energy Sources

Primary and Secondary Energy

Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass

(such as wood). Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy

from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth’s interior, and

potential energy due to earths’ gravity.

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are

known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial

energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.

Non-Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a

price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources

19

include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are

traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price and used especially in rural

households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is

often ignored in energy accounting.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy (inexhaustible) are mostly biomass based and are

available in unlimited amount in nature. Since these can be renewed over a

relatively short period of time, energy sources that are replenished more rapidly

are termed as renewable. These include firewood or fuel wood from forest, petro

plants, plant biomass ie. agricultural waste like animal dung, solar energy, wing

energy, water energy in the form of hydro-electricity and tidal energy and

geothermal energy etc.

Non-renewable energy (exhaustible) are available in limited amount and

develop over a longer period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely

to be exhausted one day. These include coal, mineral, natural gas and nuclear

power. Coal, petroleum and natural gases are common sources of energy being

organic (biotic) in this origin. They are also called fossil fuels.

2.3 Sources of Energy for Cooking in India

It is evident from Table 2.1 that around two-third of Indian households still

use firewood and other bio mass for cooking purpose. It is noted that this source is

the most harmful in terms of the emission of green house gases. Combustion of

20

biomass (firewood, dung cake, etc.) emits not only carbon dioxide, but also nitrous

(nitric) oxides and methane. The environment friendly fuel of LPG is being used

by only about one-fifth of the population. Government attempts to provide

kerosene and LPG have not touched around three-fourth of the households in the

country.

Table: 2.1 - Primary Source of Energy Used for Cooking

Source Percent

Firewood and chips 61.4

LPG 17.1

Dung cake 9.5

Kerosene 5.0

Others 5.0

No cooking arrangement 2.0

Total 100

Source: Compiled from National Sample Survey 57th round (2001-02)

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2.3.1 Regional Variation in the Dependence on Sources of Cooking

Energy

Table 2.2 shows that the dependence on firewood is more intense in states

such as Uttaranchal, Chattisgarh, Rajastan, Orissa, MP, Jharkhand, and in most of

the hilly states located in the North and Northeastern parts of the country. On the

other hand, only a small percentage of households use firewood, and the majority

use LPG in urbanized areas such as Delhi, Chandigarh, Goa, Pondichery, etc.

Kerosene is also widely used in urbanized areas and localities such as Sikkim and

Lakhshadeep where probably the availability of biomass is limited.

22

Table: 2.2 - State-wise Distribution of Primary Source of Cooking

Energy

Fire wood

and chips LPG

Dung

cake Kerosene Others

No cooking

arrangement

Jammu & Kashmir 47.2 44.5 4.2 3.3 0.5 0.3

Himachal Pradesh 70.9 21.9 0 4.6 0.4 2.1

Punjab 29.7 37.6 13.9 15.1 1.7 2

Chandigarh 2.1 81.1 0 8.6 0 8.2

Uttaranchal 76.3 19.3 0.3 3.7 0.1 0.3

Haryana 40.1 37.6 17.8 3.9 0 0.6

Delhi 1.8 60 0.3 32 0.1 5.7

Rajastan 81.4 13.1 0.9 3.6 0.4 0.6

Uttar Pradesh 51.8 10.3 33.7 1.8 0.9 1.5

Bihar 47.3 3.2 20.7 2.2 26.3 0.2

Sikkim 46.7 24.4 0 18.1 0.6 10.2

Arunachal Pradesh 73.1 23.7 0 0.8 2.3 0

Nagaland 85 12.4 0.5 1.3 0 0.7

Manipur 70.1 25.4 0.3 1.4 1.8 1

Mizoram 54.5 42 0.1 1.8 1.6 0

Tripura 82.9 14.6 0 2.2 0.3 0

Meghalaya 89.8 7.2 0 0.8 0.9 1.3

Assam 83.6 14.3 0.1 1.6 0 0.4

West Bengal 53.8 14.5 3.4 6.6 19.4 2.2

Jharkhand 73.6 5.5 2.1 0.7 17 1.1

Orissa 88 3 3.8 1.1 3.6 0.6

Chattisgarh 77.5 4.4 9.3 0.3 8.3 0.2

Madhya Pradesh 77 16.2 1.5 3.9 0.6 0.9

Gujarat 57.2 24.3 2 11.4 2.4 2.7

Daman & Diu 14.1 39.6 0 27 0 19.3

Dadra & N. Haveli 52 27.6 0 12.2 0 8.2

Maharastra 47.7 31.3 0 9.2 7.2 4.5

Andra Pradesh 69.5 21.6 0.2 5.1 0.7 2.9

Karnataka 64.4 25.1 0.2 4.7 0.1 5.6

Goa 25.3 56.3 0 9.8 0 8.6

Lakshadweep 54 27.2 0 10.9 0 8

Kerala 69.6 26 0 1.8 0.3 2.3

Tamil Nadu 57.4 25.4 0.1 13.4 0.9 2.7

Pondicherry 35 45.5 1.5 12.2 0 5.8

A & N Islands 63.2 17.3 0 16 0 3.6

All India 61.4 17.1 9.5 5 4.9 2 Source: Compiled from National Sample Survey 57

th round (2001-02)

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2.3.2 Long Term Energy Scenario for India

Coal

Coal is the predominant energy source for power production in India,

generating approximately 70 percent of the total domestic electricity. Energy

demand in India is expected to increase over the next 10-15 years. Although new

oil and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the dominant fuel for

power generation. Despite significant increases in total installed capacity during

the last decade, the gap between electricity supply and demand continues to

increase. The resulting shortfall has had a negative impact on industrial output and

economic growth. However, to meet the expected future demand, indigenous coal

production will have to be greatly expanded. Production currently stands at around

290 million tonnes per year, but coal demand is expected to more than double by

2010. Indian coal is typically of poor quality and as such requires to be

beneficiated to improve the quality; Coal imports will also need to increase

dramatically to satisfy industrial and power generation requirements.

Oil

India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million

tonnes in 2001-02 to around 139.95 million tonnes in 2006-07, according to

projections of the Tenth Five-Year Plan.

24

Natural Gas

India's natural gas production is likely to rise from 86.56 million cmpd in

2002-03 to 103.08 million cmpd in 2006-07. It is mainly based on the strength of a

more than doubling of production by private operators to 38.25 mm cmpd.

Electricity

India currently has a peak demand shortage of around 14 percent and an

energy deficit of 8.4 percent. Keeping this in view and to maintain a GDP (gross

domestic product) growth of 8 percent to 10 percent, the Government of India has

very prudently set a target of 215,804 MW power generation capacity by March

2012 from the level of 100,010 MW as on March 2001, that is a capacity addition

of 115,794 MW in the next 11 years.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclei of atoms can be broken down into two or more parts through

artificial methods. In the same way two or more nuclei of light weight can be

combined to form a big nucleus. The above two types or reactions are called

"Nuclear Reactions". During these reactions some of the atomic mass is converted

into energy. This energy is called Nuclear Energy. The amount of the nuclear

energy can be estimated by the following formula (By Einstein)

E = Energy

M = Mass

25

C = Velocity of light (3 x 108 m/sec.)

Even a very small quantity of matter can produce a greater amount of

nuclear energy (because C2 = 9 x 1016

) for example, the energy produced by 3.5

millions tonnes of coal or 12 million tonnes of oil is equivalent to the nuclear

energy produced by one tonne of Uranium. Uranium, Thorium and Radium are

some important radio active elements, which give off specific rays like α (Alpha),

β (Beta) and ϒ (Gamma) due to spontaneous disintegration of their nuclei.

Atomic Reactors are furnaces used to release energy during nuclear

reactions. The energy is generated in the form of heat, which is converted into

steam. The steam can be used in running steam - turbines to produce electric

energy. When a nucleus is broken down into two or more parts, the process is

called "nuclear fission". The combination of two or more lighter nuclei of low

mass is called "Nuclear Fusion".

Solar Energy

The energy of sun called solar energy can be used effectively. The earth

receives energy continuously from the sun at the rate of about 75,000 x 10 KWH

of energy every day Green Plants have the capacity to trap the solar energy and

they convert to solar energy into chemical form by a process called photo

synthesis. Most part of solar energy is left unused. Just 0.1% of this could meet the

total world energy requirements. Scientists have developed ways and means to

26

trap solar energy artificially and convert into various forms like electrical,

chemical and mechanical.

The solar radiation coming to the earth is called INSOLATION and it is in

the form of electro magnetic waves. One square centimetre area on earth receives

two calories of solar energy in one minute. It can be increased through artificial

means to meet the energy requirement. Photo - chemical change involves changes

due to heating effects of sun rays. eg. during our child hood days we might have

played with leaves to burn papers by sun rays.

Some chemical changes also can occur in objects that absorb solar energy.

eg. bright colour clothes fade away when put into strong sunlight continuously.

Black surfaces absorb sunlight and thus get heated. Sun light also causes the

synthesis of starch in green plants (Photosynthesis).

6Co2 + 12 H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6H2O6 + 6O2

When sunlight falls on some specific metals like sodium, potassium and

lithium it activates the electrons inside it. The excited electrons after some time

return to their original level after releasing the energy, It is called 'Photo Electric

Effect'.

All the above principles are used to convert solar energy into heat, chemical

and electrical energy.

Solar cooker, solar oven (developed by Jodhpur's Central Arid Zone

Reseach Institute (CAZRI) space heating buildings during cold weather in USA

signals at RS are examples of how solar energy can be used effectively.

27

Advantages

1. Can be used in remote and rural areas, ships and military camps where

there are no power lines.

2. Solar energy is available free of cost.

3. Cost of maintenance is very low.

4. The greatest and foremost advantage is that it does not produce wastes or

pollutants.

Disadvantages

1. Depends upon total hours of sunshine in a day affected by cloudy weather

and short winter days.

2. Solar cells, solar panels and solar energy conversion equipments are costly.

Progress in India

Solar cookers, solar heaters, solar desalination plants, solar photovoltaic

electric power, generators and solar pump sets are being used even in remote

villages. The following organisations develop solar energy system.

