practical approaches to behaviour management in the classroom · 6.4 an introduction to cognitive...

Practical Approaches to Behaviour Management in the Classroom A handbook for classroom teachers in secondary schools

InformationInformation document No: 086/2010 Date of issue: August 2010

Audience Headteachers and classroom teachers in secondary schools.

Overview This handbook is a resource to enhance the practice of teachers at secondary level, whether they are highly skilled and experienced teachers with responsibility for supporting others, teachers who want to extend their classroom behaviour management skills, or newly qualified teachers (NQTs). This handbook focuses on general behaviour management methods and does not specifically cover issues relating to special educational needs.

Elements of this handbook build on previous work undertaken by an action research group involving Include, Training Advice and Consultancy (TAC) and Education and School Improvement Service (ESIS). This revised version was produced by the Centre for British Teachers (CfBT) Education Trust.

Action None – for information.required

Further Enquiries about this guidance should be directed to:information Pupil Engagement Team Welsh Assembly Government Cathays Park Cardiff CF10 3NQ Tel: 029 2082 1556 Fax: 029 2080 1051 e-mail: [email protected]

Additional Can be obtained from the contact details listed above. copies This document can also be accessed from the Welsh Assembly

Government website at www.wales.gov.uk/educationandskills

Related National Behaviour and Attendance Review (NBAR) Report documents Behaving and Attending: Action Plan Responding to the National

Behaviour and Attendance Review National Assembly for Wales Circular 47/2006: Inclusion and Pupil Support

Practical Approaches to Behaviour Management in the Classroom

ISBN 978 0 7504 5573 2

© Crown copyright 2010

CMK-22-07-466

F0231011

Introduction 1

Chapter 1: The Welsh context 51.1 TheLearningCountryandtheUnitedNationsConvention

ontheRightsoftheChild 51.2 TheNationalBehaviourandAttendanceReview 61.3 BehavingandAttending:ActionPlanRespondingtoNBAR 91.4 Circular47/2006-InclusionandPupilSupportGuidance 111.5 TheSchoolEffectivenessFramework 13

Chapter 2: Effective classroom management 152.1 Characteristicsofeffectiveteaching 162.2 Workingwithinanagreedframework 262.3 Managingtheenvironment 362.4 Managingtransitions 442.5 Anticipationandmonitoring 49

Chapter 3: Effective communication 563.1 Managingtheuseoflanguage 573.2 Effectiveuseofquestions 643.3 Non-verbaltechniques 673.4 Self-presentation 733.5 Promotingpupils’self-esteem 76

Chapter 4: Approaches to changing behaviour 804.1 TheABCapproachtobehaviourchange 814.2 Problem-solvingapproaches 844.3 Cost-benefitanalysisapproach 884.4 Re-enactment 914.5 Futuregoal(changedbehaviour)visualisation 934.6 Self-monitoring 984.7 Socialskillstraining 1014.8 Behaviouragreementsandbehaviourplans 107

Contents

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Information document No: 086/2010

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Chapter 5: Incident management 1135.1 Generalprinciplesforeffectiveincidentmanagement 1145.2 A5-stageincidentprofileandstrategiesforresponse

ateachstage 1165.3 Safeandeffectiveintervention 128

Chapter 6: More specialist approaches to support behaviour change 1326.1 Anintroductiontorestorativejustice 1326.2 Anintroductiontosolution-focusedapproaches 1386.3 Anintroductiontothetranstheoreticalmodelofchange 1466.4 Anintroductiontocognitivebehaviouralapproaches 150

References and further reading 163

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Introduction

PromotingeffectiveteachingandlearningisparamounttotheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sagenda,assetoutinThe Learning Country andtakenfurtherthroughtheNational Behaviour and Attendance Review (NBAR) anditsAction Plan.Keytoachievingeffectiveteachingandlearningisensuringclassteachershavethenecessaryskillstoapproachtheirteachinginwaysthatreducethelikelihoodofpupilsmisbehavingandequippingthemwitheffectiveskillsandresponsesforthoseinstanceswheredifficultbehaviourdoesoccur.

Whereteachershavegoodpreventativeandresponsiveskillsthelikelihoodofdifficultiesemergingordevelopingintoincidentswillbemarkedlyreduced.Tosupportthedevelopmentandimplementationofsuchskillsinteachersatsecondarylevel,theWelshAssemblyGovernmenthascommissionedthishandbook.

Thishandbookisaresourcetoenhancethepracticeofteachersatsecondarylevel,whethertheyarehighlyskilledandexperiencedteacherswithresponsibilityforsupportingothers,teacherswhowanttoextendtheirclassroombehaviourmanagementskillsornewlyqualifiedteachers(NQTs).ThehandbookfocusesongeneralbehaviourmanagementmethodsanddoesnotspecificallycoverissuesrelatingtoSpecialEducationalNeeds.

How to use this handbook

Teachersmayusethematerialsindifferentways,dependingontheirroleandonneed:• Asaninterestingreadtoconfirmtheirconfidenceintheirown

skillsatmanagingbehaviourintheclassroom• Asaresourcepackthatprovidesideasandapproachesfor

addressingparticularissuesordifficulties• AsaresourceforcoachingormentoringNQTs• Asaresourcetohelpsupportotherstaff.

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The focus of this handbook

TherapidevidenceassessmentundertakenaspartoftheNational Behaviour and Attendance Review(seesection1.2fordetails)notesthat“Thereisnosingle,successful,approachtobehaviourissuesinschools,andinschoolsthatdemonstrategoodpracticearangeofapproachesareadopted.Muchoftheliteraturestressestheimportanceof‘whole-school’andholisticstrategiesandindicatesthatthekeyelementsassociatedwithgoodbehaviour,arethoseofaneffectiveschool.”

The Rapid Evidence Assessment of the interventions that attempt to improve behaviour and attendance in schools and other learning settings (2008)isavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/educationskillsnews/2233523/?lang=en

However, this handbook focuses on the classroom level only.

Thediagrambelowistakenfromthe National Behaviour and Attendance Review report(seesection1.2).Itaimstoillustratethewaysinwhicheachlevelinteractsinadynamicwaywitheachoftheothersandhoweventsatthefrontlineinschoolsandhomesneedtoinfluenceandshapenationalpolicy.

This handbook is focused at level 4 only,thoughitisacknowledgedthatlevel4willinteractwithallotherlevels,especially3and5.

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TheNational Behaviour and Attendance Review reportnotesthat‘classroomteachersandteachingassistantsmanagethebulkofemotional,socialandbehaviouraldifficultiesexperiencedbypupilsinschool.However,toomanyteacherssaytheywereunderpreparedandillequippedbytheirtrainingtomanagethepupilsthattheyencounteredintheirfirstjobs.Furthermore,theyhadfewopportunitiespost-qualification,toundertaketraininganddevelopmentineffectiveclassroommanagementandeffectivewaystorespondtotroubledbehaviour’.This handbook is just one part of the Welsh Assembly Government’s response to the National Behaviour and Attendance Review report recommendations.

1. The Welsh Assembly Government Level

2. Local Authority, Health Services and Volunteer Sector Level

3. The School Level

4. The Classroom Level

5. The Individual Pupil and Family Level

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An overview of the handbook chapters

Thehandbookissetoutinsixchapters:

Chapter 1: ProvidesanoverviewoftheWelshContext,includingkeypoliciesandguidance.Itsetsthescenefortherestofthehandbookandmakeslinkstosupportingdocuments.

Chapter 2: Setsouttheissuesaroundeffective classroom management.Itpresentsthecharacteristicsofeffectiveteachingandexaminessomekeyconceptsofeffectiveclassroommanagement,namely,workingwithinanagreedframework,managingtheenvironment,managingtransitionsandanticipationandmonitoring.

Chapter 3: Coverstheskillsofeffective communication.Itprovidesinsightintousingappropriatelanguageandquestions,alongwithandarangeoftechniquesformanagingtheclassroomandpreventingunwantedbehaviour.

Chapter 4: Providesarangeofapproaches to changing behaviour.TheseincludetheABCapproachtobehaviourchange;problem-solvingapproaches;cost-benefitanalysisapproach;re-enactment;futuregoalvisualisation;self-monitoring;socialskillstrainingandbehaviouragreementsandbehaviourplans.

Chapter 5: Setsouttheelementsofeffectiveincident management.Itpresentsgeneralprinciplesaswellasamodelfordescribingandunderstandingincidents.Italsooutlinesstrategiesforpreventingtheescalationofanincidentandforrespondingatvariousphasesofanincident.

Chapter 6: Setsoutanoverviewofarangeofmore specialist approaches to support behaviour changethatclassteachersmayliketoconsider,butwhicharelikelytorequiresomeadditionaltrainingand/orsupporttouseeffectively.Thechapterdoesnotprepareteacherstousetheseapproachesinpractice.

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Chapter 1The Welsh context

1.1 The Learning Country and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

In2001theWelshAssemblyGovernmentpublishedThe Learning Country.Thiswasaten-yearstrategythatembodiedvisionandactionwithastatedgoalofcreatingforWalesoneofthebesteducationandlifelonglearningsystemsintheworld.

The Learning Country: Vision into Actionwaslaunchedinlate2006.ItrepresentsthesecondstageinTheLearningCountryprogrammeandhighlightstheincreasededucationandtrainingopportunitiesavailableinWalesfromearlyyearsthroughtooldage.ItdescribesinconcretetermsthekeyobjectivesandactiontheWelshAssemblyGovernmentwillbetakingtomakeTheLearningCountryareality.

The Learning Country: Vision into Actionincludesasectionfocusedonschoolsandlearning,wherethevisionisto‘ensurethatthebenefitsofimprovementsareenjoyedbyall,inafullycomprehensivesystemoflearningthatservesallourlocalcommunitieswell’.

Theobjectivesare:• tacklepovertyofeducationalopportunityandraisestandards

inschools;• makeallschoolbuildingsfitforpurpose;• ensurethatallchildrenaresafeatschool;• encouragegoodnutritionandhealthierlifestyles;• promotetheWelshLanguage.

ThedocumentnotesthatworkisalreadyongoingtoreviewapproachestopromotingpositivebehaviourandhighlevelsofattendanceinschoolsinWales.

Thefulldocumentsareavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/learningcountry/?lang=en

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TheWelshAssemblyGovernment’svisionforchildrenandyoungpeopleisbasedontheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildandthisisrepresentedinsevencoreaims.ChildrenandYoungPeople:

1. Haveaflyingstartinlife

2. Haveacomprehensiverangeofeducationandlearningopportunities

3. Enjoythebestpossiblehealthandarefreefromabuse,victimisationandexploitation

4. Haveaccesstoplay,leisure,sportingandculturalactivities

5. Arelistenedto,treatedwithrespect,andhavetheirraceandculturalidentityrecognised

6. Haveasafehomeandacommunitywhichsupportsphysicalandemotionalwell-being

7. Arenotdisadvantagedbypoverty.

1.2 The National Behaviour and Attendance Review

InMarch2006,theMinisterforEducation,LifelongLearningandSkillsmadeacommitmenttoundertakeaNational Behaviour and Attendance Review(NBAR)tosupportexistingactivityandtoshapeanddevelopthefutureapproachtothesechallengingissues.TheReviewwasundertakeninaccordancewiththeWelshAssemblyGovernment’svisionforthefuturedevelopmentofpolicyandprovisionforchildrenandyoungpeopleinWalesassetoutinThe Learning Country: Vision into Action.

ASteeringGroupwasformedtotakeforwardtheReview,toestablishatruepictureofthesituationinWales,toconsidergoodpracticeintacklingattendanceandbehaviourissuesandtoproduceclearrecommendationstotheWelshAssemblyGovernment.TheSteeringGroupwascomprisedofrepresentativesofkeystakeholdergroupsacrossWales,supportedbyEstynandtheOfficeoftheChildren’sCommissionerforWales.

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TheReviewGroupacknowledgedthat‘themajorityofschoolsinWalesareorderlyandwell-managed.Thereiswidespreadgoodpracticeinmanagingpupils’behaviourandattendanceinmostschoolsandlocalauthoritieswithalargenumberofinnovativeinitiativesinplace.Despitethis,managingbehaviourandattendance,bothinandout-of-school,arebecomingincreasinglycomplexissues’.

NBAR recommendations

TheNBAR reportlaysoutarangeof19corerecommendations,whicharesummarisedbelow.TheWelshAssemblyGovernmentshould:

1. ImplementrevisedcurriculumandassessmentarrangementsfromSeptember2008toensurethatnochild(withinthemainstreamabilityrange)shouldleaveprimaryschoolwithoutthefunctionalabilitytoreadandwrite.

2. Prioritiseearlyinterventionstrategies.

3. Promoteanunderstandingthatviolenceagainststaffwillnotbetolerated.

4. EnsurethatallschoolsandlocalauthoritiesrigorouslyadheretoCircular1/2004on‘ExclusionfromSchoolsandPupilReferralUnits’

5. IntroducelegislationonnewexclusionregulationsinWales(seeNBARreportfordetails).

6. Considergivingparentsandpupilstheopportunitytoaccessanadvocacysupportserviceintheeventofpermanentexclusionandputintoplaceanadditionalnationalpointofappealfollowingtheindependentappealpanel.

7. Introduceguidanceontheuseofmanagedmovesandtransfersasanalternativetoexclusion.

8. Activelyfollow-upschoolswhoareexcludingpupilsataratewhichissignificantlyhigherthanaverage.

9. Establishabehaviouralsupportteaminalllocalauthorities,whoshouldcollaboratewithneighbouringlocalauthorities’.

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10.Ensurethatschoolattendanceandbehaviouralstrategiesareatthecentreofschooleffectivenessframeworkespeciallyattheschoollevel.

11.Commissionstudieswhichexamineissuesrelatedtoexclusions,bullying,additionallearningneeds,transitionsandPRUs(seeNBARreportfordetails).

12.EnsurealllocalauthoritiesinWalesdesignateanofficerresponsibleforinclusionwhoshouldbeappropriatelyexperienced.

13.Clarifyandstrengthenitsguidanceforschoolsonphysicalinterventionandtheuseofrestraint.

14.Ensureallsecondaryschoolshaveanamedseniormanagerdesignatedasleadprofessionaltodealwithbehaviour,attendanceandparticipation.

15.Prioritiseandincreasefundingsignificantlyfortrainingprogrammesonbehaviourandattendance,forallstaffinschoolsandthoseinthelocalauthorityengagedinpromotingpositivebehaviourandimprovingattendance,especiallyeducationwelfare/educationsocialworkstaff.

16.DevelopanActionPlananddraftoverarchingpoliciesonbehaviourandattendancethroughoutWales.

17.EnsuretheactionplanagendashouldincludefurtherengagementwithchildrenandyoungpeopleonbehaviourandattendancetoencourageandcontinuethedialoguestartedthroughtheNBARprocess.

18.EnsuretheLocalChildren’sSafeguardingBoardineachlocalauthorityhasastandingitemonschoolbehaviourandattendance.

19.SignificantlyincreasethelevelofstaffingintheSupportforLearningfield,forchildrenandyoungpeoplewithemotionalandbehaviouraldifficulties,thoseatriskofexclusionandthosepermanentlyexcludedfromschool.

ThefullNBARreport,canbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/educationskillsnews/2233523/?lang=en

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1.3 Behaving and Attending: Action Plan Responding to NBAR

PublishedinMarch2009,theBehaviour and Attendance Action PlansetsouttheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sresponsetotherecommendationssetoutintheNBARReport.Itisa‘live’documentthatwillbesubjecttoregularamendmentandongoingconsultation(seebelowforlink).

TheactionslaidoutintheBehaviour and Attendance Action Plan intendtostrengthentheongoingworkoftheWelshAssemblyGovernment,localauthoritiesandschoolsinimprovingandpromotingpositivebehaviourandattendance.Thisinturnisintendedtoenhancethenurturingandsupportofchildrenandyoungpeopletoguidethemontheireducationaljourneyandtohelpthemtoreachtheireducationalpotential.

TheActionPlanneedstobeseenalongsidetheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sapproachtoinclusionandpupilsupportassetoutinCircular47/2006(seesection1.4ofthishandbook).

Summary of key actions

Thenatureofthetaskofimprovingbehaviourandattendancemeansthatworkgoesfarbeyondtheschoolgateandiswiderthandirectactionsonbehaviourandattendance.ThisisdemonstratedbythefactthattheNBARreviewcontainsalargenumberofrecommendationscoveringdiverseaspects,suchastheplaceoftheschoolinthecommunity,theroleofparents,inter-agencyworkingandteachingandlearning.TheBehaviour and Attendance Action Plan,necessarilythereforecontainsalargenumberofactions.