1. Department of Non - conventional energy sources (DNES)

2. Rural Electrification Corporation

3. Indian Institutes of Technology

4. Department of Metallurgy of Pune Engineering College.

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Wind Power

The wind is air in motion. It is caused by differential heating of land, water,

hills and mountain slopes by sun rays. There is kinetic energy in wind. Even in

ancient times the great sailors utilized kinetic energy of the wind in sailing their

ships around the globe.

The kinetic energy of wind is caused by its motion, the higher the velocity

of wind the greater the kinetic energy in it. This velocity of wind is affected by

solar radiation, which varies from season to season and from place to place. Strong

winds blow in coastal plains and hill. The kinetic energy of the wind can be

utilized by converting it into mechanical form. With this wind mills are operated.

Large blades of wind mills can convert much of the wind energy into mechanical

form.

The installation of wind power generation system depends upon extensive

survey, site selection, construction and machinery plantation. The continuous

supply of electricity generated from wind power needs installation of

electronically operated black - boxes (Synchronus Generator) which are very

costly. At times there may be no wind and the power generation may stand still.

Progress in India

Wind energy is pollution free and a renewable source of energy. California

with 17,000 turbines generating 1500MW is the world’s largest producer of wind

energy. India started utilization of the wind power during the period of the VIIth

29

five year plan. It was found that on 80 per cent days winds in Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat below 10Km / hour for

morethan 10 hours and 20 hours on 40 per cent days. Large scale research in this

direction started in 1983. As a result wind power farms were established in

different parts of Indian states and union territories. In 1995, the total wind energy

potential was estimated, around 20,000 MW.

In Tamil Nadu, Muppandal in Kanyakumari district and Kayathar in

Thoothukudi District are the major wind energy producing places. Many villages

in and around Muppandal developed economically because of this wind power.

Lot of employment opportunities were created. As the village Muppandal is

situated in the mountain pass area of Western Ghat naturally it is well suited for

the wind energy production.

Bio Mass Power

Bio mass means dry weight of organic matter produced by plants, their

derivatives and wastes. It includes plant parts, animals and animal wastes. As

biomass is the product of Photosynthesis by plants, bio mass energy is regarded as

another form of indirect use of solar energy. It is very cheap, renewable and

almost pollution free. Bio-mass energy has from the following three ways.

1. By incineration or controlled burning of fuel wood and agricultural left

over.

30

2. By converting bio - mass into alcohol through thermo chemical process and

using it in engines.

3. By making bio-gas (or Gobar gas) through bio-chemical conversion ie,

anaerobic (without air fermentation (digestion) of moist cattle.

The energy from bio-mass is very high. One cubic metre of bio-gas

contains about 6000 calories which is equivalent to 0.8 litres of petrol, or 0.6 litres

of crude oil or 1.5m3 of natural gas, or 1.4kg of charcoal or 2.2 KWH of electrical

energy.

Most of bio-gas is Methane (CH4) at normal temperature and pressure. It is

highly combustible and gives non - luminous flame. Estimates show that it can

produce 22,500 million cubic metres of methane (Gobar gas) and 206 million

metric tonnes of organic manual every year. Scientists have identified several

species of plants (Petro - plants) that can be used as bio-mass sources. Green

leaves, animal urine, animal fodder left over or waste and perishable food wastes

are other bio - mass resources besides the animal dung. (Gobar)

The only limitation of this energy source is its availability. Population

explosion or urbanization has already put excessive pressure on available

cultivable land. So where is the land for the creation of more bio - mass?

Progress in India

The department of Non - conventional energy sources launched a National

Bio - gas Development Programme. The installation of these plants is going on all

31

over the country at the block and panchayat level in rural areas. During the year

1984 - 1985 alone 1,50,000 Bio - gas plants were installed. Now it is estimated

that about 3,30,000 bio-gas plants are working in India.

2.3.3 Power Generation in India

The total power consumption in the State during the last twenty five years

has shown about six-fold increase. In Tamil Nadu, energy use has been increasing

at a faster rate in respect of domestic and agricultural purpose as compared to

commercial and industrial uses. However, in view of inadequate and intermittent

supply of power, a large number of industrial establishments have captive power

generation capabilities, which apparently explain the relatively low growth of

commercial and industrial use of energy. During the last three decades Tamil

Nadu’s total installed capacity has increased more than three and a half times. Yet,

the demand for electricity continues to increase at an accelerated rate with the

result energy and peaking shortages hamper the growth of industrial and other

sectors. Apparently, to meet the increasing demand for energy supply, the public

sector investment will necessarily have to be supplemented by capacity addition in

the private sector. The Government of India have initiated a number of measures

to further the pace of reforming the power sector in the country and make the State

Electricity Boards more vibrant. (Policy Initiatives: Government of India).

1. The energy Conservation Bill 2000, which envisages the efficient use of

energy and its conservation was introduced. Efforts are being made to

32

create awareness about energy conservation potential by better

housekeeping, proper maintenance and better control of instruments;

2. To ensure efficiency of the thermal plants, special schemes have been

devised to renovate / modernize and refurbish old plants. Plants at the verge

of senescence are to be modernized by inducting latest technologies;

3. Scheme for securitisation of dues of Central Sector Power and coal utilities

to assist the State Electricity Board to clear these dues was initiated;

4. Policy on Hydro Power Development lays stress on exploitation of hydel

potential available at a faster rate by providing of incentives viz.,

rationalizing the tariff for hydro projects and simplifying the procedure of

obtaining clearances. Projects with less than 25 MW are to be given to the

Ministry of non - conventional energy sources;

5. The Government of India has formulated the revised Mega Power Policy to

generate power at the lowest possible tariff by setting up such plants at the

pit heads;

6. Assistance is given to the State's Power Sector to reform and for

investments on renovation and modernization of old and inefficient plants

and strengthening of the distribution system.

33

2.3.4 Energy and Environment

The interaction between energy and environment has been dealt with

extensively by ecologists and environmental economists. A given abiotic

physicochemical environment and its particular biotic assemblage of plants,

animals and microbes constitute an ecological system or ecosystem; a pond, a

field, a forest, an ocean, or even an aquarium’. Human use of energy has an effect

on the eco system in which the energy is used and the changes caused contribute,

probably negatively to the environment leading to ecological imbalance. The toxic

effects of chemical and physical agents affect not only the living organisms but

also the environment as a whole.

The pattern of generation and use of energy indiscriminately, over a period

of time create the global concern on environmental protection. The greenhouse

effect, acid rain, the ozone hole, and the immediate health hazards necessitate

environmental awareness, at all levels of human activities.

Oil, natural gas, and coal being the major energy resources, their depletion

poses the need for identifying alternate energy resources. Huge amount of money

is invested on identifying alternative energy resources besides exploring oil and

gas in different areas in the globe. While it is certain that the globe will not

sustain the energy requirements from conventional sources the need for identifying

renewable energy resources is acute.

The actions to protect the global environment cannot be an event that may

last for just a few decades; it has to be a long drawn process. As such the effort has

34

to be all pervasive. Conceptually in a broader sense the energy and environmental

education has to be at the first instance to for the policy makers at the national and

Global level. Economists and politicians may not go for short term profits at the

cost of long term welfare. Also, they should assume, while taking any decision

that their primary responsibility is to leave their country as a better place for the

next generation. Environmental education should result in a firm belief that the

present generation may have to sacrifice a lot in the interest of the future

generations.

The other end from which the environmental education can start is in the

minds of the children. The desired end points of interest at different levels of

biological organization should be taught to the children and they must be made

aware of the environmental values that are to be protected. Special teaching

methods may be deployed wherein the children’s learning is activity-based and

experiential. Children must be exposed to various fields of study on ecology and

environment, disasters and managing disasters and so on. Ready made teaching

and training kits may be designed and used.

2.4 Energy Development in Tamil Nadu

The most important single factor, which can act as a constraint on the

economic growth of a country, is the availability of energy. There is a direct

correlation between the degree of economic growth, the size of per capita income

and per capita consumption of energy. Since energy is an essential input of all

35

productive economic activity, the process of economic development inevitably

demands increasing higher levels of energy consumption. So the energy

development is very important in all the countries.

Energy development has been given high priority by the State and Centre

over the plan periods. In Tamil Nadu, the State Sector investment for power

development has been very high. Cumulatively upto the IX plan, over 22 percent

of plan expenditure had been devoted for the development of this vital

infrastructure. The power sector attracted the highest allocation during the first

three plan periods (37.7%, 42.2% and 37.6% respectively). It may be noted that a

sum of Rs.8,030 crores accounting for 20.07 percent of X plan outlay has been

earmarked for energy development.

Energy Sector Policies and Financial Support Measures

Among the factors that have led to distortion in the supply and demand of

cleaner petroleum-derived cooking fuels (Kerosene, LPG) at national level have

been government price controls, particularly subsidies on domestic kerosene and

LPG, and protection of state oil monopolies, for example through import

restrictions and discrimination against the private sector.

Although the measures may have been introduced with a view to making

cleaner fuels more accessible to the poor, universal fuel subsidies have often

tended to be counter-productive, with wealthier people, who have better access to

these fuels, gaining most advantage.

36

To reduce the adverse fiscal impact of such policies, some governments

have supplemented a heavy kerosene subsidy with a ration system that made

subsidised kerosene available in small amounts, but not sufficient for cooking. In

addition, a price differential between domestic kerosene and LPG on one hand and

other petroleum products that are close substitutes (e.g. commercial kerosene and

LPG, and diesel) have led to illegal diversion of domestic fuels to the commercial

and transport sector; thus further reducing their availability for the poor.

Lack of incentives and enabling environments for the private sector may

also slow growth in supply, removal of infrastructure bottlenecks and development

of effective marketing strategies. Although in some countries, the recent removal

of subsidies on kerosene is believed to have pushed poor families back to reliance

on biofuels, "across-the board" subsidies are neither a sustainable nor an efficient

tool for addressing the needs of the poor.

Subsidy schemes should always be carefully assessed and designed to

target households in greatest need. In particular, carefully targeted financial

support for technical development and production of appliances, and for

infrastructure for marketing and transport may be reasonable.

Biogas: In another successful programme, financial incentives were used in

a biogas project in India where meeting of quality standards and durability of the

biogas system were rewarded in the form of an additional bonus. A mechanism

that is receiving growing attention is the provision of affordable micro-credit to

37

households: if used to support the purchase of efficient appliances that reduce fuel

(and health) costs in the long term, this could be a powerful instrument for change.

The generation of power and the consumption of power in Tamil Nadu are

given in Table 2.3.

Table: 2.3 – Electricity in 2000 - 2001

A. Generation of Electricity (Gross) - (in m.u.) Percentage

a. Hydro 5,450 13.05

b. Wind Mill Generation 18 0.04

c. Thermal 19,464 46.60

d. Power Purchased 16,617 39.80

e. Gas Turbine 215 0.51

Total 41,764 100.00

B. Consumption of Electricity (in m.u.)

a. Agriculture 9,095 27.22

b. Industry 11,751 35.16

c. Commercial 3,148 9.42

d. Domestic 7,176 21.47

e. Public Lighting and Water works 902 2.70

f. Sales to other States 211 0.63

g. Miscellaneous (including Traction and Railways) 1,135 3.40

Total 33,418 100.00

Source: Tamilnadu hand book 2001.htm

38

There was a moderate gain during 2002 – 03 both in building installed

power generation capacities (4.3 %) and also on the gross power availability

(5.7%), despite a setback in the hydel generation. To meet the increasing demand,

the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board resorted to a higher level of purchase during the

year and ensured unrestricted supply to all the categories of consumers. The per

capita consumption of power increased from 567 units in 2001 – 02 to 586 units in

2002 – 03. This information is given in Table 2.4.

The total installed capacity of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board as on

31.12.2004 was 9394 Mega Watts (MW). This comprises 5381 MW of TNEB’s

own projects, 1066 MW of Private Sector Projects, 2587 MW as share from

Central Sector Projects and external assistance of 360 MW. Apart from this, a total

capacity of 1664 MW is available from wind mills in the Private Sector and 19

MW of power from the wind mills of TNEB. Besides this a total capacity of 275

MW is available from Co-generation plants and 31 MW from Bio-mass plants.

The maximum peak demand so far reached is 7,468 MW (on 23.02.2005).

The growth of energy consumption is expected to be of the order of 6% per

annum. Energy consumption during 2004 - 05 upto December 2004 was 38,462

Million Units (MU) with a maximum daily consumption of 154.942 MU on

23.02.2005.

39

Table: 2.4 – Power Sector – Profile

Details 2000 - 01 2001 - 02 2002 - 03

1. Installed Capacity (MW)

i. State’s Own

ii. Central Sector

iii. IPPs

iv. Captive Power

2. Power Generation (mu)

3. Power Purchase (mu)

4. Gross Power Availability (mu)

5. Total consumption within the state (mu)

6. Per capita consumption (units)

7. Number of consumers (lakhs)

8. Peak Demand (lakhs)

9. Line loss (%)

10. Auxiliary Consumption (mu)

7,513.4

5,213.1

1,905.0

301.7

93.6

25,147

16,617

41,764

33,418

510

145.73

6,290

16.50

1,672

7,924.7

5,213.1

1,913.0

729.1

69.5

25,562

18,358

43,920

35,202

567

153.43

6,687

16.25

1,791

8,268.8

5,308.1

1,903.0

988.2

69.5

24,929

21,263

46,414

36,347

586

160.16

6,957

18.0

1,878

Source: Economic Appraisal 2002 – 03, Evolution and Applied Research Department, Government

of Tamil Nadu, Kuralagam, Chennai, P.86.

As on 31.12.2004 there were 1069 substations, 1.46 lakh kms. of Extra

High Tension / High Tension (EHT/HT) lines, 4.75 lakh kms. of Low Tension

(LT) lines, 1.59 lakh distribution transformers and 169.10 lakh service

connections.

40

To meet the increase in demand, the TNEB has planned to augment its

generating capacity to 2,408.8 MW and to correspondingly expand the

transmission and distribution system during the X Plan period (2002 - 07).

2.4.1 Performance of Power Generation in Tamil Nadu

In Tamil Nadu, energy use has been increasing at a faster rate in respect of

domestic and agricultural purpose as compared to commercial and industrial uses.

However, in view of inadequate and intermittent supply of power, a large number

of industrial establishments have captive power generation capabilities, which

apparently explains the relatively low growth of commercial and industrial use of

energy. During the last three decades Tamil Nadu’s total installed capacity has

increased more than three and a half times. Yet, the demand for electricity

continues to increase at an accelerated rate with the result energy and peaking

shortages hamper the growth of industrial and other sectors. The profile of the

power sector in Tamil Nadu is presented in Table 2.5.

The table 2.5 reveals that, the year 1999 - 2000 witnessed an accelerated

growth in power generation by 6.4 percent and the total power consumption by

9.3 percent as compared to (-) 4.0 percent and 3.8 percent respectively during

1998 - 99. Power purchases which increased by 18.5 percent in 1998 - 99

decreased to 13.3 percent in 1999 - 2000. The per capita consumption steadily

increased from 430 units in 1997 - 98 to 452 units in 1998 - 99 and further to 480

units in 1999 - 2000.

41

Table: 2.5 - Power Sector: A Profile in Tamil Nadu

Items

1997- 98

%

Change

1998 - 99

%

Change

1999 - 00

%

Change

1. Installed Capacity (MW)

6,916.105

0.1

7,119.605

2.9

7,203.555

1.2

2. Generation (mu)

23,066

0.5

22,141

-4.0

23,549

6.4

3. Power Purchases (mu)

10,999

12.8

13,031

18.5

14,764

13.3

4. Gross Power Availability

(mu)

34065

4.2

35,172

3.2

38,313

8.9

5. Total Power

Consumption

(Million units)

26,740

4.5

27,657

3.8

30,238

9.3

6. Per Capita

(Consumption units)

430

2.4

452

5.1

480

6.2

7. Number of Agricultural

Pumpsets Energized

(lakhs)

16.10

2.5

16.44

2.1

16.79

2.1

Source: www.govt.tn.in.

Note: % percentage change over previous year

The table concludes that the power generation increases year by year, and at

the same time the power purchase also increases. So there is a negative

42

relationship between the power generation and power purchase. It is not

appreciated. So the government should take necessary action to increase the power

generation.

2.4.2 Capacity of State's Own Projects

The installed power generating capacity at the command of Tamil Nadu

Electricity Board gained visible improvements during 1998 - 99 and

1999 - 2000. The source-wise number of powerhouses and installed capacities are

depicted in Table 2.6.

Table: 2.6 – Tamil Nadu State Owned Projects

Source

No. of Power Houses Installed Capacity (MW)

1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00

Hydro 27 28 30 1955.75

(38.5)

1963.25

(38.6)

1995.20

(39.0)

Thermal 4 4 4 2970

(58.5)

2970

(58.4)

2970

(58.1)

Gas 2 2 2 130

(2.6)

130

(2.6)

130

(2.5)

Wind 10 10 10 19.355

(0.40)

19.355

(0.4)

19.355

(0.4)

Total 43 44 46 5,075.105

(100.0)

5,082.605

(100.0)

5,114.555

(100.0) Source: www.govt.tn.in.

Note: Figure in brackets indicates share to total

43

Table 2.6 explains that, the total installed capacity of the State’s own

projects rose from 5075.105 MW in 1997 - 98 to 5114.555 MW in 1999 - 2000.

All the additions (39 MW) came from the three-hydel stations – Sathanur (7.5

MW), Parsons Valley (30MW) and Tirumurthi Mini (1.95 MW). It is significant

to note that the State has been taking efforts for exploiting even the mini and

micro hydel sources to augment the capacity. With no additions possible in respect

of other sources, the share of hydel capacity marginally improved from

38.5 percent in 1997 - 98 to 39.0 percent during 1999 - 2000. In Tamil Nadu

thermal and hydropower houses are the important sources of energy.

2.4.3 Shared Capacity from Central Sector Projects

Substantial quality of the power has been added to the State grid by means

of purchases made from Central Sector Projects such as Neyveli I and II, National

Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), Ramagundam and Madras Atomic Power

Project (MAPP), Kalpakkam. One notable addition to this category is the Kaiga

Atomic Power station in Karnataka, the purchases from which were linked with

the State grid in 1998 - 99. The installed capacities of the three sectors are

presented in Table 2.7.

44

Table: 2.7 - Installed Capacity: Central Sector Projects (MW)

Project 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00

1. Neyveli I & II 1,041 1,041 1,041

2. NTPC 470 470 470

3. MAPP & Kaiga 330 330 382

Total 1,841 1,841 1,893

Source: www.govt.tn.in.

Table 2.7 reveals that, the share of installed capacities from the Central

Sector Projects, a modest addition of 52 MW was possible with the

commissioning of the Kaiga Nuclear Power Project in Karnataka during

1999 - 2000. This addition came as a much needed relief after several years of

stagnancy and helped improve the capacity due from Central Sector Projects from

1,841 MW to 1893 MW.

2.4.4 Capacity Creation by Private Sector in Tamil Nadu

The Tamil Nadu government encourages the private power sectors - both

thermal power and windmill power. The capacity creation of private sector is

explained in Table 2.8.

Private sector came into play in power development for the first time in

1997 - 98. In 1998 - 99, a quantum of 196 MW (4 units each of 49 MW) Diesel

45

Electric Power Project (DEPP) was commissioned. Encouraged by the private

sector participation, a total capacity of 7,390.06 MW has been awarded to private

sector. Even if a portion of it could be brought to fruition every year with

favourable pricing agreements, the power needs of the State could be adequately

met. It is also noteworthy, that the State has made great strides in exploiting non-

conventional sources of energy, especially, wind energy with the help of private

sector.