Thekeyactionsareasfollows:• ProduceanAll-WalesAttendanceFramework• ProduceguidanceonBehaviourinSchools:SafeandEffective

Intervention(seesection5.3ofthishandbook)• CarryoutareviewonprovisionofEducationOtherwiseThan

atSchool,includingPupilReferralUnits

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• EstablishBehaviourandAttendancewebpageslinkedtotheSchoolEffectivenessFramework(SEF)andPedagogywebpages

• EstablishaBehaviourSupportTeamNetwork• Produceguidanceontheeffectiveuseofmanagedmoves• Conductevidencegatheringoflocalauthoritypracticesand

theireffectivenessonkeyareastoinformthefutureapproachandtargetingofresources

• WorkwithEstyntoreviewinspectionarrangements• EnsurethatthedevelopmentofanoverarchingProfessional

DevelopmentFrameworkforteachingstaffadequatelycoverstheknowledgeandskillsonaspectsofpromotingpositivebehaviourandattendance

• Establishpilotsandotherresearchprojectstoinformtakingforwardanumberoftherecommendations

• Involvechildrenandyoungpeopleinallaspectsofthework,includingdevelopingandimplementingapproaches,evaluatingtheireffectivenessandreviewingtheminthelightoffindings

• Focusonliteracyasakeypriority.

Inaddition,theWelshAssemblyGovernmentacknowledgestheimportanceoftraininganddevelopmentandhasproposedawayforward(detailedinAnnexBoftheBehaviour and Attendance Action Plan).ThetrainingagendaforWalesiscurrentlyunderreviewandtrainingrecommendationswillbeapriorityfortheongoingNBARSteeringGroup.

Thefollowingcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/learningproviders/schools/nbaractionplan/?lang=en

• AcopyoftheBehaviour and Attendance Action PlanpublishedinMarch2009

• A‘live’detailedActionPlan• DetailsoftheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sresponses

totheNBAR Report recommendations.

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1.4 Circular 47/2006 - Inclusion and Pupil Support Guidance

Thisguidancecoverstheinclusionandsupportoflearnersofcompulsoryschoolage(althoughsomeelementsapplytoalllearners).Itprovidesadviceandsetsoutresponsibilitiesformaintaininghighlevelsofattendanceandpositivebehaviourinschoolsandtheneedtosupportpupilswithadditionalneedstoensuretheyreceivesuitableeducationandavoidbecomingdisengagedfromeducation.Italsocoverseducationprovidedoutsidetheschoolsetting.

ItissetwithinthecontextofTheLearningCountryandThe Learning Country: Vision into Actionwhichrecognisedthatcreatinganinclusiveenvironmentforlearningmeanssupportinglearnerswithintheirlearningsettingsaswellasprovidingsupportinthewideraspectsoftheirlearningexperience.Thehealth,emotionalandsocialneedsofchildrenandyoungpeoplearesignificantfactorsinsupportingtheiraccesstolearning.

ItisalsosetwithinthecontextofChildren and Young People: Rights to Action (2005).ThisWelshAssemblyGovernmentvisionisbasedontheUNConventionontheRightsoftheChildandhassevencoreaimswhichseektoensurethatallchildrenandyoungpeople:• Haveaflyingstartinlife• Haveacomprehensiverangeofeducationandlearning

opportunities• Enjoythebestpossiblehealthandarefreefromabuse,

victimisationandexploitation• Haveaccesstoplay,leisure,sportingandculturalactivities• Arelistenedto,treatedwithrespect,andhavetheirraceand

culturalidentityrecognised• Haveasafehomeandacommunitywhichsupportsphysical

andemotionalwell-being• Arenotdisadvantagedbypoverty.

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WhilsttheguidanceinCircular47/2006isnotstatutoryitsetsoutthespecificlegislationwhichlocalauthorities,schoolsandtheirpartnersarerequiredtoadhereto.Circular47/2006replacesCircular3/99:PupilSupportandSocialInclusion.Insummary,themainchangestopreviousguidanceareasfollows:• Presentationofaframeworkforinclusiontopromoteaccess

toeducationforallandremoveanybarrierstolearning• Adoptionoftheterm‘AdditionalLearningNeeds’tocoverthose

learnerswhoseneedsaregreaterthanthemajorityoftheirpeers• Reflectionofrecentpolicydevelopments,includingnew

arrangementsundertheChildrenAct2004,LearningPathways14-19,andtheEarlyandExtendingEntitlementagendas

• Bringingattendance,behaviourandanti-bullyingpoliciestogetherwithinawhole-schoolapproach

• Moreextensiveguidanceonprovidingsupporttopupilswithadditionallearningneedsandspecificannexescontainingadditionalinformationsuchaschecklistsforinclusivepractices

• Newattendanceregistrationcodes-previouslysentseparatelytoallschoolsinMay2004

• Theintroductionofschool-levelattendancetargetsforprimaryschoolsandforthesetobesetonallabsencesasopposedtounauthorisedabsences

• Increasedemphasisonimprovingthelevelanduseofinformationavailableonpupilsreceivingeducationoutsidetheschoolsettingaswellasthosepupilsmovingorjoiningschools

• NewsectiononLocalAuthoritiesandschools’responsibilitiesforthosepupilswhoareeducatedathomebyparents

• Newguidanceonprovisionofeducationforyoungparents• GuidanceonnewprovisionsundertheAntiSocialBehaviourAct,

2003forParentingOrdersforbehaviourproblemsandParentingContractsforpoorattendanceandbehaviourproblems.

Schoolsandothereducationproviderswillneedtoconsideranumberofkeygeneralaspectsoflegislationinimplementinginclusion,relatingto-Humanrights;Raceequality;

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Disabilitydiscrimination;Childwelfare;Parentalrightsandresponsibilities;TheWelshLanguageAct;TheChildrenAct2004.

Circular47/2006isavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/policy_strategy_and_planning/schools/339214-wag/inclusionpupilsupportguidance/?lang=en

1.5 The School Effectiveness Framework

Publishedin2008,The School Effectiveness Framework: Building effective learning communities togetherhasbeendesignedtoimprovechildrenandyoungpeople’slearningandwellbeing.Itisbasedontheprinciplesoftri-levelreform-thatis,Government,localauthoritiesandschoolsworkingcollaborativelytobringaboutsystemchange.TheFrameworksetsoutthevisionandanimplementationscheduleforputtingschooleffectivenessandtri-levelreformintoaction.Itaimstoensurethatallactivitiesandprogrammesarealignedinacoherentmannerwiththecentralaimofsecuringimprovedlearningandwellbeingforchildrenandyoungpeople.

Thedocumentnotesthat“ManychildrenandyoungpeopleinWalesachievewelland,attheendofkeystages1and2,theirattainmentscomparewiththeircounterpartsinothercountries.Inthecaseofschoolsthataddthemostvalue,thesechildrenandyoungpeoplecontinuetoachievewell.However,weneedtodomoretoreducethedifferencesinoutcomes,withinschools(wherethegreatestvariationlies),betweenschools,betweenlocalauthoritiesandbetweentheprimaryandsecondaryphasesofeducation;andtoraiseoveralllevelsofattainment…Thisknowledgeunderpinsthemoralpurposeforoureducationsystemandrequiresthatwecreatetheconditionsthatprovideallchildrenandyoungpeoplewiththebestpossibleopportunitiestolearn,maximisetheirpotential,andtoreapthebenefits”.

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Thedocumentnotesthatevidenceshowsthat:• Educationalreformismosteffectivewhendesignedand

implementedcollaborativelyandcoherentlythroughalllevelsofthesystem:nationally,locallyandattheleveloftheindividuallearningsetting-aprocessoftri-levelreform

• Childrenandyoungpeoplelearnmosteffectivelywhentheyareinvolvedindecisionsabouttheirlearning.

TheSchoolEffectivenessFrameworkhascollaborationandpupilinvolvementaskeyelements.

Thefulldocumentisavailablefromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/educationskillsnews/schooleffectivenessframework/?lang=en

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Chapter 2Effective classroom management

Howtoidentifyandpromotetheskillsofeffectiveteachersisthesubjectofmuchdebate.Inaddition,alothasbeenwrittenabouttheskillsofeffectiveteaching.Muchofthiswritingfocusesontheaspectsofteachingwhichareeasiertospecify,suchas:• Curriculumplanning• Lessonplanning• Assessment• Recordkeeping.

Someteachersdisplayskillsthatenablethemtoundertakeeffectivelessonswithclassesothersfindhardtomanage.Itistheseinterpersonalskills,or‘soft’skills,ofeffectiveteachingthataremuchmoredifficulttospecify.Thetaskofanalysingsuchskillsisextremelycomplexandismadestillharderbytherangeofdifferentcontextsinwhichsuchskillsarepractised.Thismakesitdifficulttodrawouttheessentialskillsoftheeffectiveteacher.

Despitethedifficultyinspecifyingtheessentialskillsoftheeffectiveteacher,whatisnotindoubtisthattobeatrulyeffectiveteacherrequiresacombinationof:• Effectiveteachingskills• Effectivebehaviourmanagementskills.

Inreality,thetwoaresointerlinkedthattheycanneverbetrulyseparated.Poorbehaviourmanagementwillinevitablyundermineeffectiveteachingandeffectivebehaviourmanagementisoflittlepurposeunlessaccompaniedbyeffectiveteaching.Theclassroomisalearningspacethat,managedwell,canreducethelikelihoodofdifficultorchallengingbehaviourandincreasethechancesofeffectiveteachingandlearningoccurring.

Thoughtheskillsofeffectiveteachingmaybehardtospecify,itisimportanttodismisstheoldadagethat‘teachersarebornnotmade’.Inpractice,withsupportandtrainingallteacherscanlearnandimprovetheirskillsthroughouttheirprofessionalcareers.

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Thischapterofthehandbooklooksatthefollowingissues:• Characteristicsofeffectiveteaching• Workingwithinanagreedframework• Managingtheenvironment• Managingtransitions• Anticipationandmonitoring.

2.1 Characteristics of effective teaching

Anymeaningfulsenseof‘effective’intermsof‘teaching’mustincludeanelementofthevaluesthatunderpinwhatteachersdo.Valuessuchasrespectandequaltreatmentwouldbeidentifiedbyalmostallpupilsasamarkofeffectiveteachers.

Rogers(2006a,chapter4)identifiescharacteristicsassociatedwitheffectiveteaching.Theteacher:• Appearstobeself-confident,patientandgoodhumoured• Displaysagenuineinterestinthetopicandpupils’progress• Givesclearexplanationsandinstructions,pitchedatasuitable

levelandalsooutlinesthepurposeandrelevanceofthework• Makesanefforttoengagepupilsandsustaintheirattention• Isawarethather/hisvoiceandactionscansignificantlyfacilitate

pupils’attention,interest,motivationandco-operation• Monitorstheprogressofeachlessonandmonitorsgeneral

andindividualbehaviourasitaffectsteachingandlearning• Makesaconsciousandwillingefforttoencouragepupils

intheireffortandprogressandgivesthoughtfulpraiseandencouragement.Toensurethis,theteacher:- isawareofthesmallaswellasthemoreinvolvedexpressionsofencouragement;

- ensuresencouragementisfocusedondescriptivecomment;- acknowledgestheeffortandstruggleinpupils’progress;- avoidsqualifyingtheencouragementorfeedback.

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• Minimisesanymanagementofdistractinganddisruptivebehaviourbykeepingattentionfocusedonthecentralbusinessofteachingandlearning

• Addressespotentialdisruptiontolearningbythinkingthroughclassroommanagementissuespreventatively.Thingstoconsiderinclude:- organisationalissues;- lessonmaterialsandtheirdistribution;- engagingpupils’interest;- timemanagement;- planninghowtodealwithtypicaldisruptions.

Partofbeinganeffectiveteacheristheabilitytocontrolaclasswithasenseofauthority.However,Robertson(1996)notesthatgoodclassroomcontroldoesnotrestsolelyontheabilitytoactasifoneisinauthority.Teachersmustdemonstrateattheoutsetthattheyarekeentocommunicatetheirsubjectinacommittedandorganisedmanner,oritwillquicklybecomeevidentthattheirauthorityhasnolegitimatebasis.Itisinskillssuchasorganising,presenting,communicatingandmonitoringthatateacher’sactualauthorityrests.

ThefollowinginformationisadaptedfromRobertson(1996):

Communicating enthusiasm

Effectiveteachingrequirestheteachertocommunicateinalivelyandcompellingway.Enthusiasmcanbeconveyedinmanyways,someofwhichareoutlinedbelow.

Sustaining pupil attention through gestures and speech:

Gesturesareanintegralpartofcommunicationthatservetoenhanceandclarifythemessageandcanconveyinvolvementwiththetopic.Speechpatternsandthewayinwhichcertainsyllablesandwordsarestressedcanaddmeaningandinteresttowhatissaid.Vocalvariationsgivethelistenerextrainformationbeyondthatconveyedbythewordsalone.Arelaxedandconfidentspeakerwill

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havesynchronisationofbodilymovementswithspeechrhythms.Theirmovementislessnoticeableasitonlyenhancesthemessage.However,ifapersonisanxious,theymaybestillorfidgetywithalackofsynchronisationbetweenspeechandmovementwhichisdistractingforthelistener.Itconveysthatthespeakerisconcernedwiththeirownanxietyratherthanwhattheyaresaying.

Facialexpressionsenhancemeaningbyshowinghowthespeakerfeelsaboutthemessage-anenthusiasticspeakerwillproduceastreamoffacialexpressionsthatconveyexcitement,surpriseetc.“However,Itwouldbefataltoconcentrateonthemovementswearemaking,asthiswouldlooklike‘ham’acting.Ifweconcentrateoncommunicatingtheideas,themovementswilltakecareofthemselves,providedwearerelaxedandfreetomove.”(Robertson1996,pp87)

Sustaining pupil attention through eye contact and speech:

Whenateacherisaddressingagroupofpupils,itisimportanttobehaveasifspeakingtoeachoneandthisistypicallyachievedbyestablishingappropriateeyecontact.Eyesshouldnotwanderfrompersontopersoninawayunrelatedtowhatisbeingsaid-equally,teachersshouldnotlookatthebackwalloroutofthewindowwhentheyspeak.Theyshoulddeliverdiscreetsentencesorphrasestoindividualsinthegroup.Thereisevidencetoshowthatwhenanxious,blinkrateincreasesandbecomesunrelatedtospeechpatterns.

Creating the right attitudes in pupils

Communicatingknowledgeandskillsisimportant,butteachingisnotsimplyaprocessofpassingoninformation.Anessentialrolefortheteacheristocreatetherightattitudesinpupilstogaintheirinterestandinvolvement.Itisessentialthattheteacherconveyspositiveattitudestowardsthesubjectandthepupils.SomekeypointsfromRobertsonincludethefollowing:

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Avoid revealing negative attitudes towards pupils:

• Howteachersthinkandfeelaboutpupilswillvary-theirthoughtsandfeelingswilloftenbebetrayedbytheirnon-verbalandverbalactionsandreactions

• Subtlenon-verbalnegativeattitudesfromteachersmaycontributeinnosmallwaytotheprocessof‘labelling’pupils

• Anormallywell-behavedpupilmaybecorrectedinapositiveway(‘I’msurprisedatyou’)whereasalesswell-behavedpupilmaybecorrectedinamorenegativeway(‘Yetagain’).Thesesimpledifferencesmayunwittinglyinfluencepupils’self-conceptinunhelpfulways.

Avoid expressing a lack of involvement:

• Thequickestwaytoloosepupilattentionistoshowboredomwiththetopicbeingtaught(especiallyifteachingatopictothe4thgroupforthe3rdyearinarow)

• Lackofinvolvementwithwhatisbeingsaidcanbeportrayedbyfidgetingandareductioninthevarietyofnon-verbalbehaviourssothatspeechbecomesmoremonotoneandthebodyandfacelessanimated

• Presentthematerialstothebestofone’sabilityandletthepupilsdecideitsmerit(evenifyoufinditboring-don’tsay)

• Avoid/hideanxiety• Teacherswhodisplaythattheyareanxiousaremorelikelyto

inspirechallengestotheirauthorityfrompupils• Challengesincreaseanxiety• Anxietycanbereducedbyensuringadequatepreparation

foralllessons• Avoidportrayinganxietybystandingwhereyoucanseeand

beseenbyeveryone,canmovefreelyandestablisheyecontact.Avoidingeyecontact,beingtenseandstatic,holdingontofurnitureandfidgeting,allthesetraitsportrayanxiety.Thiswillmakeabadsituationworsebyencouragingpupilstochallengeauthority

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• Aseriousatmospherecanbecreatedwhennecessarybyspeakingwithoutbodilymovementandmakingspeechcontrolledanddeliberate.

Lesson planning

The specifics of lesson planning are not within the remit of this handbook.However,well-plannedandimplementedlessonsareessentialtotheprocessofeffectivebehaviourmanagement.Inbrief,teachersshouldensurethatforeachlesson,they:• Areconfidentintheirsubjectknowledge• Givepupilsclearlearningobjectives,sharedinalanguagethat

theyunderstandandlinkedtopastandfuturelearning• Prepareallnecessarymaterialsandresourcesinadvance• Plancontentthatholdspupils’attentionandsufficientinterest• Plancontentandactivitiesthatarematchedtotherangeof

abilitiesintheclass• Provideeffectivefeedbacktoallpupilsonhowwellthey

aredoing• Offerfeedbacktopupilswhohavemademistakessothatthey

understandhowtheycametothewronganswerandhowtheywillbeabletoavoidrepeatingthemistakenexttime.

Building a good relationship with pupils

Agoodrelationshipisimportanttoallworkwithpupils.Teachersneedtoestablishandbuildonabaseoftrust.However,somepupilsfinditdifficulttotrustadults.Teachersmustnotassumethatpupilsautomaticallytrustadults,evenwhentheadultsworkhardtoestablisharelationship.Inaddition,pupilsmaynotalwaysacceptthatwhattheteacherisdoingisintheirbestinterests.Pupils’lifeexperiencesmayleadthemtoverydifferentconclusions,despitethebestintentionsoftheteacher.

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Teachersshouldrememberthat:• Positiverelationshipsareattheheartofallinteractions

withpupils.Thiswilltakeaninvestmentoftimeandeffort• Rapportinvolvesentering(butnottryingtobecomeapartof)

thepupils’world.Thiswillinvolveactivelyenquiringaboutwhatthepupilslikedoing,takingtimetorespectandlistentowhattheysayandrecognisingthattheyseetheworldverydifferentlytoanadult

• Funandhumourshouldbeusedinapositivewaytopromotepositiveemotionsandaidthebuildingofpositiverelationships

• Establishingrapportsupportsthenotionof‘toughcare’.Thisistheideathat‘Icareaboutyoubeingsuccessful,soIcan’tallowyoutokeepmakingthesechoices’.Thisismadealittleeasieriftrusthasbeenbuilt

• Peopleachievefarmorewhentheyareconfidentandtrusting.Itisimportantthatteachersworkhardtocreateaclimateoftrustforpupils

• Havingtrustandconfidenceencouragespupilstotakecertainrisks.Learningisabouttakingrisksanddoingsomethingnew-thiscanbescary

• Manyofthepupilswhomostneedapositiverelationshiparethosethataremoreusedtofailingthansucceeding.Akeystrategythatwillhelpfosterapositiverelationshipistoensurethattheyexperiencesuccess

• Apositivewaytodeveloparelationshipwithapupilwhoisexperiencingbehaviourproblemsistofocusonthesolutionratherthantheproblem.Thisemphasiseswhatisgoingwellratherthanwhatisnot.

Thecasestudybelowistheaccountofhowateacherwasabletochallengeapupil’spoorbehaviourtowardsacolleaguethroughdevelopingagoodrelationshipwiththepupil.

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Case study - Good relationship and respect

Onthewaytoanafter-schoolmeetingIcameacrossareluctantYear11pupilonherwaytoanafter-schoolrevisionclub.Ipraisedherforhercommitmenttoherworkandsherespondedpolitely.AsshewalkedpastanothermemberofstaffIheardhershoutouthernameinadisrespectfulmanner.Thememberofstaffthentoldmethatthepupildidthissortofthingquitefrequently.Thememberofstafffoundthepupil’sattitudeintimidatingandunacceptable.

ThefollowingdayIspoketothepupilaboutherbehaviour,thelackofrespectandtheneedforboundaries.Thepupilhadnotseenitinthislightatallbutmerelyaslight-heartedbanter.Sheacceptedwhatshewastoldandhassincerefrainedfrombehavinginsuchaway.

Theoutcomewasasuccessbecausethepupilwasdealtwithrespectfullyandwasgivenaclearexplanationofheractionsfromadifferentperspective.

Therearearangeofthingsthatshouldbeavoidedordoneinordertobuildagoodrelationshipwithpupils.

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Someteachersmayfeelthattheyshouldberespected,listenedtoandobeyed,nomatterwhat.Iftheyarenot,thiscausesstressandfrustration.Knowingandbelievingthatrespectisearnedcanalleviatesomeofthisstressandleadtomorereflectivepractice.

However,evenwheretherelationshipisgood,therewillbetimeswhenitbecomesstrained,(egfollowinganincidentwheretheteacherhashadtoreprimand/sanctionapupil).Itisimportantthatteachersworktorepairandrestorerelationshipsasquicklyaspossible.Bepreparedtoallowtimeandrepeattheattemptstobepositive.Itisimportanttorememberthatpupilsmaystillbestressedorresentfulandmayneedsometimebeforetherelationshipcanberebuilt.Approachessuchas‘catchingthembeinggood’afteranincident,canallowpupilsawayback.

Avoid: Do:

• Personalisingapupil’sbehaviour(ieitisthebehaviouryoudon’tlikeandnotthepupil)

• Makingthreats

• Actinawaythatisbothfairandseentobefairbypupils

• Usepositiverulesandrewards• Usesanctionspositively

• Makingpromisesthatcannotbekept

• Usingsarcastic,negativeandjudgementallanguage

• Tryto‘catchthembeinggood’• Rejectthebehaviourandrespecttheperson• Workinpartnershipwithparentsandsharepositiveachievements

• Workinawaythatpromotesequalityandrespectsdiversity

• Reflectonownpracticeandseeksupportwhenneeded.

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Thetablesbelowshowcharacteristicsofeffectiveandineffectiveteachers,aswellaseffectiveandineffectivelessons,asidentifiedinconsultationwithagroupofteachers.

Characteristics of effective teachers:

Organised Charismatic Interested

Positive Enthusiastic Reliable

Knowledgeable Creative Hardworking

Usesavarietyofstyles Showsempathy Caring

Confident Understanding Goodlistener

Consistent Dynamic Fair

Humorous Givestime Durable

Flexible Patience Welcoming

Discipline(appropriate) Stimulating Candeliverwell

Hasabilitytoanticipate Responsive Followthingsthrough

Characteristics of ineffective teachers:

Lack presence Inconsistent Set unsuitable work

Lackcharisma Don’twanttobethere Notateamplayer

Lackenthusiasm Ignoremuchpoorbehaviour

Poorknowledgeofsubject

Lackorganisation Powerseeking/bully Lackofpraise

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Lack presence Inconsistent Set unsuitable work

Poorlyprepared Revengeseeking Notclear

Confrontational Lowexpectations Poortimingandpace

Panic Sarcasm/putdowns Runningoutofsteam!

Expectationsnotclear Moody/overemotional Arrogance-‘Iknowbest’

Characteristics of an effective lesson:

Effective transitions Clear aims and objectives Check learning at the end

Contentoflessonisvaried Goodpace Engagepupils

Wellpreparedresources Goodsubjectknowledge Evaluateandchange

Characteristics of a poor lesson:

Not planned Constrained by environment

Low or no expectations

Unstructured Lackofroutine Poorrelationships

Unrelatedtopreviouswork Overlyroutine Noclearlessonobjective

Inactiveandallteacherled Norecapofpriorlearning Poorpitch-toohard/easy

Un-resourced/poorresources

Poortransitions Latestaff/pupils

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2.2 Working within an agreed framework

Tomaximisetheirpotential,pupilsneedtofeelsecure,happyandvalued.Thiswillhelptodevelopself-esteem,confidenceandapositiveself-image.Thisinturnwillpromotepositivebehaviourandincreasedopportunitiesforeffectiveteachingandlearning.Pupilsneedtoknow,andexperience,thatteachersmayattimesnotlikeaspectsoftheirbehaviour,butdolikethemaspeopleandcanseetheirpotential.

Choice

Teachersmustacknowledgethatpupilsmakechoicesabouttheirownbehaviour.Thereforeitisnotpossibletodirectlycontroltheirbehaviour.Rather,whateffectiveteachersdoistoinfluencebehaviourbyconsciouslyaffectingtheconsequences(intheformofrewardsandsanctions),whicharisefromthepupils’actionsandchoices.Byusingthelanguageofchoice,thepersonalresponsibilityandsenseofcontrol,islocatedwiththepupil.Inotherwords,whentheychooseaparticularbehaviourtheyarealsochoosingaparticularconsequence,whichmaybearewardorasanction.Bothconsequencesresultdirectlyfromthepupils’choice.

The 5 ‘R’s framework

Asuccessfulframework(sometimesreferredtoasthe5Rs),shouldconsistof:

1. Rules

2. Rights

3. Responsibilities

4. Routines

5. Rewards(andsanctions).

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Foranyframeworktobesuccessful,itneedstobebothagreedandfullyunderstoodbyallinvolved.Ifitistoaffectpupils’choices,theyneedtoknowwhattheconsequencesoftheirchoiceswillbe.Hence,therules,rights,responsibilitiesandroutinesshouldbeunderpinnedandbackedupbyasystemofrewardsand,whereabsolutelynecessary,sanctions.

Inasecondaryschool,wherepupilsmovefromlessontolessonandteachertoteacher,itisimportanttoworktowardsconsistency.Tothisend,itisvitallyimportantthatthe5‘R’susedinindividualclassroomsreflectandlinkinto5‘R’sforthewholeschool.

1. Rules

Preventingpoorbehaviourfromhappeningrequiresaframeworkofrulestobeinplace.Pupilsneedtobeawareofandbuyintotheserules.Preferablytheyshouldhaveapartinestablishingtherules.Rulesneedtobe:• Negotiatedandagreed• Seentobefair• Abletobetaughttopupils• Few,simpleandclear• Consistentlyapplied• Shortandtothepoint• Phrasedpositively• Easytoenforceandreinforce• Relatedclearlytorights,responsibilitiesandroutines.

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Thecasestudiesbelowarefromteachersapplyingrulesinpractice.

Case study - The use of a basic classroom rule posters

Idiscussedruleswithmyclassesandtogetherwecameupwiththefollowing,whicharenowpostedonanA4sheetonthewall.Therulesarenowusedduringlessonsandareofparticularvalueinindividualbehaviourreviewswithpupils.• Wearrivewiththecorrectequipmentforthelesson• Westayinourseatsuntilgivenpermissiontomove• Wekeepunkindwordstoourselves• Wetaketurnstocontributetoteachingandlearning• Wehavearighttolearn• Wehavearesponsibilitytorespecttherightsofothers• Werecogniseourownresponsibilityforoureducation.

Case study - Year 9 Science

InSeptemberofthisacademicyearIstartedtoteachagroupofyear9pupilsforScience.ThiswasagroupthathadbeencreatedtoincludethepupilswhowerefelttohaveseriouslydisruptedlessonsinYear8.LookingatprevioustestscoresandKS2scoresitseemedthatlackofabilitywasnottheproblem.

Afterthefirstfewlessonsofthetermitbecameapparenttomethatthepupilswereunacceptablynoisyandlivelyandclearlytestingthelimits.Itriedinitiallytoestablishclearroutinesforthestartoflessons,togivelotsofpraisewhenappropriateandtobuildapositive,personalrelationshipwiththepupils.Thisdidhavesomesuccess,butlimited.

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Itbecameapparentthatrulesneededtobeestablished,withclearincentivesforthosewhowereconformingandclearconsequencesforthosewhowerenot.Inordertosettherules,IaskedacolleaguetocomeintoobservebehaviourssothatIcouldprioritisethefactorscausingdisruptionandaddresstheseinmyclassroomrules.Thebehavioursprioritisedwereshouting(oftenabusively)tootherpupilsduringlessons,gettingupfromdesksandwanderingaroundtheroom(ofteninterferingwithothers),andthrowingthingsatotherpupils.TherulesIdecidedonwere:• Followteacher’sdirections• Staysilentwhensomeoneelseisspeakingtothewhole

class-ifyouwishtocontributeputyourhandupandwaituntilasked

• Keephands,feetandobjectstoyourself• Stayinyourseatunlessdirectedbyteachertomove• Donotswear,teaseoryell!

Wethendiscussedtherulesandcomeupwithanagreedset.Wespenttimeexploringwhateachrolemeantandmodellingthemwiththepupils.Ipreparedacardwiththerulesonforeachpupilandinitiatedasystemofrewardstickers.Stickerscouldearnnotesofpraiseintheirplannerandlettersofpraisehometoparents.Ifollowednormalwhole-schoolpolicyofconsequencesforthosewhodidnotsticktotherules.

TheresultsofthisinthefirstfortnightwerebetterthanIhadanticipated.Thelessonsweremuchmoreenjoyable,moreworkwasbeingachievedandpupilswerereportingthattheymuchpreferredthelessonsnow!Ifeelthatthesuccesswasgainedbecause:• Theruleswereovert,fewandagreed• Theruleswereexplainedandmodelled• Theruleswereprominentlydisplayed

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• Theemphasiswasonrewardsandpraise• Thepupils(despitetheirseemingsophistication)wantedthe

praiseandrewards• TherulesprovidedaframeworkthatensuredthatIwas

veryconsistent• Itisalsoworthstatingthattherulesdidnotreplace

routines,andIfeelthatthissystemwouldnothavebeensuccessfulhadfirmroutinesnotbeenestablished.Routinesenabled:- Aclearcalmstarttothelesson- Theworkofthelessonnotbedisruptedbecauseoflackofequipment

- Aclearcalmendtothelesson.

Rules relating to mobile phones

Mobilescanbeusedveryeffectivelytosupportlearning,allowinglearnerstodocumentprojectwork,forexamplebyusingimages,voiceandtext.However,mostschoolshavealsoexperiencedproblemswiththedisruptiveuseofmobilesandshouldhaveclearrulesaboutacceptableuse,developedinconsultationwiththewhole-schoolcommunity.Almostallschoolshavepoliciesthatprohibittheuseofpersonalmobilephonesduringlessons.Guidelinesshouldbeenforcedconsistentlybyallschoolstaff,andsupportedbytheschoolleadershipteam.(Teachernet:05October2009)

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2. Rights

Pupilsneedtounderstandthattheyhaverights,asdoteachers.Forexample,pupilsandteachershavearightto:• Be/Feelsafe• Bevalued• Berespected• Learn/Teach.

Teachersandpupilsallhavearoletoplayinmakingsurethatrightsaremaintained.Ifthefirst3bulletsarenotinplace-thenitisunlikelythatthebullet4willbeachievable.

3. Responsibilities

Teachersneedtoensurethatpupilsareawareoftheirrightsandhavetheirrightsupheld.However,pupilsalsoneedtounderstandthatotherpupilsandteachersalsohaverightsandtherightsofallhavetobebalancedagainsteachother.Theythereforehavearesponsibilitytoconsidertherightsofothersandnotonlytheirown.Forexample,bothpupilsandteachershavearesponsibilitytoallowotherstofeelsafeandrespected.Teachersalsoneedtoensurethatpupilsaresupportedinmeetingtheirresponsibilities.Inaddition,teachersneedtomakesurethattheymeetthefullrangeoftheirownresponsibilities.

4. Routines

Itisthroughroutinesthatteachersteachtherulesandconsolidaterightsandresponsibilities.Routineshelpaclassrunsmoothlyandmayrelatetothingssuchas:• Enteringandleavingtheclassroom(transitionsareconsidered

insection2.4)• Gaining,usingandputtingawayequipment,booksand

otherresources• Movementaroundtheclassroom• Changingbetweenactivities• Askingquestionsandaskingforhelp.

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Routinesshouldbeestablishedatthestartoftheyear,rehearsedwithpupils,reviewedatthestartofeachtermandreinforcedthroughongoinginteraction.

5. Rewards (and sanctions)

Rewardsarelikelytoencouragepupilstorepeatabehaviour.(Peoplerepeatbehavioursthatarerewarded.)Forsomepupilsthisrewardmaybeassimpleasadultattention.Positiveconsequences(rewards)arethekeytothepromotionofeffectiveclassroombehaviour.Systemsthatemphasisepraiseareconsistentlymoresuccessfulinteachingpupilstomakemorepositivechoices.