Table: 2.8 - Capacity Creation: Private Sector (MW)

Category 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 - 00

1. Thermal Power Project (GMR Vasavi) - 196.0 196.0

2.Wind Mills

i. Muppandal

166.1

117.0 117.7

ii. Perungudy 261.3 283.5

iii. Kayathar and Devi Kulam 46.2 48.7 63.1

iv. Poolavadi

275.6

143.9 143.9

v. Sultanpet 46.5 51.4

vi. Kethanur 88.4 91.8

Total (Wind Mills) 487.9 705.8 751.4

Grand Total 487.9 901.8 947.4

Source: www.govt.tn.in.

46

2.4.5 Power Generation

Remarkable recovery in the thermal generation and sustained improvement

in the generation of performance of the gas turbines and windmills helped

compensate the set back in the hydel generation during 1999 - 2000. It is displayed

in Table 2.9.

Table: 2.9 - Power Generation - Source-wise

Source

Electricity Generated (mu)

1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 –00

Hydel 5,287 (24.3) 4,918 (-7.0) 4,444 (-9.6)

Thermal 17,682 (-4.9) 17,076 (-3.4) 19,861 (10.5)

Wind & Gas 97 (-5.8) 147 (51.5) 244 (66.0)

Total 23,066 (0.5) 22,141 (-4.0) 24,549 (6.4)

Source: www.govt.tn.in

Note: Figure in bracket indicates percentage change over the previous year

Table 2.9 indicates the electricity generated through hydel capacity has

been declining in the recent years from 5,287 mu in 1997-98 to 4,918 mu in 1998 -

99 and further to 4,444 mu in 1999 - 2000. The thermal power generation is

displayed in Table 2.10.

47

Table: 2.10 - Thermal Power Generation

Source

Generation (mu) PLF (%)

1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 – 00 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999 – 00

Ennore 1,924 1,799 1,295 49 46 33

Thoothukudi 6,906 6,596 7,449 75 72 81

Mettur 5,440 5,004 5,786 74 68 78

North Chennai 3,412 3,677 4,331 62 67 78

Total 17,682 17,076 18,861 68 66 72

Source: www.govt.tn.in

Table 2.10 shows the details of the total thermal power generation during

1999 - 2000 that increased by 10.5 percent to reach 18,861 mu. The performance

of all the thermal stations was quite impressive save that of the Ennore Thermal

Plant. The overall Plant Load Factor (PLF) which indicates the operational

efficiency of the plants and defined as the ratio of average load carried by a power

station to the maximum load, increased from 66 percent in 1998 - 99 to 72 percent

in 1999 - 2000. This table discloses that the total thermal power generation

increased at a considerable rate.

2.4.6 Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Wind energy, solar energy, biomass and other forms of bio energy, tidal

energy, fuel cell, ocean-thermal and geo-thermal energy are important among

renewable energy sources. Among these sources, though the first three renewable

48

energy sources, namely, wind, solar and bio energy are being harnessed in a big

way in India and in Tamil Nadu, the other sources have not yet reached a stage of

commercial exploitation. The following table is given to show the energy

generation from non-conventional source.

Table: 2.11 - Energy Generation from Non-conventional Source (mu)

Source 1999- 00 2000 - 01 2001 - 02 2002 - 03

1. Government

Wind

Solar

Co-generation Plants

27.2

0.05

60.0

19.5

0.13

54.0

17.8

0.12

54.0

19.5

0.15

54.0

Total 87.25 73.63 71.92 73.65

2. Private

Wind

Solar

Co-generation Plants

1,129.4

--

312

1,070.7

339

-

1,239.3

0.031

340.0

1,286.2

0.018

546.0

Total 1,441.4 1,409.7 1,579.331 1,832.218

Source: Economic Appraisal 2002 – 03, Evolution and Applied Research Department,

Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, p.95.

The major share of this comes from wind energy followed by biogas based

co-generation plants in sugar industry. It may be noted that investments in these

projects have mainly come from private sector.

49

2.5 Energy Consumption in Households

The household sector, the most important one, consumes 70 percent of the

energy even now which is absolutely necessary for survival. Of the various facts

of energy problems confronting the developing countries, the problem of energy,

affecting the household sector is important. As Elizabeth Cecelski observes, “In

most of the developing countries, the household sector is still the largest single

energy consuming sector”.1

A household requires a minimum amount of energy for sheer survival. But,

the actual amount of energy consumed by a household depends on several factors

such as education, income, family size, price of energy occupation, cost of stove,

fuel types, plinth area of the house in sq. feet, hours of cooking and nature of stove

and location of kitchen that also influence household energy consumption.

Households require both commercial and non-commercial source of energy

for various uses. Commercial sources include electricity, kerosene, petrol, diesel

and L.P. Gas. Non-commercial sources consist of firewood, dung cake, and

agricultural wastes. Among the fuels consumed by the households, firewood

forms a major share. In the face of global energy crisis with the fast depleting

situation of primary sources of energy like coal, oil and gas and depleting forest

resources in the country, it is essential not only to use these fuels more efficiently

and sensibly but also to look for better and improved heating and cooking ovens.

1 Elizabeth Cecelski, “Energy and Rural Women’s Work: Crisis. Response and Policy

Alternatives”, International Labour View, 126 (1): 1987, p.41.

50

In the context of these situations, the present study pays attention to

investigate the existing patterns of energy consumption of the households and to

suggest ways to optimize energy use with care to protect the environment.

2.6 Rural Energy Consumption Pattern

The Tiruchendur taluk is about 30 kilometres from the district headquarters.

It covers an area of 546 sq.km and comprises 51 villages. According to the 2001

census, the total population of the taluk was 3,08,154. The rural energy

consumption patterns in Tiruchendur taluk are given in Table 2.12.

A study of the energy consumption pattern in the Tiruchendur taluk

indicates that although all types of fuels are currently in use, most domestic needs

are met only by firewood. Monthly per capita consumption of fuel wood was 89

kg, of kerosene 0.25 litres (mainly for lighting), of electricity 2 kWh, and LPG gas

12 kg.

51

Table: 2.12 – Rural Energy Consumption Pattern in Tiruchendur Taluk

Basic Data

Geographical Area (according to village records)

Villages

Households

Population (2001 census)

Rural Population

Net Area Shown (2005)

Cultivable wasteland

Forest Area

Livestock Population

Number of renewable Energy Systems installed

Solar Heaters

Photovoltaic panel for street lighting

Sq.km

No.

No.

Persons

Persons

H.a

H.a

H.a

No.

No.

No.

546

51

37,569

3,08,154

1,57,557

15,634

11,773

5,168

1,45,772

2

125

Source: Compiled from DRDA records, Collector Office, Thoothukudi.

2.7 Electricity in Thoothukudi

The Thoothukudi Thermal Power Station (TTPS) is the biggest power

station in Tamil Nadu under the control of the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board with

three units of 2 tonne M.W. each generating 50 million units of energy daily. The

first unit was commissioned in July, 1979, the second in December 1980 and the

third in March 1982. This power station feeds about 1/3 of the total power

demand of Tamil Nadu.

52

Generation of Electricity (in M.U)

a) Wind Mill Generation : 28.1

b) Thermal : 6,596

c) Power purchased : 28.1

Consumption of Electricity (in M.U)

a) Agriculture : 36

b) Industry : 369

c) Commercial : 60

d) Domestic : 132

e) Public lighting and water works 25

2.7.1 Biogas Plant

In the Thoothukudi district people seldom use cow dung as fuel for

domestic purposes. On the contrary it is used both as a manure and meagre input

for the production of cobar gas in household and institutions for cobar gas plants

are very liberal items. The life span of these plants has been estimated at 25 years.

Cobar gas plants are available in three models. They include K.K. model, Janata

model and Deenapandu model. The biogas plant installation in the Thoothukudi

district is presented in Table 2.13.

53

Table: 2.13 – Biogas Plant Installation in Thoothukudi District

(in Number)

Year

Target

Achieved

Achievement

percentage

1994 – 95

1995 – 96

1996 – 97

1997 – 98

1998 – 99

1999 – 00

2000 – 01

2001 – 02

2002 – 03

2003 – 04

2004 – 05

2005 – 06

200

210

100

50

40

40

65

70

60

60

41

41

200

75

56

45

17

40

65

70

60

60

41

32

100.00

35.71

56.00

90.00

42.50

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

78.05

Total 977 761 77.89

Source: Compiled from District Hand Book, 2005 –06.

The table 2.13 reveals that, there are 761 biogas plants installed in the

Thoothukudi district. Year after year the plant shows a downward trend. The

average achievement of a biogas plant is 77.89 percent. So the government should

take necessary steps to create awareness related to biogas plants. Bio-gas is a

renewable and the cheapest source of energy.

54

2.7.2 Improved Chulha

As a major harmony device the government has embarked on a massive

programme of supplying improved chulha through local government and

voluntary organizations. The chulha supplied are in different models. They are

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University model, Sukhad model and smokeless model.

The panchayat unions, District Rural Development Agency and voluntary

organizations, with a subsidy of 50 percent, supply these chulhas. Portable

chulhas enjoy more advantages like better burning of firewood, no smoke, no air

blowing, high thermal efficiency and finally saving of fire wood over 25 percent.

Table 2.14 shows that in 1990 –91 the total improved chulhas supplied in

Thoothukudi district was 2,340, but it has decreased to 825 numbers of improved

chulhas in the year 2004 – 05. The improved chulhas supplied by the panchayat

union is less compared to those supplied by the District Rural Development

Agency. The table draws the conclusion that the improved chulhas supplied in the

Thoothukudi district show a decreasing trend because the people change their

energy pattern.

55

Table: 2.14 – Improved Chulahs Supplied in the Thoothukudi District

(No.)

Year

By Panchayat

Union

By DRDA

Total

1990 – 91

1991 – 92

1992 – 93

1993 – 94

1994 – 95

1995 – 96

1996 – 97

1997 – 98

1998 – 99

1999 – 00

2000 – 01

2001 – 02

2003 - 04

2004 - 05

1340

1400

200

-

-

200

650

850

630

500

300

250

250

325

1000

1000

500

1000

1000

-

1500

1000

800

1000

800

500

500

500

2340

2400

700

1000

1000

200

2150

1850

1430

1500

1100

750

750

825

Source: Compiled from DRDA records, Thoothukudi.