Rewardsaremoreeffectiveiftheyare:• Givenstraightaway,sopupilscanseethelinkbetween

thebehaviourandthereward• Issuedconsistentlybyallstaff,forthesamebehaviours,

inthesameway• Distributedfairlyandnotusedto‘bribe’particularpupils.

Teachersneedtorecognisetherangeofrewardsthatareavailabletothem.Theywillincludebothinformal(smiling,verbalpraise,toneofvoice,catchingthembeinggood,showingthemtrust)andformalrewards(certificates,pointssystem).Informalrewardsarelikelytodifferaccordingtoteacherstyle,butformalrewardsshouldbeconsistentandschoolwide.Inaddition,rewardsmustbegenuinelymotivatingtoapupil,begenuinelyearnedandsincerelygiven.

Therearemanygoodreasonsforusingrewards,suchas,they:• Helptobuildandmaintainpositiverelationships• Helpmaketheschoolexperiencemoreenjoyable• Encouragepupilstorepeatdesirablebehavioursandmake

positivechoices• Contributetodevelopingpupils’self-esteem.

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Praiseisessentialinpromotingeffortanddesirablebehaviour.However,ifpraiseisnotgivensensitivelyitmay,causeembarrassment(especiallyifgivenpublicly),couldsoundpatronisingandcanbreedcomplacencyinpupilsifthepraiseisnotreallywarranted.

Itisimportanttouse rewards appropriately and not to over use themasthiscouldactuallybecomeade-motivator.AnarticleintheTES(Dunmore,E,2009TES,Nov13th2009)notesthat“Rewardsmaystrengthenbehaviourintheshortterm,but...theycanunderminemotivationinthelongrunbecausetheyreducetheindividual’sperceptionthattheyaredoingthattaskoftheirownfreewill.Instead,thepersongetsasensethattheyareengaginginthetasksimplytogainthereward.”

Thearticlesuggeststhatpraiseforperformanceshould:• Rewardpupilsforperformingatasktoaspecificstandardrather

thanjustcompletingit• Useunexpectedrewardsasbonusesforparticularlyimpressive

performances• Makesureanyrewardisclearlylinkedtoimprovedwork

orbehaviour• Encouragereflectionbyaskingpupilswhytheythinkthey

arebeingrewarded• Verballyencouragemorethanreward• Praisepupilsinawaythatencouragesthemtoreflectontheir

ownmotivation.

Teachersshouldseektoconstantlyreinforcepositivebehaviour,asthiswillhaveagreaterandlongerlastingeffectthanconstantpunishmentfornegativebehaviour.However,evenwheneffectiverules,rights,responsibilities,routinesandrewardshavebeenestablishedandconsistentlyapplied,somepupilswillnotalwaysworkwithintheframework.Inthesecasessanctionsmaybenecessary.

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Sanctionsshouldbeusedonly:• Whereeffectiverules,rights,responsibilities,routinesandrewards

havealreadybeenestablishedandconsistentlyapplied• Whenallotheroptionshavebeentried• Inconjunctionwithawiderangeofclassroommanagement

strategiesandrewards(Ithasbeensuggestedthatrewardsshouldbeappliedinaratioofatleast4to1tosanctions).

Wheresanctionsareused,itisimportantthattheyare:• Fairandreasonable• Knownandunderstoodbyallpupils(aswellasparents

andcarers)• Consistentlyapplied• Alogicalandproportionateresponsetothebehaviour• Appliedatthelowestlevelpossibletoachievearesult.

Teachersshouldnotethat:• Thosewhooverrelyonsanctionsasaformofcontrolcanfind

themselvesfeelingthattheyarefightingforcontrolwithpupils• Anysystemthatseekstorelylargely,orwholly,uponsanctions

willsimplyteachpupilshowtobecomeeffectiveatavoidingthem• Sanctionsmaydiscourageinappropriatebehaviourbutthey

donotteachordirectlyencouragethedesirablebehaviour.Somepupilsmayneedtobetaughtwhatitisthattheyshoulddo

• Pupilsarelikelytokeepmisbehavingifthatishowtheygetthemostattention.Teachersneedtodecidewhethertorewardpositivebehaviour,bygivingattentiontothepupilwhoisbehavingandgettingonwiththetask,ortorewardpoorbehaviourbypayingattentiontothepupilwhoismisbehavingandbeingdisruptive.

Teachersneedtoworktowardsasituationwherepupilsfeeltheycontrolthemselves,withtheteachertheretolead,guideandsupportpupilsintheirself-management.Pupilsshouldfeelthattheyhavegiventheteacherboththerightandtheresponsibilityofleadingthem.Gettingtothissituationisnoteasyandwillrequire:

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• Sharedunderstandingofcorerightsandresponsibilities• Effortsfromteacherstoeffectivelymanagethegroupand

individualswithinit• Effortstocommunicatewithrespectandcare• Awillingnesstoreachindividualsaswellasgroups.

Additional elements of an agreed framework

Behaviour agreements

Asuccessfulframeworkforbehaviourmanagementmightincludeabehaviouragreement.Tocreatebehaviouragreements,pupilsparticipatewithteachersinanagreementaddressingcommonrights,responsibilitiesandrulesforbehaviourandlearning,coreconsequencesandaframeworkofsupport.(Theseshouldallreflecttheschoolsagreedbehaviourpolicy).

Behaviouragreementsshould:• Becreatedveryearlyoninaninteraction• Becopiedtoparents/carers• Recognisethattheprocessisasimportantastheoutcome• Haveagreedandunderstoodrights,responsibilities,rules,

consequencesandsupport• Berevisitedwhenevernecessary.

Plan for good behaviour

Effectiveteachersworktoaplantomaintaingoodbehaviourandpositiverelationships.Thequalityoftheworkundertakenandtherighttosafetyoftheotherpupilsmaybejeopardisedifteachersdonothaveaplan.Teachersshouldconsider,inadvance,thesortsofnegativethingsthatpupilsmightdo,aswellasthekindofresponsesthatareavailable.

Havingaplanmeansteacherscanoperatefromit,insteadofjustreactingtoinstancesofinappropriatebehaviour,makingiteasiertostaycalmandincontrolofthesituation.

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2.3 Managing the environment

Managingtheenvironmentisanessentialpartofbehaviourmanagement.Researchontheeffectivenessofschools,suggeststhequalityofthelearningenvironmentisthefactoraffectingpupillearningandoutcomesthatismostreadilymodifiedbyteachers.Structuringandpupil-orientedpracticestendtobeassociatedwithapleasant,orderlyclassroomclimate(OECD,2009,p121)

Therearearangeofenvironmentalfactorsthatcanhaveaninfluenceonbehaviour.Theseinclude:• Classroomlayout-Seebelow• Size(roomandclass)-Overcrowdedroomscanbeharder

tomanage• Temperature-Pupilstendtobehaveinmorechallengingways

whenthetemperatureiseithertoohotortoocold• Décoranddisplays-Acalmingandengagingroomcan

encouragepositivebehaviour• Windows-Pupilstendtobehavebestinroomswithnaturallight,

butnotwhenitistoobrightandlightpreventsthemfromseeingproperly

• Vents-Pupilsneedwellventilatedrooms• Equipment-Pupilsneedeasyaccesstothenecessaryequipment.

Someaspectsteacherwillhavelittle(ifany)controlover.However,whereitispossibletoinfluencetheenvironment,teachersshouldseektodoso.

Classroom layout

Classroomlayoutisanareathatmostteacherhaveinfluenceover.Teachersneedtodecideonthelayoutoftheirclassroom(rows,grouptableblocks,pairs,horseshoeetc)aswellaswhowillsitwhereandwithwhom(pupilchoice,sitwithfriends,alphabetical,teacherdirected,mixedability,abilitygrouped,boy/girl,etc).

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Rogers(2006a)notesthat‘whilesocialisationisanimportantfeatureofclassroomlife,itisimportantthatpupilsunderstandfromdayone…thatthisplaceissetasideforteachingandlearning’.WannarkaandRuhl(2008)notethatseatingarrangementisanimportantaspectofclassroommanagementbecauseithasthepotentialtohelppreventproblembehaviours.

Theirstudyindicatesthatteachersshouldletthenatureofthetaskdictateseatingarrangements,butthatpupilsdisplayhigherlevelsofappropriatebehaviourduringindividualtaskswhentheyareseatedinrows,withdisruptivepupilsbenefitingthemost.

Decidingonclassroomlayoutislikelytodependon:• Thetask/activityplanned(Thereisgoodevidencetosuggestthat

someclassroomlayouts,suchasrows,focusindividualsontaskbehaviourwhilstothers,suchasgroups,arebetterfordevelopingaco-operativegroupbasedapproachtolearning)

• Thegroup(includingage,levelofengagement,behaviouretc)• Thestageintheyear(mayvaryfromterm1toendofyear).

Howeverthespaceislaidout,itisvitalthattheteachercanseeallareasandmoveeasilytobenearallpupils.

Teacherswilloftenbeteachinginwhattheyregardtobesomeoneelse’sroom,andtheymayonlyusethatroomonceortwiceperweek.Thisisoftenthecaseinabusy,activeclassroomenvironment.However,beingawarethatcertainactivitiesworkbetterwithcertainlayoutsmayleadteacherstopreparedifferently.Whereaco-operativetaskhasbeenstructuredinalessonandithasnotworkedaswellasanticipated,onreflectionitmaybethatthelayoutoftheclassroomdidnotreadilysupporttheactivity.• Ifalayouthasbeensuccessfulforaparticularactivity,

teachersmayconsiderusingitagain.Ifalayouthasnotworkedforaparticularactivity,teachersmayconsiderchangingthelayoutandtryingagain

• Iftheclassroomlimitsthelayout,teachersmaytrytonegotiatetoswapteachingspacesforcertainfuturesessions

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• Ifaclassroomswapisnotpossible,anapproachthatsuitstheavailablelayoutwillneedtobeused.

Thesemayseemlow-key,practicalissuesbuttheymaycontributetoamorepositivelearningclimateand,therefore,areducedlikelihoodofdisruptionintheclassroom.Itismuchmoredifficultforonepupiltodisruptalessonthathasbeenwell-prepared,matchestheneedsofthepupils,fitsthelearningspaceandisbeingenjoyedbythemajorityofthepupils.

An environmental checklist

IntheenvironmentalchecklistmodeldevelopedbyFrameworkforInterventioninBirmingham(aslightlyadaptedcopyofthisisonthenextpages),abaselinemeasureismadeoftheproblembehaviour,thentheBehaviouralEnvironmentChecklistisusedtoaudittheclassroomorschoolenvironment.Whencompleted,findingsfromtheauditinformaBehaviouralEnvironmentPlan.Thisplanisintendedtoleadtochangesinanytriggersforinappropriatebehaviourwithintheclassroomorwiderenvironment.Amoredetailedexplanationofthisapproachisavailablein“Behaviourinschools:FrameworkforInterventionGettingStarted”orvisitthewebsitewww.F4i.org.

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SECTION A: Classroom organisation

Equipmentiseasilyaccessible

Furniturearrangedtobesteffect

Appropriateambienttemperature

Sufficientventilation

Lightingsufficient

Noglare

Materialswelllabelledandlocated

Easeofmovementinroom

Appropriatestorageofpupils’belongings

Pupilsaregroupedappropriately

Pupilsplacereflectssocialrelationships

Roomorganisationmeetsdifferingcurriculumdemands

Chalkboard/whiteboardetceasilyseen

Furnituresuitable

Classroomlookslikeagoodworkingenvironment

Sufficientspace

Quietexternalenvironment

An environmental checklist

Notes for guidance:• Thischecklistisdesignedtohelpyoutolookattheenvironment(s)

inwhichaproblemoccurs.Itisbesttocompletethischecklistwithacolleague.Donotfeelobligedtoconsidereverystatement-somemaynotapplytoyoursituation

• Oncethechecklistiscompleteditcanprovidethebasisforaplantoimprovebehaviourthroughmakingchangestotheenvironment

• Scoreeachelementfrom0(disagree)to5(agree)intherighthandcolumn.

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SECTION B: Classroom management

Teacherarrivesbeforepupils

Teacher’svoiceisclear

Instructionsareclear

Goodbehaviourisnoticedandacknowledged

Smallachievementsrecognised

Apupil’sgoodbehaviouris‘named’andreflectedback

Theteacheractsasarolemodelfordesiredbehaviour

Materialsandequipmentareprepared

Pupilsbringcorrectequipment

Lessonswellprepared

Curriculumdeliveryisvaried

Curriculumdeliveryisdifferentiated

Timetableisarrangedtobestfit

Peersupportisusedwhereappropriate

Adultsupportisusedwhereappropriate

SECTION C: Out of classroom

Routinesformovementaroundschoolsiteclear

Breaktimerulesunderstoodbypupils

Breaktimesystemsadoptedbyallstaff

Breaktimerewards/sanctionssystemclear

Behaviourpolicyadoptedbyancillarystaff

Problemsiteareasidentifiedandovercome

Suitableactivities/equipmentavailableforbreaktimes

Thereisaneffectivesystemforresolutionofconflicts

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SECTION D: Classroom rules and routines

Rules:

Arefewinnumberandclearlyphrased

Arenegotiatedwith,andunderstoodbypupils

Areregularlyreferredtoandreinforced

Arepositivelyframed

Areclearlydisplayedintheclassroom

Behaviourtomeetrulesistaught

Rewards:

Arevaluedbypupils

Areawardedfairlyandconsistently

Areclearlyrelatedtopositivebehaviour

Aresmallandreadilyachievable

Linkwithschoolrewardsystem

Sanctions:

Arerelatedtobehaviour

Areadministeredfairlyandconsistently

Areunderstoodbypupils

Areunderstoodbyparentsandcarers

Arewithinaclearhierarchyofseverity

Routines are established for:

Enteringorleavingtheroom

Distributionandcollectionofmaterials/equipment

Gainingteacher’sattentionandhelp

Changingactivities

Gainingquiet/silence/attention

Clearingup

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SECTION E: Whole-school policies:

Rules and implications:

Abehaviourpolicyexistsandiseffective(thisincludesreviewingthepolicyannuallytoensurethatitremainsappropriateandencouragespracticesandsystemsthatsuittheneedsoftheschool)

Staffhaveclearunderstandingofthepolicy

Rulesarecommunicatedfrequentlyandeffectivelytopupils,allstaffparentsandgovernors

Staff have a clear idea of the range of rewards available to pupils

Staffhaveaclearideaoftherangeofsanctionsthatcanandcannotbeused

Staffareawareofagoodrangeoftechniquesthatcanbeusedtodealwithbehaviourproblems

Pupils,asfarastheyareable,knowthereasonsbehindtherulesinschool

Behaviourproblemsaredealtwitheffectivelyinthelightofequalopportunityissues

Support for staff:

There is collective responsibility for behaviour management in the school

Stafffeelconfidentinacknowledgingdifficulties

Staffhaveclearmeansofgaininghelp

Staffhaveeffectiveguidanceondealingwithconflict

Behaviourproblemsarerecordedfairlyandefficiently

Staffrolesareclearlydefined

Support services are used systematically, efficiently and effectively

Parents and governors:

Parentsareinvolvedtobesteffectinhelpingwithproblems

Parentsareroutinelytoldofpupil’sgoodbehaviour

Behaviourshouldbeastandingagendaitemongovernormeetings

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The benefits of the environmental checklist:• Itflagsuppotentialhazardsandareasofweakness• Becauseitstartswithphysicalfeatures-teacherswouldsee

itaslessthreatening• Itprovidesanacknowledgementthatitisawhole-schoolchecklist• Itsupportsstaffinpoorenvironmentalconditionstofeedback

theirconcerns• Itisameansofcommunicatingdifficulties• Itisaconstantreminder-makesyouthinkaboutwhole-

schoolissues• Itcanbeusedtotrackbehaviourreferrals-wherearethey

from?-anyparticularroom?• Ithighlightspossiblecausesofunwantedbehaviour• Itcontributestoamaintenanceprogrammeforbuildingsand

physicalinfrastructure• Ithelpsidentifystrengthsandweaknessesofschoolsandsystems• Itsetsoutexpectations• Everybodyisclearonstandarddefinitions• Ithelpstoidentifyapattern-problemsarisingfromcertainareas

atcertaintimesofday.

How the checklist might be adapted:

Teachersand/orschoolscan:• Useasmuchoftheformastheywish• Breakitdownintomoremanageablesubsections• Useittoauditanewlocationbeforemovingin• Useappropriatesectionsatdepartmentlevel• Useitintraining,iestaffcontribution,reviewprocess.

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How the checklist might be implemented:• Partofawhole-schoolreviewsystem• Todeterminefundingpriorities• Forauditpurposes-Whatisthere?Whatisneeded?• Asamonitoringresourceusedbythewholestaff• Forfeedbacktobusinessmanagersaboutconcernsandareas

ofneed• Usetheuser-devisedsectiontoaddressschoolorclass-

specificissues• Asabasisforadevelopmentplan• Toprovideallstaffwithaclearunderstandingof

environmentalissues.

2.4 Managing transitions

Itisanestablishedideawithineducationthattoreducethechangesofincidentsarising,classroomsshouldbewellorganised.SmithandLaslett(1993)outlinedfourkeyrulesofclassroommanagement,whichare:

1.Getthemin

2.Getonwithit

3.Getonwiththem

4.Getthemout.

1. Get them in

• Beawareofwhattransitionsaretakingplace,egfromonelessontoanother,fromlunchtoafternoon

• Smooth,prompt,focusedstart• Recapprevioussession/activity• Previewthissession/activity.

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Get them inisessentiallyaboutmanagingthekeytransitionatthebeginningofthelesson.Itmaybeatransitionfromthepreviouslessontothepresentone(perhapsinvolvingdifferencesinteachingstyle,contentandapproach)orfrombreak/lunchbacktolessons(perhapsinvolvingtoomuch/toolittlefood,wildplay,gettingwet,etc).Lessonbeginningsareacleartransitionalmoment,andneedtobemanagedwell.

Ideally,theteacherisintheclassroombeforethepupilsarrive.Whilstthismaynotalwaysbeeasy(duetoschoolbuildingsortimetablingarrangements)teachersshouldalwaysaimtobetherefirst.Developingaroutinewherelessonsstartpromptlyandpurposefullyinafocusedwayisakeyaspectofbuildinganeffectiveroutine.Alessonmightopenwitharecaponthelastlesson,arevisionofthekeylearningoutcomesandthenapreviewofthepresentlessonandthekeylearningobjectives.

Wherepupilsexperiencethisasastandardpartoftheirroutinewithateacher,theyaremuchmorelikelytosettledowntolearn.Ifthewholeclassisbehavinginthisway,theopportunitiesforanindividualtodisruptthestartofalessonareremarkablyreduced.Itisalsoimportanttodemonstrateanawarenessofthepupilwhomissedthelastlesson.Andrecognisethatsuchapupilwillnotreadilyunderstandtherecap/reviewofthelastlessonandmay,therefore,lacksomeofthecriticallearningneededtoengageinthislesson.Acknowledgingthisdifficultyandofferingtoexplainthelearningthats/hemissedoncethegroupisunderwaymayalsoheadoffunnecessarydisruption.

Thecasestudybelow,writtenbyateacher,highlightssomeofthechallengesof‘gettingthemin’effectively.

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Case study - ‘Get them in’

PupilsinYear8Bwereworkingbetterandlisteningskillshadimproved.However,pupilsstilltookalongtimetosettle.Raisingmyvoicewasineffective,soIneededtorethinkmymethodswhenthepupilsenteredtheclassroom.

Thedifficultywasthatbothmylessonswith8Bwerefirstperiodinthemorning.Thefirstdaywasassemblywhichpupilsin8Bdonotattend.TheseconddaywasalsoassemblybutasHeadofYearIamlaterthanpupilsbecauseIhadtoendtheassemblybeforeproceedingtothelesson.

Uponreflection,Idecidedtochangemyentryintotheclassroom,myinitialself-presentationandthebeginningofthelessons.Thechangesmadewere:• PupilstowaituntilIarrivebeforeenteringtheroom• Lessonarewellpreparedandlaidoutbeforehand,sothat

Idonotneedtolookforresourcesorappearflustered• Iwelcomepupilsintotheclassroomandwalkaround,

rewardingthosewhosettledownquickly.

Thishashadapositiveeffectonthespeedthattheysettleandontherestofthelesson.

2. Get on with it

• Maintainappropriateandvariedpace• Selectstimulating,variedcontentandtasks• Ensureappropriatedifferentiationoftasksandcontent• Usepairandgroupworkandencourageco-operative

learning/activity• Provideextensionactivities• Ensureefficient,orderly,organisedapproachestogivingout

anytaskmaterial.

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Get on with itisaboutaccommodatingthedifferentaptitudeandskilllevelinaclass.Whilstactivelydeliveringinformationtotheclassorisundertakingaquestionandanswersession,teachersneedtokeepallofthepupilsinvolvedbyscanningtheroom,focusingongroups/individualsandwatchingtheclass.

Thisvigilanceneedstobemaintainedwhentheactivityswitchestopupiltasks,whereretainingsuchlevelsofcontrolmaybecomemoredifficulttodo.Givingoutanytaskmaterialsinanefficient,orderlyandorganisedapproachisacriticalroutineinawell-organisedclass.Thisbecomesevenmorechallengingwhenthegroupcoversawiderangeofactivityandtasksneedtobecarefullydifferentiated.

Distributingdifferentiatedmaterialcarriessignificantrisksbecause:• Thematerialmaypatroniseanindividualwhomayfeels/hedoes

notneedtodosucheasywork• Itcreatesasplitintheclassroom,betweenthosewhodothe

‘easy’andthosewhodothe‘hard’work• Somepupils,whoarecapableofachievingmore,optforthe

easiermaterialinordernottohavetoworkhard• Someindividualsmaybegivenworkthattheygenuinelycannot

do-ifthisisnotspottedquiteearlyon,thereisariskthattheywillbecomedisaffectedwiththesubjectanddisruptiveinthelesson.

Thisdistributionoftaskmaterialsrequiresconfidence,skillandsensitivity.Creatingandsustainingapositivelearningclimate,whereeachpupilcompletesataskthatenableshim/hertofulfilhis/herpotential,isademandingprofessionalduty.Itmustbeseenasunacceptablethatapupilisgivenmaterialthatiseitherfartoohardorfartooeasyforhim/her.

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3. Get on with them

• Enablepupilstosucceedbyattendingtothedifferentneedsofpupilsintheclass

• Haveclearrulesforhowpupilsseekhelp• Alwaysacknowledgerequestsforhelp• Providehelpdiscretely• Gettoknowsomethingaboutallpupils• Beinterestedandavailable.

Get on with themisaboutenablingpupilstosucceed.Whenagroupisengagedinatask,theteacherneedstoattendtothefullrangeofneeds.Somemayrequirehelptoeventbeginthetask,othermayneedhelpwithearlydifficulties.Itisimportanttolookoutforthesignsthatmightindicatedifficulty,suchasaskingtheirpeers,lookingoveratwhatothersaredoingorbysignalling‘givingup’behaviour.Makingearlyresponsestosuchsignalswillhelpsustainthemomentumofthelessonandhelpavoidincidentsarising.

Suchhelpmaybediscreetlyprovidedtoindividualsbutonoccasions,theteachermayrealisethatthetaskisnotasgoodafitwiththepupilsass/hehadplannedandthatfurtherwhole-classexplanationisneededtosustainthepupils’involvementinthelesson.

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4. Get them out

• Managinganeffectiveclosuretothelesson• Refresh,restateandreinforcethesessionthemes• Haveclear,tidyupandexitroutines• Givepraiseandrecognitionforeffortsandindicateagenda

fornextlesson• Createtimeforexitphase• Ensureanabsenceofchaosorconfusion• Haveanawarenessoftimeandcreatingtimeforexit• Getthemoutbyenablingthemtoleavetheroominan

orderlymanner.

Get them outmaysoundaharshstatement,butinpracticaltermsreferstotheprocessofmanagingthetransitionattheendofthelesson.Whenagrouphastohurrytofinish,andrushtopackupandleavetheroom,itexperiencesadegreeofconfusionandchaos.Thismaybeunfairtotheteacherwhoreceivesthegroupnext,ass/hehastore-establishaclimateforlearning.Furthermore,itmayevenhaveanimpactuponsubsequentlessonswiththesepupils,astheyretainamemoryofthelessonstyle.

SmithandLaslettsideasare,inmanyways,basedoncommonsenseandareoftenembeddedwithinthepracticesofeffectiveteachers.However,attimessomeoftheelements(especiallygettheminandgetthemout)cangetforgottenorlostwhentimeispressed.Loosingjustoneelementhasanegativeimpactonthewholeoftherestofthelessonandtheoveralllearningenvironment.

2.5 Anticipation and monitoring

Eventsoutsideofschool(athome,onthestreet,inthecommunity)canhaveanimpactonhowpupilswillinteractwithinthelearningenvironment.Somepupilsmanagenottobeadverselyaffectedbyexternalinfluencesandcopewellwiththevariedchallengesoftheschoolsenvironment.However,othersstruggletocopewiththe

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pressuresandanxietiesthatlearningand/orsocialenvironmentsthrowup.

Tohelppupilscopewiththechallenges,teachersshouldstriveto:• Anticipatethebarriersthatsomemayfacefromtimetotime• Watchfortheearlysignsofpupilsbeginningtostruggle• Knowaboutandunderstandthepersistentbarrierstolearning

thatsomepupilsface.

Lookingforandrecognisingearlyindicatorsofdifficultycanhelptoensurethatpupilsfeelsupportedandcaredfor.Teachersneedtorecognisemomentsofchangeandunderstandtheirsignificance.Oncespotted,earlyinterventioncanpreventproblemsfromescalatingorbecomingentrenched.Inthelongrun,investingtimeinprevention,willmeanthatlesstimeneedstobespentdealingwith‘difficult’behaviour.

Observing and understanding change

‘Change’involvesashiftfromonepositionorsituationtoanother.Intermsofpupilbehaviour,thischangemaybesubtle,especiallywithpupilswhointernalisetheirproblemsanddifficulties.Tohelprecognise‘momentsofchange’,itcanbeusefulforteacherstoactivelyscreenpupils.Theearlierachangeisidentifiedandanissueaddressedwithapupil,thebetterthechancesofovercomingthedifficulty.

Tohelpidentify‘momentsofchange’,teachersshould:• Knowwhatcharacterises‘typicaladolescent’behaviour• Knowindividualsinthegroupwellenoughtorecognisewhat

is‘normal’or‘characteristic’behaviourforthem• Recognisewhenthatbehaviourchanges• Identifyearlywhatmightbecausingthatchangeinbehaviour• Recogniseandunderstandwhatisadevelopingissue• Recogniseandunderstandwhatisa‘seriousmatter’.

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Observingchangesinarangeoffactorsmightindicateearlysignsofdifficult.Someofthefactorstoconsiderareoutlinedbelow.

Attendance and punctuality

Adecreaseinattendanceandpunctuality(orachangeinitspattern)canprovideteacherswithanearlysignthatdifficultiesmaybedeveloping.Mostchangesinpatternsofattendanceandpunctualitycanbepickedupquicklyandclearlyandteachersshouldensuretheyhaveaccesstoallavailableinformation.Theoddlatenessmaynotbesignificantbutanewpatternofhabituallatenesswhichisoutofcharacter,especiallyifitisaccompaniedbyotherworryingsigns,needcarefulattention.

Physical appearance and self presentation

Teacherswhoknowtheirpupilswellwillhaveareasonableideaofhowapupilusuallylooks.Changesindress,presentation,hygieneanddemeanourmayindicateacauseforconcern.Inaddition,thewayapupilholdshim/herself-stands,sits,moves-isalsoanindicatoroffeelingsandmarkedchangesmaysignalthebeginningsofdifficulties.However,itisimportanttobeabletodistinguishbetweenchangeswhichmaybesignificantandthosethatareduetofactorssuchasmakingapersonalstatement,fashionpreferencesorthenormalchangesthatoccurduringadolescence.Itisthecombinationofchangesinphysicalappearancewithotherschangesthatmaybeagoodpointertoemergingdifficulties.

Manner

Howapupilinteractswithteachersandpeerscanbeastrongindicatorofhowtheyfeel.Pupilswhoexternalisetheirdifficultiesmaybecomeincreasinglyantagonistictowardsothersandchangescanberelativelyeasytospot.However,itcanbeusefultoscreensystematicallyforsignsofinternaliseddifficulties,suchaspupilswhobecomesincreasinglywithdrawn,moodyoremotional.Againitisimportanttodistinguishbetweenchangesthatmaybesignificantandthosethatareabout‘normaladolescence’.

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Social grouping

Changesinpupilsocialgroupingsmaybetheeasiestsignaltospotbutareoftenhardto‘read’.Thesocialinteractionsofapeergrouparecomplexandmanagingtheseeffectivelycancauseindividualpupilswithinthemconsiderableanxietyandunhappiness.

Identifying mental health issues

Thecharity‘YoungMinds’outlinessomepossibleindicatorsofthepresenceofmentalhealthproblemsforpupils.Theseindicatorsinclude:• Suddenchangesinbehaviour,moodorappearance.Thesemay

includeasuddendropinthestandardofwork;schoolrefusal;excessiveconcernwithneatnessorasuddendisregardforappearance

• Generalbehaviour.Thismayincludequietandwithdrawnbehaviouraswellas‘actingout’-showingaggressionandhostility;extremeperfectionismorobsessivenesstotheextentthatnoworkisdone;anxietyandrestlessness

• Patternofwork.Losingenthusiasmandmotivation;havingdifficultysettlingandconcentrating;orelsebecomingoverlyabsorbedinwork

• Patternofattendance.Thismayincludetruancyandschoolrefusal,butequally,areluctancetoleaveschoolorarrivingveryearlyinthemorning

• Relationships.Havingdifficultygettingonwithotherchildrenintheclass;havingfewornofriends;beingbulliedorbullyingothers

• Otherindications.Lookingtiredorunwell,unhappyandsolitary;becomingcarelessorindifferentaboutwork;problemswitheating;beingdrawnintopromiscuityoroffending;alcoholordrugmisuse;violentbehaviour;self-destructivebehaviour.

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AccordingtoYoungMinds,keyquestionstoaskwhendeterminingwhethertheseareindicatorsofamentalhealthproblemare:• Howextremeisthebehaviourorattitude?• Howprolongedorpersistentisit?• Aretheresuddenchangesinbehaviour?• How‘driven’oroutofcontroldoesthepupilseemtobe?• Isthereamarkedcontrastbetweenhows/hebehavesathome

andoutsidethehome?• Howdoesthebehaviouraffectothermembersofthe

community?

Itishighlyunlikelythatalloreventhemajorityofpupilswhoexhibitthesefactorswillneedtobereferredforspecialisthelp.Inthemajorityofcases,theproblemsareself-resolving,especiallywhenteachersspotthesignsearlyenoughandprovidepupilswitheffectivesupport.Teacherscanonlyspotthesignsiftheyareactivelyscreeningthegroupaswellastheindividualswithinitfordifficulties.

TheWelshAssemblyGovernmentdocumentThinking Positively: Emotional Health and Well-being in Schools and Early Years Settings (2010)identifiesthefollowingissues(refertothedocumentforfurtherdetails:• Evidenceidentifiesarangeoffactorsthatimpactonpupils’

mentalhealth.Riskfactorsarethoseevents,experiencesorfeaturesofaperson’sconstitutionormakeupthatincreasetheprobabilityofchildrendevelopingmentalhealthproblems.

• Arangeoffactorsinchildren’sandyoungpeople’slivescanresultinanincreasedriskofdevelopingmentalhealthproblems,suchaslossorseparation,lifechanges,traumaticeventsandparentalillness.

• Riskfactorsarecumulative-thegreaterthenumberofrisks,andthemoreseveretherisks,thegreateristhelikelihoodofchildrendevelopingmentalhealthproblems.

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• Resiliencerelatestoseveralconnectedelements,suchasappropriateself-esteemandself-confidence.Thepupilswhocanbedescribedasresilientarethosewhoareabletocallontheirownstrengthsandthehelpofothersaroundthemtodealwithchangeandresolvetheirdifficultieswithoutseriousandlastingeffects.

• Althoughsomepupilswillsuffermentalhealthproblemsasaresultofexposuretorisk,others-apparentlyagainstalltheodds-willdevelopintocompetent,confidentandcaringadultsthroughtheirwelldevelopedresilience.

• Familycircumstancesandthewiderenvironmentwillimpactbothonriskfactorsanddevelopingresilience.Thereisacomplexinterplaybetweentherangeofriskfactorsinchildren’slivesandwiththemorepositiveresiliencefactors.

• Animportantfactorinpromotingchildren’smentalhealthisworkthatdevelopsthoseprotectivefactorsthatenablethemtobemoreresilient.