2.7.3 Solar Street Light Installation in the Thoothukudi District

In the Thoothukudi district totally 175 solar street lights have been

installed. Table 2.15 shows the number of such solar street lights in the district

year wise.

56

Table: 2.15 – Solar Street Light Installation in the Thoothukudi District

(in Number)

Year

Target

Achieved

Achievement

percentage

2002 – 03

2003 – 04

2004 – 05

2005 – 06

25

50

50

50

25

50

50

50

100

100

100

100

Total 175 175 100

Source: Compiled from District Hand Book (2005 –06)

The table 2.15 reveals that in the year 2002 – 03 the Thoothukudi district

installed the solar streetlights. In the year 2002 – 03, 25 solar streetlights were

installed but in the year 2003 – 04, 50 solar streetlights were installed. After that

there is no improvement in this regard.

2.7.4 Kerosene

It is the most popular conventional type of commercial energy source in use

among households. In 2001 family cardholders in ‘A’ grade municipalities were

entitled to get a minimum of not less than 10 litres of kerosene per month. But the

same was fixed at five litres in B grade municipalities and town panchayats and

three litres in village panchayats. The details regarding kerosene consumption

through fair price shops in the Tiruchendur taluk is presented in Table 2.16.

57

Table: 2.16 – Kerosene Consumption through fair price shops in the

Tiruchendur Taluk

(in Litre)

Year

Consumption

(per month)

Population

Covered

2000 – 01

2001 – 02

2002 – 03

2003 – 04

2004 –05

21,845

23,458

25,540

26,382

28,785

57,854

59,443

59,530

59,817

59,866

Source: District Statistical Office, Thoothukudi

Table 2.16 explains that in 2000 – 01, 21,845 litres of kerosene

consumption covered a population of 57,854. The average kerosene consumption

was 0.378 litre. In 2004 – 05 it was increased to 0.481 litre. The average

consumption of kerosene has increased and it means the people mostly use this

type of energy compared to the bio-fuels.

In the Tiruchendur taluk 145 ration shops distribute essential goods through

66,194 family cards. A block-wise distribution of ration shops and family cards is

given in Table 2.17.

58

Table: 2.17 – Ration Shops of the Tiruchendur Taluk

Block

No. of

Ration

Shops

BPL

Cards

APL

Cards

Total no. of

Family

Cards

Alwarthirunagari

Tiruchendur

Udangudi

52

48

45

10,768

13,896

10,540

9,884

11,596

9,510

20,652

25,492

20,050

Total 145 35,204 30,990 66,194

Source: Statistical Hand Book, 2004 - 05, Thoothukudi District, Thoothukudi

The table gives above accounts for the lowest number of ration shops in the

taluk. While distributing kerosene, ration shops disqualify those who own two

liquefied petroleum gas cylinders from availing themselves of the monthly quota

of it. However, those who own only one cylinder are rendered eligible for the

monthly supply of a minimum of just three litres.

2.8 District Profile

A brief description of the profile of the study area namely the Tiruchendur

block in the Thoothukudi district, is presented in this chapter. It provides a

backdrop for the analysis.

The Thoothukudi District carved out of the erstwhile Tirunelveli District in

1986 has certain rare features. The mixed landscape of the sea and the ‘theri’

(waste) lands has imbibed some special traits in the character of the sons of the

59

soil. Valour, devotion and patriotism are the watchwords of the people here. The

story of our country’s freedom struggle cannot be complete without mentioning

the supreme sacrifices of the illustrious sons of the district like V.O.Chidamparam

Pillai who brought the first Swadeshi ship ‘Galia’ to the Thoothukudi port and

Veerapandi Kattabomman who waged a war against the British.

The poet Subramania Bharathi born at Ettayapuram in this district was also

a proud son of the soil.

Inception

The Government in their G.O. Ms.No.535 / Revenue Department dated

23.4.1986 ordered the formation of a new district called the Chidambaranar

district which is named after the great patriot and freedom fighter Late

V.O.Chidambaram Pillai. It was formed on 8-9-1986, with its headquarters at

Tuticorin, by bifurcating the erstwhile Tirunelveli District.2 The district has been

renamed as the Thoothukudi district from 1997 as per the G.O. Ms. No. 618/

Revenue Administration (1) Department dated 1-7-1997.

Location

The Thoothukudi district is bounded by the Virudhunagar district on the

North, Tirunelvelli district on the South and West and the Bay of Bengal on the

2 District Industry Centre, Chidambaranar District at Tuticorin – Action Plan for 1989-90 to

1993 - 94, p. 2.

60

East. It lies between 0.8 and 45’ of the Northern longitude and 78 and 11’ of the

Eastern longitude. The total area of the district is 4621 square kilometres.3

There are three Revenue divisions (namely Thoothukudi, Kovilpatti and

Tiruchendur), eight taluks and 12 blocks in the district. This district comprises 19

town panchayats and two municipalities. There are 468 revenue villages grouped

in 408 panchayats.

Climate and Rainfall

The climate of Thoothukudi is neither too hot nor too cold. During the

months of April, May and June the Thoothukudi district is hot. During winter,

that is, in the months of December and January, the climate is pleasant.

Table: 2.18- Rainfall – Season-wise during 2003-04, Thoothukudi

District (in millimetres)

Seasons Period Normal

Rainfall Actual

Cold weather Jan-Feb 46.6 41.7

Hot weather March to May 112.2 108.6

South West monsoon June to September 86.8 48.1

North East Monsoon Oct to December 410.1 319.5

Total 655.7 517.9

Source: District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.

3 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.

61

Tiruchendur Block

Alwarthirunagari Block

Udangudi Block

Map: 2.1 – Area of Study

62

The maximum temperature is 35.70 C and the minimum is 24.5

0 C. The

rainfall is high in the coastal taluks namely Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur. The

normal rainfall of the district is 655.7mm but the actual rainfall varies year to year,

and the variation is large.4

Table 2.20 reveals the rainfall in Thoothukudi district during 2002-‘03.

When the North East Monsoon started, the actual rainfall was higher namely,

319.5 millimetres. During the cold season the actual rainfall was very low that is,

41.7 millimetres.

Irrigation

Tambrabarani, the perennial river benefits about 19,000 hectares in the

Thoothukudi district, through 52 system tanks. The river rises from Agasthiar

Malai in Pothigai hills in the Western Ghats, passes through, Ambasamudram,

Tirunelveli, Srivaikuntam and Tiruchendur taluks (the former two taluks are in the

Tirunelveli District) (the latter two taluks are in the Thoothukudi district) and

enters into the sea at Punnakayal (in the Thoothukudi district) a place between

Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur. The most fertile lands lie on either sides of the

river5. The rest of the lands in other taluks are dry lands. In the taluks of

Tiruchendur, Srivaikuntam and some pockets of Thoothukudi, there are wind

blown sandy belts, red in colour, with sand dunes, which are locally known as

4 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.

5 Durairaj.S, “An Agricultural Profile- Tuticorin”, The Hindu, dated January 1,1998 – Magazine B,

p.8.

63

‘Theri’. The net area under irrigation through government canal is 3,873 hectares,

through tank irrigation, 18,040 hectares, through tube wells 256 hectares and by

other wells 20,406 hectares.

Agriculture

The district economy is largely agrarian. Important agricultural crops are

paddy, chillies, banana, cumbu, chenna and cotton. The total cultivated area in the

Thoothukudi district is 1,65,998 hectares of which the net area sown is 1,60,992

hectares and the rest is 5,006 hectares.6. The intensity of cropping is very low,

because most of the cultivated land is rain fed.

Industry

The Thoothukudi coastal area is noted for salt manufacturing. At

Thoothukudi, the Central Government has a Research Centre for marine salt in

addition to the State Government’s units. There are two industrial estates in the

district, one at Kovilpatti and another at Thoothukudi. The major industrial units

in the Thoothukudi district are Southern Petro Chemical Industries Corporation

(SPIC), Tuticorin Alcaline Company (TAC), Dharangadara Chemical Works

(DCW), Sterlite Copper Smelting Industries, Heavy Water Plant and Thermal

Power Project.

6 District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.

64

Forest

The total reserved forest area is 11,012 hectares. In the total forest

products, timber contributes 69.857 cu.m., fuel wood 13,273 metric ton and

cashew 5.24 tons.

Demographic Situation

In the 2001census, the Thoothukudi district had a population of 15,72,773

persons of which 7,66,823 were males and 8,05,450 were females. The rural

population accounted for 9,07,500 persons while the urban population was

6,64,773. The density of population in the district was 340 persons per square

kilometre.7 The total population of the Tiruchendur taluk is 3,08,154 persons out

of which 1,45,714 are males and 1,62,440 females.

7 District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.

65

Table: 2.19 – Classification of Area and Population Block wise

(2001 Census) (in number)

Name of the Block

Area

(sq.k.m)

Population

Persons Male Female

Thoothukudi 366 4,05,363 2,03,368 2,01,995

Srivaikuntam 244 1,12,440 54,799 57,641

Karunkulam 349 79,443 38,673 40,770

Tiruchendur 136 1,18,862 56,591 62,271

Udangudi 197 72,415 33,454 38,961

Alwarthirunagari 213 1,16,877 55,669 61,208

Satankulam 276 80,396 36,151 44,245

Ottapidaram 738 1,14,759 56,989 57,770

Kovilpatti 419 2,04,371 1,00,254 1,04,117

Kayathar 570 1,03,713 50,236 53,477

Vilathikulam 623 91,560 44,936 46,624

Pudur 490 71,810 35,439 36,371

Total 4,621 15,72,773 7,66,823 8,05,450

Source: Block Statistical Hand Book (2004 - 2005)

66

Literacy

The Thoothukudi district ranks second in literacy in the state with

81 percent of the population being literate.