• Schoolstaffandtheirpartners,takepositiveactioninpromotingresilienceintheirdaytodayworkwhentheyincreaseself-esteeminallpupils;encouragepupilstomaketheirownsounddecisions;encourageandmodelgoodsocialskills;helppupilstobecomeeffectivelearners;preventbullying;listentoandactontheconcernsofpupils;helppupilstocommunicateeffectively;aresupportiveandfair.

• Information,adviceandsupportmaybeneededformschoolandotheruniversalservicesormayneedtobeprovidedbytargetedorspecialistservices,preferablyworkinginpartnershipwiththeschooltosupportindividualneeds.

Thefulldocumentcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/thinkingpositively/?lang=en

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School-based counselling

Schoolbasedcounsellingmaysupporttheanticipationandmonitoringofissues,includingmentalhealth.TheWelshAssemblyGovernment’sstrategyfordevelopingschool-basedcounsellingservicesissetoutinSchool-based Counselling Services in Wales: A National Strategy(2008).Thedocumentcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/guidance/counsellingservicesstrategy/?lang=en

ThestrategyisalsosupportedbytheSchool-basedCounsellingOperatingToolkitwhichsupportsallinvolvedindevelopingcounsellingwithintheschoolcommunity.Ratherthanbeingadefinitivedocumentitisonethatwillevolveasschool-basedcounsellingservicesdevelop.Thetoolkitcanbeaccessedfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/learningproviders/schools/schoolcounselling/counsellingtoolkit/?lang=en

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Chapter 3Effective communication

Communicationisvitalinbehaviourmanagement.Itisimportantthatpupilsknowwhatteachersareaskingofthemandthatteachersknowwhattheyaretryingtoachieve.Inanyrelationship,languagecansupportandencourageoritcaninhibitandwound.

Intheinteractionsteachershavewithpupilstheimpactonmanagingbehaviourliesnotonlyinwhatissaidbutalsoinhowitissaid.Thewayteacherscommunicateshouldreflectapositiveapproachandbeliefsoastohelppupilsmakebetterchoicesabouttheirbehaviour,becomemoremotivatedandsustaintheefforttobesuccessful.

Communicationshouldalsobeinclusiveandhelptomakeitclearthatwhattakesplaceintheclassroomistheresponsibilityofeveryoneintheroom.Teachershouldtrytouseinclusivelanguage,suchas‘wedonotacceptbehaviourlikethatinourclassroom’and‘togetherwecangetthisfinished’ratherthan‘Idonotacceptbehaviourlikethatinmyclassroom’and‘youmustworkharder’.

Asaguidingprinciple,teachersshouldlooktoextendandamplifythingsthatpupilsdowellorremindthemoftheirpastsuccessesratherthancommentingonwhattheydobadly.Teachersshouldplantheirlanguagetobepositiveandmotivational.

Theteacheralsoneedstoconsiderthenon-verbalelementsofcommunication,suchas:• Tone• Volume• Timing• Eyecontact• Bodylanguage• Proximitytothepupil• Thecontextofthesituation.

Theteachercommunicatesthroughhis/herself-presentationandwhateverpupilsperceiveofsuchself-presentationcouldaffecttheirbehaviourintheclassroom.Theteacherisalsoideallyplaced

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tobuildpupils’self-esteemthroughhis/herverbalandnon-verbalinteractionswiththem.

Thischaptercovers:• Managingtheuseoflanguage• Effectiveuseofquestions• Non-verbaltechniques• Self-presentation• Promotingpupils’self-esteem.

3.1 Managing the use of language

Use appropriate language

Rogers(2006a,chapter3)pointsouttheimportanceofappropriateuseoflanguage.Heemphasisesthatteachersshould:• Understandthatassertionisnotaboutwinning-itisabout

establishingandaffirmingfairrightsandneeds• Keepcorrectiveinteractionunobtrusive,whereverpossible• Avoidunnecessaryconfrontation• Keeparespectful,positivetonewhereverpossible• Beassertive,notaggressive,iftheyneedtocommunicate

appropriatefrustration• Re-establishworkingrelationshipswithpupilsasquickly

aspossible• Followuponissuesthatmatterbeyondtheclassroom.

Rogersalsosuggeststhefollowinglanguagebasedtechniquestohelpinmanagingagroupandpreventingissuesfromarisingand/orescalating:

Tactical pausing:Pausingbrieflyinaspokendirectionorremindertoemphasiseattentionandfocus.

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Incidental language:Theteacherdirectsorremindspupilswithoutdirectlytellingthem.Forexample,‘Thereisalotofmessinthisroomanditisnearlytimeforlunch’-thissendsthemessagethattheroomneedstobecleanedbeforethegroupcangoforlunch,withoutbeingovertlydirective.

Behavioural direction: Theteacherdirectsagrouporindividualsbyreferring,directlytotheexpectedbehaviour.Eg‘Dean…Listeningtotheinstructions…Thankyou’.Thisfocusesontherequiredbehaviour.Itisimportanttouseverbs/participles,ratherthannegativeclauses,(ie‘listening’ratherthan‘don’ttalk’).Theinstructionsshouldbekeptbrief.

Rule reminder:Theteacherbrieflyremindsthegroup(orindividuals)aboutapre-arrangedrule.However,itisnotnecessarytospellouttheruleeachtime.Eg‘Rememberourruleabouteveryonegettingachancetospeak’.

Individual positive reminder with take up time:Theteacherremindsapupilofanagreedbehaviour,thenleavessometimeforthemtodoitbeforefollowingitup.Eg‘Rememberweagreedthatyouwouldkeepyourphoneinyourbag[walkawayforamomentandthenreturntocheckthephonehasbeenremoved]…Thankyou’.

Distraction/diversion: Thiscanbeusedtopreventascenariofromescalating.Egwhereapupilshowsearlysignsoflosingfocusonatask,askthemtohelpgiveoutsomematerialsforthenexttaskandthenthankthemfortheirhelp,beforeaskingthemtoreturntothetask.

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Directed choice:Ateachergivesadirectedchoice,withintheknownrulesorroutine.Eg‘Youcanputyourwalkmaninyourbagorgiveittometokeepuntiltheendoftheday,whicheveryouchoose’,ratherthan‘Givemethatnow’.

Direct questions:Teachersusequestionssuchas‘what’,‘when’and‘how’,ratherthan‘why’or‘areyou’.Thesesortsofquestionsdirectresponsibilitytowardsthepupils,ratherthanaskingforreasons.Forexample,whereapupilismessingaround,ratherthangettingonwithatask,asking‘Whatshouldyoubedoingnow?’isabetterquestionthan‘Whyaren’tyouworking?’

Proximal praise: Bygivingpraisetopupilsnearapupilwhoismisbehavingcanserveasareminderofwhatisexpected,withouttheneedfordirectchallenge.

Assertive comment/direction/command:Whenweassertwearemakingourrightsclear,inadecisive,firm,non-aggressiveway.Forexample‘Thatlanguageisunacceptablehere.Wehavearuleforrespect.Iexpectyoutouseit’.Thisneedstobedeliveredfirmly,withconfidentcalmnessandeyecontact(evenwhenwedonotfeelcalm!).

Use positive language

Ifyoutellsomeonenottodosomethingyouarelikelytoputtheideaintheirheads.

‘Don’tthinkaboutwhatwearehavingforlunch’-whatareyouthinkingabout!

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Bettertousepositivereminders,forexample,ratherthan‘Don’tshoutout’use‘Remembertoputupyourhandtoaskaquestion,thankyou’.

Makeinstructionsclearandconcise.Ratherthan‘HowmanytimeshaveIaskedyoutolisten’,(towhichtheanswermaybe3!).Try‘Listencarefullytotheinstruction,thankyou’.

Instructionsneedtoshowthestepsrequired.Ratherthan‘Noyoucan’tpackawayyet’,try‘Onceyouhavefinishedquestion5,thenyoucanpackaway’.

Use the language of choice

Recognisingthatpupilschoosetheirbehaviourallowsteacherstorespondcalmlyratherthantakingthingspersonally.Recognisingthatpupil’smakeachoiceabouttheirbehaviourisnotonlyhealthyandrealisticbutitalsoenablesthemtotakeresponsibilityfortheirbehaviourandmovetowardsofself-directedbehaviourmanagement.Noadult,withoutrecoursetophysicalintervention,canmakeapupildosomethingifthepupilisdeterminednotto.

Anovertemphasisonthefactthatpupilsaremakingachoicebyregularlyusingtheword‘choice’inpraiseandcorrectionhelpstoembedtheprincipleineverydayreality.Forexample,‘Iamverypleasedthatyouchosetotakepartinthewholesessiontoday-welldone’,or‘It’sarealshameyouhavechosennottoworktoday-youdidsowelllasttime’.

Asteacherscannotactuallymakepupilsdothings,emphasisingthattheyareinchargeoftheirownconductisapowerfulwaytosupportself-directedbehaviour.Italsoencouragespupilstounderstandthatadultswillrecognisetheirdecisionsandgivepositivesocialapprovalwhenthechoicesarepositive.

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Therearearangeofpositiveresultsfromusingthelanguageofchoice,asoutlinedbelow:

The language of choice regards mistakes as a normal part of learning.Ifgettingsomethingwrongisjustamistake(apoorchoice),againitovertlyimpliesthatthepupilhasasolutionavailable;inotherwordsmakeadifferent(andbetter)choicenexttime.Thisisamuchmorehopefulandencouragingemotionalstatethanbelievingthatyou‘can’thelpit’,ordoanythingdifferent.

The language of choice removes the struggle for power. Recognisingandreinforcingthatpupilsareresponsiblefortheirownchoicesavoidsteachersthinkingthattheymustmakepupilsobeythemallthetime.Pupilswhoaredefiantareoftenseekingpowerinordertofeelincontrolorimportant.Givingthemchoicesabouttheirbehaviourdoesthesamethinginamorepositivefashion.Ofcourse,teachershavetousesanctionsordisapprovalifchoicesareunacceptable,buttheconsequencewasthepupil’schoice.

The language of choice has a positive emphasis.Reinforcingapupil’sabilitytomakechoicesbuildsconfidenceandself-esteem.Givingfeedbackontherangeofappropriatechoicess/hemakeshelpsforgeapositiverelationshipandbuildsuphis/herself-esteem.Reframingpoorchoicesassomethingtolearnfromandputrightnexttimeisanoptimisticstancewhichclearlyinformsthepupilthatheorsheisallrightasaperson,butjustmadeamistake.

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Separate the (inappropriate) behaviour from the pupil

• Makethebehaviourunacceptable,notthepupil.

‘Throwingbooksisnotacceptableinthisroom’isabetterresponsethan‘Youwerewrongtothrowthatbook’.

• Makingthebehaviourwrongallowsforchangingtobetterbehaviour.

‘Nexttimepleasetakethebookovertotheshelf’.

• Linkingpoorbehaviourtoapupil’sidentityorpersonalityinhibitspositivechange.

‘YouareworsethananyotherpupilIworkwith.Youmakeitimpossibleforeveryoneelsetosucceed’.

Thismayleadapupiltofeelthattheyaresuchabadpersonthatchangeisnotpossible,sowhytry.Itmayalsoleadthem

tothinkthattheyareincontrolofthegroupandthesituation,nottheteacher.Itwouldhavebeenbettertosaysomethinglike‘Yourbehaviourtodayhasnotbeengood.Ithasbeendifficult

forotherstowork’.

• Linkinggoodbehaviourtoapupil’sidentitybuildsself-esteem.

‘Youhavemaderealprogresstodayandhelpedothergeton.Welldone’.

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Model the behaviour that you want to see

Toapupil,theteachershouldbeamodeloflegitimatebehaviour,withintheworksetting.Themostdamningriposteapupilcanutterwhentalkingaboutinappropriate,rights-infringingbehaviouris:‘Well,youdoit!’

Resolvingconflictcalmlyisoneofthemostimportantbehaviourstomodel.Returningtoapupiltowhomaconsequencehasbeenappliedandcommentingpositivelyontheworktheyarenowdoingisagoodexampleofconflictresolutionandallowsthepupilawayback.

Calmness,predictabilityandcertaintyarealsokeyskillstomodel.Listeningtodifferentsidesofthestory,givingtherightofreplyandmaybeapologisingifahastyjudgementhasbeenmade,givespowerfulandsignificantmessagestopupils.

Keep the focus on ‘primary behaviours’

Teachersshouldalwayskeeptheirfocusonthe‘primarybehaviour’(egnotworking)ratherthanthe‘secondarybehaviour(egaruderesponsewhenaskedtogetonwiththework).Thesecondarybehaviourmaybethemostfrustratingbuttheprimaryissueisthemostimportant.

Theconventionalresponsetosecondarybehavioursistogetdrawnintoargumentsoverwhowasorwasn’tdoingwhatandwhen.Thisoftenleadstotheteacherbecomingfrustrated,especiallywhentheyhaveactuallyseentheprimarybehaviour.Experienceindicatesthatthemoreteachersrespondtosecondarybehavioursthemoretheyaregoingtobefacedwiththem.Whathappensisthattheteacher’sfrustration,orevenanger,provestothepupilthatthestrategyisworking.

Aknownpatternisthatwhenpupilsarecaughtdoingsomethingwrongtheyfeelbad.Inordernottofeelbadtheyhavetodeflectresponsibilityforthebehaviourbyemployingsecondarybehaviours.Iftheteacherisdrawnintoreactingtothesecondarybehaviours

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thensomuchthebetterforthepupilbecausethefeelingsabouttheoriginalbehaviourbecomediluted.

Secondarybehavioursarerarelyanattempttomaketheteacherlookwrongorsilly.Pupilsusesecondarybehavioursinordertomakethemselvesfeelbetter.Teachershouldkeepthefocusontheprimarybehaviourandredirectthepupilwithoutconfrontingorchallengingthesecondarybehaviour.Thisislimitstheneedforthepupiltogointodefensivemodeand‘gettheirretaliationinfirst’.

3.2 Effective use of questions

Teachersshouldmakebothapositiveandvarieduseofquestioningtomotivateandmonitorpupilsunderstandingandraisethelevelandqualityofpupils’thinking.Thepurposeofquestioningistoengage,extend,share,clarifyand/orconfirmthinking.Questionsalsoallowtheteachertocheckforunderstandingandtheyprovideaformoffeedback.

Goodpracticeinquestioningmightincludethefollowing:• Theteachershouldnotdomostofthetalkinginaclassdialogue• Somekeyquestionsarebestwrittenontheboard/worksheet

tokeepfocus• Shortextendingquestionscanbeusedtokeeppupilsfocused• Questionsshouldlinkbacktowhatpupilsalreadyknow• Avoiddiscussinganyonepupils’answersatlength• Avoidembarrassingapupilbypickingonthem,

asadisciplinedevice• Givesomewaitingtimeafteraskingaquestiontoallow

pupilstothinkandrespond• ‘Open’questionscanincreasepupilinvolvementandcan

beapositivefeatureofgoodclassroommanagement.

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Mutual enquiry

Goodpracticemayalsoincludeaskingquestionsandrespondingtoanswersinamannerthatsuggestsmutualenquiry.Thisisexplainedbelow:• Askingquestionsandrespondingtoanswersinawaythat

suggestsmutualenquiry,ratherthattestingandchecking,canhelptoelevatethestatusofpupils,improvetheirself-esteemandmakethemfeeltheyaremakingusefulcontributions

• Aquestionsuchas‘Howdoesrainform?’couldhaveanumberofintentions,asrevealedintheintonationandfacialexpressionofthequestioner

• Itcouldbeatest(Youshouldknow),oracheck(Doyouknow?),wheretheanswerisalreadyknown.Thiswouldimplythatthequestionerisinapositionofpower

• Itcouldalsobethatthequestionerreallyisseekinginformationfromsomeonewhoknows.Thisimpliesthequestionerisinasubordinateposition

• Alternatively,itcouldbeasharedseekingofananswer,whichimpliesamoreequalrelationship.Thiscanbeapowerfultoolinaclassroom

• Oncetheanswerisgiventhequestionermayrespond.Responsesalsorevealdifferencesintherelationshipbetweenthequestionerandthequestioned- Aresponseof‘quiteright’or‘welldone’,indicatesthequestionerhasahigherstatus

- Athoughtful‘ah,Isee’wouldimplythatthequestionerisinasubordinateposition

- ‘Yes,Iseewhatyoumean’impliesagreementandamoreequalrelationshipbetweenthequestionerandthequestioned.Thismorelikelytoencouragefutureengagement.

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Question types

Itisimportanttomakeaconsciousefforttousetherighttypeofquestionsoastogetthedesiredresponsefrompupils,forexample:

• Useopenquestionstogetpupilstosaymore

• Useclosedquestions:- Togetconfirmation- Toclarifyuncertainty- Tocheckanopinion.

• Avoidoveruseofclosedquestionsastheymay:- Promptsinglewordresponses- Makethepupilseemsullenordefensive- Forcetheteachertoinventmorequestion- Leavetheteacherfeelings/hehasnotgotveryfar- Resultintheteacher’svoicedominatingtheinteraction.

• Teachersshouldconsiderhowandwhentheyusequestionsstartingwith‘why’.The‘why’questioncanhavetheeffectofmakingsomeinteractionsbecomequiteshortandrepetitive.Oftenitfeelsliketheteacherisdemandingthatthepupilexplainsthereasonormotiveforhis/heraction.Bystartingwith‘why’,itcansometimespromptpupilstofeelthatsomethingistheirfault.Itisnotuncommontohearinteractionslikethefollowing.- Question-Whydidyoudoit?Idon’tunderstand- Reply-Dunno- Question-Whydidyougooverthereanyway?- Reply-Dunno- Question-AndwhydidyoustarttobullyMikeagain?- Reply-Iwasonlymuckingaround- Question-WhydidyouthinkitwouldbeOKtodothat?TellmeWHY!

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• ‘Why’questionsareusuallychallengingquestions.Itisoftenverydifficultforpupilstorespondpositivelytosuchadirectchallenge.Theyrequirethepupiltoexplainthereasonsforhis/herbehaviouroractions.Therealityisthatthepupilmayhavelongforgottenwhattriggeredthebehaviourormayneverhavegiventheissueasecondthought!Infrustration,theteachermayincreasethevolumeandacceleratethequestioning.Thepupildoesn’thaveananswer;ceasestosearchforoneandeventuallystopslistening.

• Asimplealterationof‘why’to‘what’canseemlessofafault/blamequestion,givingthepupilachancetogivehis/herreason.

‘Why’ question ‘What’ question

Whyareyounotworking? Whathelpdoyouneedtofinishyourwork?

Whyareyoulate? Whatmadeyoubelateforthelesson?

Whydidthrowthatbook? Whathappenedjustbeforeyouthrewthebook?

3.3 Non-verbal techniques

Thefollowingtechniquescanbeusedtopromotepositiveinteractionsbetweenteachersandpupils,therebycreatingapositiveatmosphereforeffectiveteachingandlearning.

A positive and encouraging manner:Thisisanessentialelementinpromotingpositiveinteractions.Anapproachablemannerandasmilegoalongwaytoencouragingpupils.Acknowledgepupilseffortswithasmileornod.

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Consider how we enter pupil’s space: Evenbasicslikehowteachersenterapupil’sspaceandasktoseetheirworkcanhaveanimpact.Teachersshouldconsiderasking(thiscanbedonewithgestures)toseepupil’sworkandthengiveshort-termfeedbackandencouragement.

Listen effectively: Listeningeffectivelyisaprerequisiteforengagingwithyoungpeopleintheclassroom.However,itisimportanttomakeexplicittheskillsrequiredtolisteneffectively.Classroomsarebusyplaces,withmanyinteractionstakingplaceoverthecourseofthelesson,andwithteachershavingtoholdamultitudeofinformationinmind.Despitethis,teachersneedtotryto:• Listenwithundividedattention,withoutinterrupting• Rememberwhathasbeensaid,includingthedetails(themore

youlistenandthelessyousay,thebetteryourmemoryforwhathasbeensaid)

• Listentothe‘bassline’-whatisnotopenlysaid,butwhatpossiblyisbeingfelt

• Watchfornon-verbalcluestohelpyouunderstandfeelings• Listentoyourself,howyoumightfeelinthesituationbeing

described,andusethisasawayoffurtherunderstandingtheproblem/difficulty

• Trytotoleratepausesandsilencesthatarealittlelongerthanisusualinconversations(andavoidaskinglotsofquestionstobreaksilences)

• Helpyourselfandtheotherpersontofeelcomfortableandrelaxed;keepcalmevenwhenyoudon’tfeelcalm.

Modelling:Teacherswhoarecourteous,prompt,enthusiastic,incontrol,patientandorganisedprovideexamplesfortheirpupilsthroughtheirownbehaviour.The‘doasIsay,notasIdo’teacherssendmixedmessagesthatconfusepupilsandmayriskinvitingmisbehaviour.

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Thefollowing5boxesareideasadaptedfromRobertson(1996).

Withitness:JohnRobertsonusesatermcalled‘withitness’,whichdescribestheabilityofateachertocommunicatetopupilsbyhis/heractualbehaviour,ratherthanbysimpleverbalannouncing,thefactthats/heknowswhattheyaredoing,ors/hehastheproverbial‘eyesinthebackofherhead’.Teachersthatshow‘withitness’givetheimpressionthattheyarealertandwillnoticewhenpupilsmisbehave.Theyarealsoabletonamepupilsintheirclassorsessionsintheearlymeeting,especiallywhereareprimandisdirectedatthatpupil.Carryingthroughanyconsequencesalsocontributestoanimpressionofbeingincontrolor‘withit’.Otheraspectsofgoodorganisation,suchasbeingintherightplaceattherighttime,withtherequiredequipment,oranticipatingchangesinarrangements,suchassportspractices,allhelptoconveytheimpressionofefficiencyand‘withitness’.

Intervening early to correct behaviour atthemomentthatapupilwasaboutto,orjustbeginningtomisbehave,makesarepetitionofthemisbehaviourtobelesslikelythanifs/hehadbeenallowedtocompletetheact.Earlyinterventionismoreeffectivebecause:• Apupil‘caughtintheact’islesslikelytodenyhis/heraction• Theteacherclearlydemonstratesthats/heisalert,sothat

thepupilmayfeelmoreliabletodetection• Theactofinterruptingthebehaviourisitselfastatement

oftheteacher’scontrolandstatusinthesituation• Thepupilmaybedeniedanyreinforcementwhichwould

haveresultedfromcompletingtheact,suchasmakingafriendlaughorengagingothersinsomedisturbance

• Itpreventsthespreadorescalationofunwantedbehaviour,sothattheteacherhasonlytodealwitharelativelyminoroffence.

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Using the space and monitoring:Teacherscanmanagetheclassroomandsetthesceneforpositiveinteractionsbetweenpupilsandbetweenpupilandteacherbyusingthespaceeffectively.Thewayinwhichtheteacherusestheclassroomspacealsocommunicatesapowerfulmessageaboutwhetherornottheyareincontrol.Low-keycontrolbeginsbyusingalloftheclassroomasateachingspace.Thismeansmovingaroundtheroomasyouengagewiththewholeclassandasyoumonitorprogresswhenengagedinatask.Suchmovementneedstobeageneralcirculationoftheroom,undertakeninacalm,relaxedway.Itprovidestheopportunityto:• Giverecognitiontothosewhoaremakinggoodefforts• Praisethosewhoaregettingthetaskright• Provideearlyhelpandsupporttothosewhoaremaking

mistakes• Promptthosewhohaveyettogetunderway.

Non-verbal cueing - Using gestures, facial expressions and signal:Non-verbalstrategiescanbefacialexpressions,bodypostureandhandsignals.Thetypesofcuesgivenshouldbechosenwithcareandmustbeunderstoodbyallpupilstomeanwhattheteacherintendsthemtomean.Forexample,‘thedeadlystare’wherebyteachersfocustheireyecontactonaparticularindividualwhoisnotattendingtothemwithoutresortingtonaggingorshouting.Wheretheclassisontaskandyetoneortwoindividualsareclearlynotworking,thereisatemptationtodirectthembackontask.Thetemptationistotellthemtostopmisbehavingandgetonwiththework.Unfortunately,thisdisruptstheworkofthevastmajorityofthepupils.Itismoreeffectiveifgesturesandexpressionsareusedtopromptpupilsbackontask.Thisreducesthedisruptiontoothersandsignalsthattheteacherisincontrol.Italsohelpstomaintainapositiveatmosphereintheclassroom.Manyteacherswillhavetheirownnon-verbalpromptsforsuchthings.Wheretheseare

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usedfromthemomentaclassisencountered,theybecomepartofclassroomculture.Pupilsrespondtosuchgesturesoutofcustom,practiceandhabit.Itisamuchhardertasktointroducesuchresponsesinthemiddleoftheteachingyear.Examplesofnon-verbalsignalsmayincludethoseoutlinedbelow.Thesemaybebackedupbymimingormouthingtheinstruction:• ‘Turnaround’eg-astirringgesture• ‘Settledown’eg-aflathandpalmdown• ‘Stoptalking’eg-afingertothemouth• ‘Getonwithyourwork’eg-awritingaction.

Focusing:Teachersneedtobesuretohavetheattentionofeveryoneinthegroupbeforestartingthesession,lesson,activityortaskandnotattempttoteachoverthechatterofpupilswhoarenotpayingattention.Thefocusingtechniquemeansthatteacherswilldemandthepupils’attentionbeforebeginning.Teachersneedtobereadytowaitandnotstartuntileveryonehassettleddown.Experiencedteachersknowthatsilenceontheirpartisveryeffective.Theywillpunctuatetheirwaitingbyextendingit3to5secondsaftertheclassroomiscompletelyquiet.

Low-profile intervention

Mostpupilsarereferredtoaseniorcolleagueasaresultofconfrontationalescalation.Aneffectiveteacherwilltakecarethatthepupilisnotrewardedformisbehaviourbybecomingthefocusofattention.Aneffectiveteachermonitorstheactivityinthegroup,movingaroundtheroomandanticipatesproblemsbeforetheyoccur.Theapproachtoamisbehavingpupilisinconspicuoussothatothersinthegrouparenotdistracted.

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Thecasestudybelow,highlightsthelowprofileapproachtointervention.

Case study - lateness and refusal to settle down to work

ThesituationrelatestoaFridaylastlessonwithagroupwhoareoftenchallenging,withmanyofthemdisengaged.Thelessonbeganat2.35pmwithmostofthepupilspresent.Abouttenminutesintothelesson,aftertherestoftheclasshadbegunashorttask,3pupilswalkedinlate,chattingloudly.NormallyIwouldchallengetheminfrontoftheclassandquestiontheirlateness.However,thistimeIjustaskedthemtositdownandsaidIwouldtalktothemaboutthelatenessattheend.Isimplydistributedbooksandrestatedthepagenumberswewereworkingfromandsaidwewoulddiscussthingslater.Theyallsatchewing,keepingtheircoatsonandthelessoncontinued.

AfterthenexttaskwasexplainedIquietlywenttothe3ofthemandremindedthemthattheircoatswerestillon,whichisnotwhatweagreedintheclassroomrules.Twoofthemimmediatelyremovedthem.AsthelessoncontinuedIslowlyapproachedallofthemonebyoneandtheyfollowedmyquietinstructions.Itdid,however,takethreereminderswithonepupil.Attheendofthelessonwediscussedwhytheywerelate.

Theoutcomeswere:• Noconfrontationaseachpupildidnothavethechance

toplaytothe‘audience’• Thelessonwentsmoothlyandtoplanpartlybecause

Icreatednoconfrontation• Eachpupilwasgiven2or3minutestakeuptime,

whichreallyworked• Thepupilswerelessdisposedtoargueattheendwhen

questionedabouttheirlatenessasneithertheynorIhad‘ourhacklesup’!

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3.4 Self-presentation

Rogers,(2006a)pointsoutthattheteacher’sbehaviourcontributesasmuchtoosomeincidentsandtheirmanagementasdothepupils.Teachersneedtomakeaconsciousanddeliberateattempttocontroltheimpressionsthatpupilsmakeofthem.Teacherscanuseimpressionmanagementtoattainimportantgoalsorchangethewaytheyareperceivedinamoredesireddirection.

Impression management

Impressionmanagementbehavioursareoftenaimedatachievingacertainidentitythatinvolvesaccomplishingagoalorstandard.Individualscanjudgewhethertheyhavereachedthatgoalorstandardbasedinpartonfeedbackreceivedfromothers.Peoplecanthenregulatetheirimpressionmanagementbymonitoringtheirownbehaviourbasedonthisfeedback.

Beforeateacheropenshis/hermouthtospeak,theyconsciouslyorunconsciouslyuseallkindsofbehaviourstoinfluencetheclassandgivetheimpressionofsomeonewhoisincontrolandreadyforeneffectiveinteractionwiththeclass.Somefactorsthattheteachercanusetoaffecthows/heisperceivedareoutlinedbelow.

Proxemics:Thisrelatestotheuseofspaceordistancebetweenpeople,(ieproximity).Ifateacherremainsbehindadeskthroughoutalessonwithoutmoving,theymaintainahugedistancebetweenthemselvesandtheclass.Theteacherisalsolessawareofeverythingthatisgoingonatthebackoftheclass.Itisalsounwisetobeginaclasswhileseated.Don’tlimitmovementduringtheclasstopracticalperiods.Toestablishauthorityinearlylessons,usecentre-stage,butlaterbemobile.

Kinesics:Kinesicsrelatestocommunicationbybodymovement,eg:• Noddinghead-particularlyinresponsetoapupil’sanswer

(butdon’toverdoit!)• Smiling-researchhasshownthishasapositiveeffectonthe

teacher-pupilrelationship(againdon’toverdoit)

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• Relaxedbody-astiffmilitarypositionatthetopoftheclassislikelytobeduetonervesandthiswillbetranslatedtotheclass.Howeveranover-relaxeddemeanourcanhavedireconsequences

• Gestures-particularlyhandandarmmovementscommunicateenthusiasmandinterest.

Thekeyistoremainalertandrelaxedatthesametime.

Oculesics:Thisrelatestoeyecontact.Itisimportanttotakethetimetopauseandlookaroundtheclass,makingeyecontactwithdifferentpupils.Somepupilswillneedparticulareyecontacttokeepthemfocussed.Constantscanningofthewholeclassisimportantandagoodhabittocultivate.

Whenundertakinganactivitywithpupils,theteachercanbestsustaintheirattentionby:• Standingprominentlyintheroom• Engagingineyecontactwithindividualpupils• Demonstratinginvolvementwiththeactivity• Lookingforandrespondingtofeedbackfrompupils• Movingclosertothosewhodonotappeartobeengaging• Scanningthegroupfrequently• Whenmisbehaviouroccurs,thefirststepfortheteacheris

tomakecontactwiththepupilasquietlyaspossible.

Manyoftheseactivitieswilltakestrongself-management,asateacher’sfirstandautomaticresponsetomisbehaviourmaybetoshout.However,Rogerswarnsaboutbeing‘overlyvigilant’andhencesettingupachallengethatisunnecessary,andalso‘non-vigilance’,wheresomanysmallthingsareletslidethatitbecomeshardtoaddressanybehaviourissues.Hecallsforwhathereferstoas‘relaxedvigilance’,whereteachersdon’tletthingsslidebutaretask-orientedandnoteasilysidetrackedbysmallissues.Issuesthatmatterarealwaysdealtwith,butinawaythatdoesnotautomaticallysetupconfrontation.

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Teacher style

Thisrelatestotheteacher’soverallstyleormethodofcontrolintheclassroom:• Autocratic-Settinglimitswithoutfreedom-rewardsand

punishmentareusedtocontrol• Permissive-Freedomwithoutlimits-pupilsdowhattheyplease• Democratic-Limitsarenegotiatedandpupilsmakechoices

andexperienceconsequences.Mutualrespectandrightsareestablished.

Obviously,ademocraticstyleismosteffectiveintermsofeffectiveclassroommanagement,forbothbehaviourandlearning.

Using movement

Ifteachersbehaveunder-confidentlywithaclass,theycanconveythemessagethattheclassroomisthepupils’space.Teacherscanbecometenseandrigidandmaybecomestaticandteachfromafixedpositionatthefrontoftheclass.Thisleavestherestoftheclassroomtothepupils.Ifadifficultystartstodevelopinonepartoftheroomandtheteacher,whousuallyjustteachesfromthesamespotatthefrontoftheclass,hastomovetowardsthesourceoftheproblem,thensuchunusualmovementbytheteacher,islikelytobeseenbyallofthepupilsandislikelytoescalatetheincident.

Teachingfromasinglefixedpositionincursotherproblems:• Itisvisuallylessinterestingforthepupils• Somepupilscanstayoutsideoftheteachersnormalsweep

ofvision• Itmayslowateachersabilitytospotdifficulties• Pupilsmayfeelthattheteacheris‘fearful’ofenteringintotheir

spaceintheclassroom.