Table: 2.20 - The Literacy Rate as per 2001 Census (in percentage)

Category

Literacy Rate

Male

Female Total

Tamil Nadu 82.33 64.55 73.47

Thoothukudi 88.66 75.64 81.96

Source: Tamil Nadu – An Economic Appraisal, 2001 - 02 Department of Evaluation and

Applied Research (DEAR) Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai, pp.S4 – S5.

Employment

The total workers in the district were 6,73,682, out of which male workers

were 4,30,386 and female workers, 2,43,296. The rural workers were 4,28,883

while urban workers were 2,44,799. The employment pattern shows that there

were 71,315 cultivators, 1,67,387 landless agricultural labourers, 45,783 persons

in household industry, and 3,89,197 other workers. There were 88,944 marginal

workers and 89,206 non-workers.8

Fisheries

On the eastern border of Thoothukudi district there are 24 coastal villages

ranging from Vembar village to Periathazhi village covering 135 kms. Marine

8 District Statistical Hand Book 2002 - 03, Thoothukudi District.

67

fishing is one of the sources of employment to the fisher folk. In 2001 the total

population of the fisher folk was 43,707 out of which 21,180 fisher folk were

involved in fishing and marketing operations. There were 20 fishermen co-

operatives and 13 fisher women co-operatives in the Thoothukudi district. Fisher

women were engaged chiefly in marketing fresh and dried fish. The per capita

income per family was only Rs.6,573. A Fisheries College with Research Institute

has been functioning since 1977 at Thoothukudi.9

Transport and Communications

The important towns and villages are well connected with a good network

of roads. The total length of roads in the Thoothukudi district is 4,705 km., out of

which the length of surfaced and unsurfaced is 4,556.373 and 148.698 km

respectively. The length of the National Highways in the Thoothukudi district is

112.4 km and that of the State Highways is 1,994.232 km. Municipality and

Municipal Corporation roads contribute a length of 202.106 km. The district has a

106.47 km length of railways. Thoothukudi is connected by Air transport from

June 1991 and the airport is located near Vagaikulam at a distance of 15 kms from

Thoothukudi.

9 Tamil Nadu Marine Fisher Folk Census year 2001 – Department of Fisheries, Government of Tamil Nadu,

pp. 210 – 212.

68

There are 39 post offices doing postal business alone and 406 post offices

doing post and telegraph works. The district has 95,155 telephone connections,

with 3,689 public call offices and 69 telephone exchanges.10

Port

The district has the pride of having a major Port, the Thoothukudi Harbour

Project renamed the Thoothukudi Port Trust. During 2003 – 04, 1517 vessels

entered Thoothukudi port and cargo to the tune of 1.36 crore tones are handled.

Exports of certain raw materials and finished products are shipped to about 20

foreign countries. The Thoothukudi port has been issued the prestigious ISO 9002

certificate for port operation and services and has joined the select group of world

ports by becoming the first Indian major port to get such certificates.

From the foregoing section on the profile of the study area, it is clear that

the Thoothukudi district has people of different occupations and the majority of

the workers earn their income through agriculture. Most of the villages are rain-

fed areas and paddy is cultivated mainly in the delta areas of the river

Thambarabarani. Agriculture is found to be the main occupation in the district. As

agricultural workers do not have regular employment throughout the year, they

have to earn their livelihood through other works during the off season.

10

District Statistical Hand Book 2003 - 04, Thoothukudi District.

69

2.8.1 Integral Rural Energy Programme

The District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) launched the Integrated

Rural Agency programme.

Biogas

Government approved Turnkey agencies have been entrusted to install

bio-gas plants in the district. They are Vivekananda Kendra, Kanyakumari, Centre

for Rural Technology, Tirunelveli and Bharat Ideal Corporation, Thoothukudi.

Normally 2 cubic metre or 3 cubic metre bio-gas plants are constructed in the

villages requiring a minimum of 3 cattle.

The National Project on Bio - Gas Development (NPBD) which caters to

the setting up of family type Bio - Gas plants is a central sector scheme and is

point number 19(d) of the 20 Point Programme. It has the following objectives:

1. To provide fuel for cooking purposes and organic manure to rural

households.

2. To mitigate the drudgery of rural women, reduce pressure on forests and

accentuate social benefits.

3. To improve sanitation in villages by linking sanitary toilets with Biogas

plants.

The cost of construction of a bio-gas plant is Rs.6,500. The rate of subsidy

is given below:

70

Capacity of the

Plant

Subsidy for SC/ST, SF/MF Western

Ghats notified hilly areas.

Subsidy for

others

1 Cu.m. to 10

Cu.m.

Rs.2,300

Rs.1,800

Additional subsidy for linking Biogas plants with sanitary toilets is

Rs. 500/- per plant.

Chulha

Under the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC) launched by

the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), of the Government of

India on 14 December 1993, the district Rural Developemnt Agency implemented

the programme at the district level. At the block level, there is a separate extension

cum Rural Welfare Department. They identify and select the beneficiaries at the

block level. Manons are given technical training about the installation and

maintenance of chulhas at agricultural engineering Colleges in Tamil Nadu.

Government approved agencies supply portable chulhas.

The NPIC is Point No. 19(c) of the Twenty point Programme and part of

the Minimum Needs Programme. Its objectives are:-

1. Fuel wood conservation

2. Elimination / reduction of smoke

3. Reduction in drudgery of women and children from cooking in smoky

kitchen and collection of fuel wood.

4. Environmental upgradation and check on deforestation.

71

5. Employment generation in rural areas.

Subsidy

Fixed models with chimney Rs. 40/- per chulha. Rate of self employed

workers Rs. 20/- per chulha for single pot, Rs. 30/- per chulha for two / three pots.

2.9 Tiruchendur Taluk Profile

The Tiruchendur taluk covers three blocks namely, Tiruchendur,

Alwarthirunagari and Udankudi. All the blocks are directly linked with every

nook and corner of the district by means of a very good network of roads.

2.9.1 Tiruchendur Block

A short description of Tiruchendur is presented in this subdivision. The

Tiruchendur block is situated in the south of the Thoothukudi District and situated

near the sea of Gulf of Mannar. This block is surrounded in the West and the

North by the Alwarthirunagari block, the East by Gulf of Mannar and the South by

the Udankudi block. The sea level of this block is 3.5 metre in height. The area of

this block is 135.68 sq. km. This block consists of 15 revenue villages and

Tiruchendur, Arumuganeri and Kayalpattinam are the most thickly populated

areas.

This block has a total area of 135.68 sq. kilometers. As per the 2001 census,

the population of this block was 1,18,862 out of which the male population was

56,591 and the female population 62,271. The number of SC/ST was 18,068,

72

which was 15 percent of the total population. The number of the rural population

was 28,360 that is 23.86 percent of the total population. The density of population

is 223 sq. km. The number of females per 1000 males is 1100.

The climate is pleasant from September to December. During summer that

is April to June it is hot.

With regard to education, the total number of literates is 90,438 out of

which, 44,522 are male (that is, 78.67 percent of the total male population) and

45,916 female (that is, 73.74 percent of the total women population of 62,271).

Tiruchendur is the main educational centre. There are 67 primary schools, 22

middle schools, three high schools, 11 higher secondary schools, two

matriculation higher secondary schools, five colleges and one ITI.

This block has a Chemical Industry, a large-scale industrial unit. Salt

process, coir making, ice manufacturing and mineral water processing industries

come under small-scale industries. Fishing is a very important job in this block.

Amali Nagar, Veerapandianpattinam and Kombuthurai are important fishing

centres in this block.

Occupational pattern shows that the total number of cultivators is 11,157.

Agricultural labourers (15,905) constitute 43.76 percent of the total work force.

There are 7,759 male agricultural workers and 8,146 female ones. The total

number of workers in cottage and household industries is 1,287, which contribute

only 3.54 percent of the total work force in the block. There are 391 male and 896

female workers in this category. Workers in other industries are 1,147. The

73

numbers of male and female workers are 105 and 1,042 respectively. They form

3.16 percent of the total work force. Other workers are 6,048 or 16.64 percent of

the total work force.

The total length of roads in this block is 21.9 km. The length of tar roads is

10.5 km, and of metal roads 8.62 km. The length of cement concrete roads is 1.18

km and the length of mud roads (earthern road) is 1.6 km.

The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, banana, coconut,

groundnut, vegetables and fruits. The Tiruchendur block has few infrastructure

facilities and the cultivators mainly rely on the channel. The net area sown in this

block is 3,851 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 2,761

hectares. The area under barren and uncultivated land is 549 hectares.

The Tiruchendur block has a large number of livestock like 24,115 cattle,

7,931 buffaloes, 11,123 sheep, 10,744 goats, 12 horses and ponies, 1,817 pigs, 436

donkeys and 9,063 poultry. Two milk co-operative societies are functiong in this

block and the total production of milk is 68,076 litres per year.

In this block all the 15 villages, 150 hamlets and four towns are electrified.

There are 1,686 tube lights and 29 sodium vapours in the streets.

74

2.9.2 Alwarthirunagari Block

A short description of Alwarthirunageri is presented in this subdivision.

Alwarthirunageri block is located almost on the southern side of the district. On

the northern side, the Ottapidaram block is situated. The Thoothukudi and

Srivaikundam blocks lie on the eastern side. The Satankulam and

Alwarthirunagari blocks are the eastern boundary of this block. To its southern

side, the Tirunelveli district lies. There are 31 village panchayats in this block.

With regard to education, there are eight pre-primary schools, 87 primary

schools, 34 middle schools, five high schools, eight higher secondary schools, an

Arts and Science College, an Engineering college, a Teachers’ Training College, a

polytechnic and an Art and Industrial School.

This block has a total area of 216.73 Sq. kilometres. As per the 2001

census, the population of this block was 1,16,877 out of which the male population

was 55,669 and the female population 61,208. The number of rural population was

76,474 that is 65.43 percent of the total population.

The density of population is 185 sq. km. The number of females per 1000

males is 910. The total numbers of literates is 87,966 out of which, 43,723 are

male (that is, 78.54 percent of the total male population) and 44,423 are female

(that is, 72.58 percent of the total women population of 61,208).

The total length of roads in this block is 143.3 km. The length of tar roads

is 86.85 km, and of metal roads 28.7 km. The length of saral roads is 17.35 km

75

and the length of mud, unsurfaced roads is one kilo metre and cement concrete

road, 9.4 km.

The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, banana, blackgram,

groundnuts, and cotton. The Alwarthirunagari block has few infrastructure

facilities and the cultivators mainly rely on the channel. The net area sown in this

block is 7,761 hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 3,843

hectares. The area under barren and uncultivated land is 100 hectares. The forest

land occupies 88 hectares.

2.9.3 Udangudi Block

The Udangudi block is located on the South West of Tiruchendur and

surrounded by the Alwarthirunagari block, the Thiruchendur block, the

Sattankulam block and Gulf of Mannar.

There are sixteen revenue villages, seventeen village panchayats and a town

panchayat in this block. Udangudi town panchayat consists of two revenue

villages namely Udangudi and Kalankudiyerruppu. Kulasekarapattanam and

Manapadu are the sea-shore villages of this block.

Over thousand fishermen live at Manapadu, which is the boating centre in

this block. There are Palm leaf Women Industrial Co-operative Society and

Fishermen Co-operative Society at Manapadu and also an Industrial Co-operative

Coir Society at Kulsekarapattinam.

76

Parmankurichi is a Handloom centre wherein over 200 families depend on

weaving. The places of tourist attraction are Arul Migu Mutharamman Temple,

located at Kulasekarapattinum and Siluvai Church, located at Manapadu.

This block has a total area of 197 Sq. kilometres. As per the 2001 census,

the population of this block was 72,415 out of which the male population was

33,454 and the female population 38,961. The number of rural population was

52,723 that is 73.11 percent of the total population.

The total number of literates is 56,432 out of which, 26,649 are male and

29,783 female. The total number of rural literates is 41,011 that is, 77.79 percent

of the total rural population. The total number of urban literates is 15,421 (that is,

79.53 percent of the total urban population of 19,390).

The total number of work force in the block is 22,287 persons out of which

14,764 are male workers and 7,523 female workers. The percentage of workforce

of the total population is 30.91.

There are no medium or large-scale industries in this block. Occupational

pattern shows that the total number of cultivators is 3,108. Agricultural labourers

(5,085) constitute only 22.82 percent of the total work force. There are 4,184 male

agricultural workers and 901 female agricultural workers. The total number of

workers in the household industries manufacturing factory is 8,675 which

contribute 38.92 percent of the total work force in the block. There are 5,905 male

and 2,770 female workers in this category. Marginal workers are 2,824. The

numbers of male and female workers are 138 and 2,686 respectively. They form

77

12.97 percent of the total work force. Other workers are 2,595 or 11.64 percent of

the total work force.

The main crops cultivated in the block are paddy, coconut, banana, and

sugarcane. In the Udangudi block the cultivators mainly rely on the wells. The

net area sown in this block is 4,022 hectares and area more than once is 2,498

hectares. Current fallow and other fallow lands account for 3,566 hectares. The

area of barren and uncultivated land is 284 hectares. The forest land occupies

5,080 hectares.

In this block only ten biogas plants are installed. 16 revenue villages, one

town panchayat and 167 hamlets are electrified. There are 3,812 street tube lights,

175 sodium lights, 16 mercury lights and one tower light in this village.

78

2.10 Sample Profile

This section is devoted to discuss the characteristic features of sample

households. The areas of discussion include caste composition, sex-wise

distribution, age group, education, occupational classification, family size, housing

particulars, purpose of fuel use and electrification of the sample households in the

study area. A total sample size of 375 was randomly selected from the sample

villages.

2.10.1 Caste Composition of the Respondents

A bird’s-eye view of the caste composition of respondents is given in

Table 2.21.

Table: 2.21 – Caste Composition of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Backward

Most

Backward

Scheduled

Caste /

Tribe

Other

Caste

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

73

(43.45)

14

(15.73)

24

(30.38)

13

(33.33)

38

(22.62)

36

(40.45)

18

(22.79)

11

(28.21)

44

(26.19)

26

(29.21)

26

(32.91)

8

(20.51)

13

(7.74)

13

(14.61)

11

(13.92)

7

(17.95)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 124

(33.07)

103

(27.47)

104

(27.73)

44

(11.73 )

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

79

Out of the total sample size, 124 respondents (33.07 percent) belong to the

backward class, which consists of 73 respondents from the low-income group, 14

from the marginal income group, 24 from the medium income group and 13 from

the high-income group. There are 103 respondents (27.47 percent) belonging to

the most backward class, out of which 38 come under the low-income group, 36

from the marginal income group, 18 from the medium income group and 11 from

the high-income group. Respondents in the Scheduled Caste and Tribe category

are 104 (27.73 percent) distributed as 44 from low income, 26 from marginal

income, 26 from medium income and eight from high-income groups.

The respondents other than the above categories are grouped as other caste.

There are 44 (11.73 percent) respondents out of which, 13 are from low income,

another 13 from marginal, 11 from medium and seven from high-income groups.

This table reveals that the majority of the respondents belong to the backward

class, 33.07 percent of the total, followed by Scheduled Castes and Tribes, 27.73

percent.

2.10.2 Sex -wise Distribution of the Respondents

Sex-wise distribution of the sample respondents is given in Table 2.22. Out

of the total sample size, 277 respondents (73.87 percent) are male which includes

133 from low income, 67 from marginal income, 51 from medium income and 26

from high-income groups. There are 98 (26.13 percent) females, which include 35

80

from low income, 22 from marginal income, 28 from medium income and 13 from

high-income groups. The majority of the respondents are male.

Table: 2.22 – Sex – wise Distribution of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Male

Female

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

133

(79.17)

67

(75.28)

51

(64.56)

26

(66.67)

35

(20.83)

22

(24.72)

28

(35.44)

13

(33.33)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 277

(73.87)

98

(26.13)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

2.10.3 Age Wise Distribution of the Respondents

Table 2.23 explains the age distribution of sample households in a number

of years.

81

Table: 2.23 – Age – wise Distribution of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Below 30

years

30 – 45

Years

Above 45

years

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

44

(26.19)

26

(29.21)

21

(26.58)

14

(35.90)

86

(51.19)

44

(49.44)

36

(45.57)

18

(46.15)

38

(22.62)

19

(21.35)

22

(27.85)

7

(17.95)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 105

(28.00)

184

(49.07)

86

(22.93)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

Table 2.23 reveals that the respondents who are below 30 are

105 (28 percent), those between 30 and 45, 184 (49.07 percent) and those above

45, 86 (22.93 percent). There are 184 respondents belonging to the age group of

30 – 45, distributed as 86 from low income, 44 from marginal income, 36 from

medium income and 18 from high-income groups.

2.10.4 Education Level of the Respondents

Among the factors determining household energy consumption, education

is also an important one. The details of the education levels of the respondents are

given in Table 2.24.

82

Table: 2.24 – Education Level of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Primary

Middle

Secondary

Higher

Studies

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

37

(22.02)

11

(12.36)

17

(21.52)

9

(23.08)

64

(38.10)

34

(38.20)

28

(35.44)

12

(30.77)

45

(26.79)

18

(20.22)

30

(37.97)

11

(28.21)

22

(13.10)

26

(29.21)

4

(5.06)

7

(17.95)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 74

(19.73)

138

(36.80)

104

(27.74)

59

(15.73)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

The respondents who are of the primary level are 74 (19.73 percent),

middle level 138 (36.80 percent), secondary level 104 (27.74 percent) and higher

studies level 59 (15.73 percent) in the total sample size. The majority of the

respondents have the educational level ranging from middle to secondary.

2.10.5 Occupation of the Respondents

Households are classified into agricultural labourers, agricultural

households, salaried employee households and business people depending upon

their main occupation.

83

Table: 2.25 – Occupation Level of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Agricultural

Labour

Agriculturist

Salaried

People

Business

People

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

36

(21.43)

21

(23.60)

26

(32.91)

8

(20.51)

64

(38.10)

26

(29.21)

19

(24.05)

6

(15.38)

24

(14.29)

31

(34.83)

16

(20.25)

8

(20.51)

44

(26.19)

11

(12.36)

18

(22.78)

17

(43.59)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All

Groups

91

(24.27)

115

(30.67)

79

(21.07)

90

(24.00)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

According to Table 2.25, the respondents who come under agricultural

labourers are 91 (24.27 percent), agricultural households are 115 (30.67 percent),

salaried employee households 79 (21.07 percent) and business people 90

(24 percent) of the total sample size. The households with agriculture as their main

occupation are 115, out of which 64 are from low income group, 26 are from

marginal income group, 19 are from medium income group and the remaining six

are from high income groups as per the standard classification.

84

2.11 Housing Particulars of the Respondents

Particulars regarding family size, nature of house, nature of ownership of

house, whether electrified or not, and purposes of different fuels used are

discussed as follows:

2.11.1 Family Size of the Respondents

Family size is an important determinant of household energy consumption.

Table 2.26 explains the family size of the sample households.

Table: 2.26 – Family Size of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Less than 3

4 - 6

More than

6

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

46

(27.38)

31

(34.83)

26

(32.91)

17

(43.59)

94

(55.95)

36

(40.45)

29

(36.71)

14

(35.90)

28

(16.67)

22

(24.72)

24

(30.78)

8

(20.51)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 120

(32.00)

173

(46.13)

82

(21.87)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

There are 120 respondents in the category of less than 3, 173 respondents

between 4 and 6 and 82 respondents more than 6 of the total households. Most of

the respondents i.e., 173 (46.13 percent) belong to the group of 4 – 6 persons.

85

2.11.2 Nature of House

The people in the study area are living in different types of houses like

concrete, tiled and thatched houses. As per Table 2.29, 132 (35.20 percent)

households live in concrete houses, 174 (46.40 percent) in tiled houses and 69

(18.40 percent) in thatched houses.

Table: 2.27 – Nature of House of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Concrete

Tiled

Thatched

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

34

(20.24)

36

(40.45)

44

(55.70)

18

(46.15)

106

(63.10)

32

(35.96)

22

(27.85)

14

(35.90)

28

(16.67)

21

(23.60)

13

(16.46)

7

(17.95)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 132

(35.20)

174

(46.40)

69

(18.40)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

86

2.11.3 Ownership of House

The respondents reside either in their owned or rented houses. Table 2.28

shows that, 300 (80 percent) respondents have their own houses. Only 75 sample

households (20 percent) reside in rented houses. Out of the 75 rented houses,

24 are occupied by low income group, 16 by marginal income group, 27 by

medium income group and the remaining eight by high income group.

Table: 2.28 – Ownership of House

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Owned

Rented

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

144

(85.71)

73

(82.02)

52

(65.82)

31

(79.49)

24

(14.29)

16

(17.98)

27

(34.18)

8

(20.51)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 300

(80.00)

75

(20.00)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

87

2.12 Electrification Particulars of the Respondents

Consumption of commercial energy in the household sector depends

mainly on electricity. As per Table 2.29, out of the total sample size, 319 houses

are electrified (85.07 percent) and 56 (14.93 percent) houses are not electrified.

Among the electrified houses, 135 come under the low-income group, 71 in the

marginal income group, 76 in the medium income group and 37 in the high-

income group. Non-electrified houses are very few in the medium income group.

Table: 2.29 – Electrification Particulars of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Electrified

Non-

electrified

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

135

(80.36)

71

(79.78)

76

(93.83)

37

(100.00)

33

(19.64)

18

(20.22)

5

(6.17)

-

(0.00)

168

(100)

89

(100)

81

(100)

37

(100)

All Groups 319

(85.07)

56

(14.93)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

88

2.13 Monthly Income of the Respondents

The monthly income of the sample respondents is given in Table 2.30.

Table: 2.30 – Monthly Income of the Respondents

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Total

Percentage

Below Rs.2,000

Rs.2,000 – 4,000

Rs.4,000 – 6,000

Above Rs.6,000

168

89

79

39

44.80

23.73

21.07

10.40

All Groups 375

100.00

Source: Field Survey

Out of the total sample size, 168 respondents (44.80 percent) come under

below Rs.2,000, 89 (23.73 percent) from Rs.2,000 to 4,000, 79 (21.07 percent)

from Rs.4,000 to 6,000 and the remaining 39 (10.40 percent) belong to Rs. 6,000

and above groups.

It is observed that 44.80 percent of the respondents are in the low income

groups, 23.73 percent of the respondents in the marginal income group,

21.07 percent of the respondents in the medium income group and the remaining

10.40 percent fall in the high income category of Rs.6,000 and above.

89

2.14 Purpose of Fuel Use

The purpose of use of different fuels like kerosene, petrol, diesel, L.P.Gas

and electricity are explained as follows:

2.14.1 Kerosene Use

The purpose of kerosene used by different income groups is explained in

Table 2.31.

Table: 2.31 – Purpose of Kerosene Use – Income Group - wise

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Not-

using

Lighting

Cooking

Both

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

36

(21.43)

21

(23.60)

26

(32.91)

8

(20.51)

64

(38.10)

26

(29.21)

19

(24.05)

6

(15.38)

24

(14.29)

31

(34.83)

16

(20.25)

8

(20.51)

44

(26.19)

11

(12.36)

18

(22.78)

17

(43.59)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 91

(24.27)

115

(30.67)

79

(21.07)

90

(24.00)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

Out of the total sample size, the category not using kerosene is 91

(24.27 percent). Those who use it for lighting are 115 (30.67 percent), for cooking

79 (21.07 percent) and for both lighting and cooking 90 (24 percent). Under the

90

low-income group, 168 respondents use kerosene, out of which 64 use it for

lighting, 24 for cooking and the remaining for both cooking and lighting.

2.14.2 Petrol and Diesel Use

The purpose of petrol and diesel used by different income groups is

explained in Table 2.32.

Table: 2.32 – Purpose of Petrol and Diesel Use – Income Group - wise

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Not-using

Transport

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

164

(97.62)

76

(85.39)

73

(92.41)

28

(71.79)

4

(2.38)

13

(14.61)

6

(7.59)

11

(28.21)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 341

(90.93)

34

(9.07)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

As per Table 2.32, out of the total sample size, 341 (90.93 percent)

respondents do not use petrol and diesel at all. Only 34 (9.07 percent) respondents

use them for transport purpose.

91

2.14.3 L.P. Gas Use

Table 2.33 reveals the details of the purpose of L.P. Gas use income group

wise.

Table: 2.33 – Purpose of L.P. Gas Use – Income Group - wise

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Not-using

Cooking

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

152

(90.48)

55

(61.80)

62

(78.48)

15

(38.46)

16

(9.52)

34

(38.20)

17

(21.52)

24

(61.54)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 284

(75.73)

91

(24.27)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

In the total sample size, only 91 respondents (24.27 percent) use L.P. Gas

for cooking purpose, of which 16 are from the low-income group, 34 from the

marginal income group, 17 from the medium income group and 24 from the high-

income group. It is understood from Table 2.33 that only the higher income group

prefers L.P. Gas for cooking purposes.

92

2.14.4 Electricity Use

An over all estimate of the purpose of electricity use income group wise has

been analysed with the help of Table 2.34.

Table: 2.34 – Purpose of Electricity Use – Income Group - wise

(in Numbers)

Income

Groups

Not-using

Lighting

Total

Low

Marginal

Medium

High

10

(5.95)

4

(4.49)

2

(2.53)

-

158

(94.05)

85

(95.51)

77

(97.47)

39

(100.00)

168

(100)

89

(100)

79

(100)

39

(100)

All Groups 16

(4.27)

359

(95.73)

375

(100) Source: Field Survey

Note : Figures in parentheses show percentages to the row-wise total

Among the electricity using households of 359, 100 are from the low-

income group, four from the marginal income group and two from the medium

income group and they use electricity for lighting purpose. It is observed from

Table 2.34 that no respondents reported using electricity for cooking purpose.

93

2.15 Summary

Energy is an essential ingredient for human life on earth One of the

important requirements of energy for man is in the form of food. A brief

description of the profile of energy is discussed in this chapter. A brief description

of the profile of the study area namely Tiruchendur block in the Thoothukudi

district, is presented in this chapter.

The characteristic features of sample households are also discussed. The

areas of discussion include caste composition, sex-wise distribution, age group,

education, occupational classification, family size, housing particulars, purpose of

fuel use and electrification of the sample households in the study area. A total

sample size of 375 was randomly selected from the sample villages.

Photovoltaic comes from the words photo meaning “light” and volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV cells orsolar cells for short. These are the four steps that show how a PV cell is made and how it produces electrictySolar energy is radiant energy that is

produced by the sun. Every day the sun

radiates, or sends out, an enormous

amount of energy. The sun radiates more

energy in one second than people have

used since the beginning of time!

SOLAR AT A GLANCEWHAT IS SOLAR?

NUCLEAR FUSION

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

A slab (or wafer) of pure silicon is used to make a PV cell. The top of the slab is very thinly di�used with an “n”

dopant such as phosphorous. On the base of the slab a small amount of a “p” dopant, typically boron, is di�used.

The boron side of the slab is 1,000 times thicker than the phosphorous side.

The phosphorous has one more electron in its outer shell than silicon, and the boron has one less. These dopants

help create the electric �eld that motivates the energetic electrons out of the cell created when light strikes the

PV cell. The phosphorous gives the wafer of silicon an excess of free electrons; it has a negative character. This is

called then-type silicon (n = negative). The n-type silicon is not charged—it has an equal number of protons

and electrons—but some of the electrons are not held tightly to the atoms. They are free to move to di�erent

locations within the layer. The boron gives the base of the silicon a positive character, because it has a tendency

to attract electrons. The base of the silicon is called p-type silicon (p = positive). The p-type silicon has an equal

number of protons and electrons; it has a positive character but not a positive charge.

Where the n-type silicon and p-type silicon meet, free electrons from the n-layer �ow into the p-layer for a split

second, then form a barrier to prevent more electrons from moving between the two sides. This point of contact

and barrier is called the p-n junction. When both sides of the silicon slab are doped, there is a negative charge

in the p-type section of the junction and a positive charge in the n-type section of the junction due to

movement of the electrons and “holes” at the junction of the two types of materials. This imbalance in electrical

charge at the p-n junction produces an electric �eld between the p-type and n-type silicon

If the PV cell is placed in the sun, photons of light strike the electrons in the p-n junction and energize them,

knocking them free of their atoms. These electrons are attracted to the positive charge in the n-type silicon

and repelled by the negative charge in the p-type silicon. Most photon-electron

collisions actually occur in the silicon base.

A conducting wire connects the p-type silicon to an electrical load, such as a light or battery, and then back to

the n-type silicon, forming a complete circuit. As the free electrons are pushed into the n-type silicon they repel

each other because they are of like charge. The wire provides a path for the electrons to move away from each

other. This �ow of electrons is an electric current that travels through the circuit from the n-type to the p-type

silicon. In addition to the semi-conducting materials, solar cells consist of a top metallic grid or other electrical

contact to collect electrons from the semi-conductor and transfer them to the external load, and a back contact

layer to complete the electrical circuit

TOP SOLAR STATES

The process of fusion most commonly involves hydrogen isotopes combining to

form a helium atom with a transformation of matter. This matter is emitted as

radiant energy.

HYDROGEN ISOTOPE

NEUTRONHELIUM

ENERGY

HYDROGEN ISOTOPE

N-TYPE SILICON

P-TYPE SILICON

NEGATIVE CHARACTER

POSITIVE CHARACTER

PROTON FREE ELECTRON TIGHTLY-HELD ELECTRON A LOCATION THAT CAN ACCEPT AN ELECTRON

Data: Energy Information Administration

POSITIVE CHARGE

N-TYPE

P-TYPEP-N JUNCTION

NEGATIVE CHARGE

POSITIVE CHARGE

N-TYPE

P-TYPEP-N JUNCTION

NEGATIVE CHARGE

FREE ELECTRON