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Teacherscanexpressconfidenceintheirownauthorityby:• Usingtheterritoryoftheroomfreelyandwhennecessary

enteringapupil’spersonalspaceinanunthreatening,indirectmanner

• Usingasteadyunthreateninggazewhentalkingtopupilsora‘questioning’silentgazewhen‘noticing’unwantedbehaviour

• Initiatingandendinginteractionswithpupils• Implyinganexpectationthatpupilswillcomplyvoluntarily

withinstructions• Carefullychoosingformsofaddress• Tryingtoremainrelaxedevenwhenfeelingthreatenedand

angry-avoidbehaviourwhichisself-comforting,self-protectingorself-grooming

• Takingtheinitiativeininteractionsandchoosingwhenandiftogivearesponse.Theresponsesmayincludeeyecontact,replyingtoquestions,resistinginterruptionsandreturningsmiles

• Avoidbattlesoverrank,forexample,‘Standupstraightwhenyouaretalkingtome’.

Ideally,aclassroomshouldbeanenvironmentinwhichteacherswishtocreatelearningopportunitiesforpupilsandthepupilswishtoavailthemselvesofsuchopportunities.Whilstmuchofthisisgeneratedbytheteacher’soptimismorconfidenceandskillindealingwithpupils,someofitstemsfromtheteacher’smanagementofthephysicalenvironment.

3.5 Promoting pupils’ self-esteem

Howpupilsseethemselvesandsobuildtheiridentitydependsverymuchonhowotherpeopleseethem.Pupils’self-esteemisdeterminedbytheirself-concept,developedovertime.Thiscouldcomefromwithinthefamilyandtheirdirectexperienceofhowpeoplesuchasteacherstreatthem,iewhattheydoandsay.

Apupilwhoseeshimselfas‘stupidandgoodfornothing’mayhavecometothatconclusionbecauses/hehasbeenrepeatedlytoldbyadultsinher/hislifethat:

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• You’rethick• You’restupid• Howcomeyouaresolazy?• Onlyalazyboy/girllikeyouwouldbehaveinthisway• Comeoverhereyoustupid/lazy/sillyboy/girletc…

Pupilsspendalargeamountoftheirtimewithotheradultswhomaynotrealisethenegativeeffectsofsuchnegativefeedback,maybeunawareofalternativewaystointeractwithotherpeople,especiallyyoungpeople,ormaynotbeinterestedinthepersonaldevelopmentoftheyoungperson.

Adolescenceisaturbulenttimeformanypupils.Theyareoftenuncertainandlackconfidenceandmaymisinterpretandmisunderstandsomeoftheresponsesofthosearoundthem.Whenateachersays‘Shecoulddowellifshetriedharder’,apupilcouldmisinterpretthestatementtomean‘Iamstupid-everyonethinksIamstupidandcannotdosowellnomatterhowhardItry’.

Self-identityisveryimportanttopupilsandtheyneedpositiveconstructsofthemselvessothattheyareconfident,abletointeractwithteachersandpeersconstructivelyandwillingtoengageinlearning.

Whenworkingtochangeapupil’sthinkingandbehaviour(seesection4.3andchapter6),theteacherneedstoaddressanythoughtswhichleadtoanegativeperceptionofthepupilbutwhichmaynotbeatruereflectionofhowothersseehim/her.Examplesofsuchpupilthoughtsinclude:• “IthinkMrsJonesdoesn’tlikeme”• “MrsThomasalwayspicksonme”• “MrDaviesdoesn’taskmequestions…hedoesn’tthink

Icandoit”• “MrsHowardalwaysaccusesmeifsomethinggoeswrong”

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Itmaynotbejustwhatpeoplesayanddobutwhatthepupilthinkstheythinkthatdamageshisorherself-esteem.Intheirinteractionswithpupils,teachersneedtoknownotonlyaboutthepupil’sbehaviourBUTalsotheirthinking.Thepupilwhothinksthethoughtsabovewillnotengagewiththeteachersorinlearning.S/heislikelytobehaveinwaysthatareconsistentwithhis/herthinkingbutdamagingtoeffectiveteachingandlearning,forexamples/hemay:• BerudetoMrsJonesbecause“shedoesnotlikemeanyway”• ProvokeMrsJonestogetangrytoprovethat“Idonotlike

hereither”• PickonMrsThomasbeforeshepicksonme• RefusetoattendMrsThomasclassbecause“Shewillpickonme”• Shoutouttheanswersevenwhensomeoneelseisanswering

because“MrDaviesdoesn’taskmequestions”• NotbothertodoanyworkbecauseMrDavies“doesnotthink

thatIcandoit”• Dosomethingwrongas“MrsHowardwillaccusemeanyway”.

Askeyfiguresinshapinghowyoungpeopleperceivethemselves,teachersneedtohelpthembuildtheirself-esteemby:• Givingthempositivefeedbackabouttheireffortsintheclassroom• Beingattentivetotheirprogressintheclass,settingthemwork

thatisappropriateandexplainedproperly• Supportingthemtochangebehaviour• Rewardingtheirefforts,goodconductandtheirachievements• Helpingthemtodevelopskillsforeffectiveinteractionand

learning• Modellinggoodbehaviour• Helpingthemtodispelnegativeself-imagebasedonfeedback

fromotheradults• Providingparentsandotheradultswithpositivefeedback

aboutpupils.

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Evenwhentheirbehaviourislessthandesirableteachersmustbecarefultouseconstructivelanguage,whichwillmotivatepupilstowanttochangetheirbehaviour.Teachersmustalsoavoidlabellingpupils.

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Chapter 4Approaches to changing behaviour

Evenwhenteachersuseeffectiveclassroommanagementandcommunication,withafocusonpreventionandearlyintervention,incidentswillstillarisewithintheclassroom.Whereapupil’sunacceptablebehaviourbecomespersistenttheremaybetheneedtoworkwithhim/herinafocusedwaytochangehis/herbehaviour.

Itshouldbenotedthattherearenosimplesolutionsoranswerfordealingwithdifficultorchallengingbehaviourandworkingwithpupilsforchange.“Whateverthecauseoftheindividualbehaviourproblem,successfulinterventionrequiresintelligent,caringactiononbehalfoftheschoolandtheexternalsupportagenciesandwhichrelatestoindividualneed.”(Steer,2009para49)

Theeffectivenessofanyapproachtochangewilldependonanumberofkeyfactorsincluding:• Aneffective,openandhonestworkingrelationship/engagement

betweentheteachersandthepupil(s)• Selectingthemostappropriateapproach.Noteveryapproach

willbesuitabletousewitheverypupilineverysituation• Thetimeavailabletoworkwithapupil• Theconfidence,abilityandtrainingoftheteachertotryvarious

approaches.

Thischapterexploressomerelativelysimplestrategiesthatteacherscanusewithintheirownclassroomsinworkingforchangewithyoungpeople.Thechaptercovers:• TheABCapproachtobehaviourchange• Problem-solvingapproaches• Cost-benefitanalysisapproach• Re-enactment• Futuregoal(changedbehaviour)visualisation• Self-monitoring• Socialskillstraining• Behaviouragreementsandbehaviourplans.

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The concept and definition of change

Beforeweconsiderhowtoachievechange,forandwithapupil,wemustfirstlookatwhatwemeanbychange.Change,initssimplestform,canbedescribedas‘toalterormakedifferent’.Themainaimforteachersistosecureimprovementregardingpupilsbehaviourandlearning.Somechangemayoccurforapupilwithoutanyteacherinputandmayberelatedtofactorsoutsideofateachersinfluence.However,thisisnotthecaseformanypupils,wheresubstantialandsustainedsupportwillbeneededtoachievechange.

Thisprocessofworkingforchangeshouldbe:• Pupil-centred• Empowering• Tailoredtoindividualneeds• Basedonprinciplesofethicalandprofessionalpractice• Purposeful• Focused• Planned• Capableofbeingimplemented• Regularlyreviewed.

4.1 The ABC approach to behaviour change

TheABC(Antecedent,Behaviour,Consequences)analysisofbehaviourlooksattheantecedencetobehaviour,thebehaviouritselfandtheconsequencesorreinforcementofthebehaviour.Thisapproachisbasedonthepremisethatmakingchangesintheantecedence,and/ortheconsequencesofbehaviour,caneffectachangeinthebehaviouritself.

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TheABCapproachisexplainedusingtheexampleofJosh:

Antecedent events Inscience,MrJonesisexplainingtheconceptofgravitationalpull.Heissittingonachair(behindthetable)infrontoftheclass.JoshisatthebackoftheclassandcanhardlyhearMrJones.

Behaviour Joshshuffleshischair,getsoutofit,andwalkstothefrontoftheclass,pinchingVickyashepassesbyherseatandsitsnearerthefrontoftheclass.Hecrosseshislegs,foldshisarmsacrosshischestandstaresatMrJones.

ConsequencesVickyscreamsoutloudinmockagony.Therestoftheclassburstoutlaughing.MrJones,clearlynotamused,shoutsatJoshandsendshimoutoftheclasstoreporthimselftotheHeadofYear.

AnyattempttoeffectachangeinJosh’sbehaviour;topreventsimilarbehaviourrecurringmustbeginwiththequestions;“Whattriggeredhisbehaviour?”and“HowisJoshreinforcedforbehavinginthisway?”Thesetwoquestionsexaminetheantecedence(A)andtheconsequences(C)ofJosh’sbehaviour(B)becausetheycontributetotheteacher’sunderstandingofthelikelihoodofJoshbehavinginthiswayagain.

ThefocusforchangingJosh’sbehaviourneedstobeoneofencouraginghimtopractiseanewwayofbehavingandreinforcingthisnewbehaviour.Equallyrelevantisthatthereisnoreinforcementofhispastbehaviour.

Thefollowingmightbedone.

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The ABC of Josh’s behaviour

A B C Josh’s triggers and actions The teacher should focus on

Antecedence/triggers

• Boredomwiththesubject• Anunstimulatingenvironment

forlearning• Inaudibleteacher

• Providingvariedandstimulatingcurriculumdelivery

• Earlymonitoringofnon-verbalmessagesfrompupils

• Carefulseatingofpupils• Teachertospeakinaloud

clearvoice

Behaviour • Heshuffleshischair• Hegetsoutofhischair• Hewalkstothefrontofthe

class• HepinchesVicky• Hecrosseshislegs,folds

hisarmsacrosshischestandstaresat(intimidates)MrJones

• MaintainingJosh’sinterest• Sustaininghisontaskbehaviour

Consequences • Heprovidesentertainmentfortheclass;gainingstatuswithhispeers

• HeupsetsMrJones;gainingattentionfromteacher

• Hedisruptstheflowofthelesson

• HesecurestheattentionofTeacher

• Heissentoutoftheclasstherebyavoidingadifficultlesson

• Dealingwithanyissueawayfromtheaudience

• Stayingcalmandcalmingtheclass• Goodclassroomcontrol

techniques• Maintaininglessonmomentum• Managinganydifficultyinsteadof

straightreferraltoHeadofYear• Ensuringthatthereisaneffective

responsetoJoshintermsofasanctionorreparation

NotethatthekeyissuewasJosh’sbehaviour,butsecuringchangecouldbeachievedthroughalteredteacherbehaviourandresponses.

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4.2 Problem-solving approaches

Manyofthepupilswhogetintodifficultylackthenecessaryrepertoireofresponsestouseingivensituations.Theyhavehabitualandquiterestrictedresponsestothechallengestheyareconfrontedwithonadailybasis.Forexample,thepupilwhosehabitualresponseistosimplystopworkingwhens/heisstuck,orthepupilwholashesoutwithher/hisfistswhenchallenged,maylackothereffectivewaystorespond.

Theaimoftheproblem-solvingapproachisto:• Improvetheawarenessandunderstandingofpupils• Enhancetheirperspectivetaking• Raisetheirabilitytoanticipatetheconsequencesoftheiractions• Equipthemtodothingsdifferently.

The problem-solving approach involves:

Identifying the problems and difficulties, and making sure that they are specified and understood as clearly as possible by the pupil.

Examining the steps needed to practise and implement these new solutions while identifying the extent to which the young person requires support to achieve success.

Supporting the young person in achieving successful implementation of these new solutions.

Working with him/her to generate a range of alternative ways to respond to the problem situation.

Testing out the solutions most likely to achieve success, by exploring with the pupil the skills and resources that they bring to utilising these solutions.

Preparing others (support staff, other teachers, other pupils) for this change, so they can support it.

Reviewing the programme to celebrate success and explore how this learning can be applied to new problems or solutions.

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Eachofthestepsneedstobecarefullymanaged.Itisimportantthatpupilsappreciatetheproblem/problemsthattheyface.Theywillneedtobeencouragedtothinkpositivelyandcreativelyaboutthedifferentwaystheycouldrespondinasituation.Sometimesindividualsdemonstratetheirlackofalternativebehavioursatthispointbybeingunabletogenerateasinglealternative.Forexample,theycontinuetobelievethat‘Whensomeoneprovokesme,Ishouldalwayshitthem’.Whilsttheiraggressivebehaviourisdrivenbysuchabeliefitisunlikelytobereadilychanged.

Manyofthesolutionsgeneratedwillbeimpracticalornotachievable.Somepupilsdevelopsolutionsthatarebasedontheirownfantasiesofhowimportant/significanttheyare.Itisveryimportantthattheteacherworkswiththepupiltogethim/hertosortthroughwhichislikelytobethemostpracticalandsuccessfulsolution.However,itisimportantthattheteacherdoesnotimposehis/herownthinkingonpupils.

Oncethechosensolutionhasbeendeterminedtheteacherasksthepupiltofocusonjusthows/hewilldothisinreality.Oftenitisonlyatthepointwheretheteachersays,‘Tellmehowyouwillgoaboutthis’,orbetterstill,‘Showmehowyouwilldothis’,thats/hegainsinsightintothepupil’slackofunderstandingandhis/herreallevelofdifficulty.Fromthisinsighttheteacherplansthelevelofrehearsal,coachingandsupporttheindividualwillrequire.Equippedwiththisinsight,teachersrealisethefutilityofcomplainingaboutpupilbehaviourordemandingchangewhenthepupilsimplylacksarangeofvaluablebehaviourstochoosefrom.

Oncethepupilisreadytotryouthis/hersolutiontheteacherneedstoalerteveryonearoundthepupiltosupporthis/herchangeefforts.Onceunderway,theteacherandthepupilneedtoreviewprogress.Itisimportantthatanysuccessisattributedtothepupilnottheteacher.Thepupilneedstobeempoweredtobelievethats/heisabletochangeandcansustainthechange.

Thisapproachcannotbedonehurriedly.Itrequirestimeandopportunitytomakeitwork.Crucialtotheeffectivenessofthisapproachistheabilityandwillingnessofthepupiltogenerate

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agoodquantityofideasandalternativesolutions.Themethodisnotauniversalapproachforeveryone.Thisapproachwillnotreadilyworkinasituationwhereapupilrefusesorisunabletoriskhisthinking.Theteachercannotaffordtothinkforthepupil.Whenthepupiltakesownershipofthisprocess,s/heismorelikelytocommittothebestofthealternativesolutions.

Theproblem-solvingapproachprovidesaclearstep-by-stepmethodologytodealwithdifficulties.Itistimeconsumingbutwhereiteffectslastingchangeitprovidesanefficienttoolformeetingtheneedsofpupilswithproblematicbehaviour.

Theproblem-solvingapproach:• Requiresthefullco-operationofthepupil• Ensuresthatthepupilgeneratesthesolutionsandhasownership

ofprocess• Allowsthepupiltothinkabouthis/heractionsandconsequences• Makesthepupilfeelvalued• Makesitmorelikelyforthepupiltocommittochange• Skillsthepupiltothinkbefores/heacts• Isverypractical,relevantandrealistic• Needstobereviewedtoensurethatchangeislasting• Motivatesapupiltomaintainchange• Hasvalueforpupilsandforcolleagues.

Thetwoexamplesthatfollow,illustratetheproblem-solvingapproach.

A problem-solving approach - Example 1

Name:JessicaCodigan Age: 15

The problem/difficulty/situation: Irefusetoperformsomeofthetaskssetformeinclass.

My usual response: “I’mnotdoingthat.”

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Five other ways to respond The likely outcomes

•Givingitatry FriendswillthinkIamwetbutmaybeIcandoit

•Toaskteacherforhelp Shemayexplainittome

•IfIdothis,maybeI’llbe Couldbegood allowedtochooseanactivity

•Textafriendonmymobile Iwillgetintroublewithmumandphonewillbeconfiscated

•Walkout Iwillgetintolotsoftrouble

Which is the best response? Asktheteacherforhelp

My reasons for deciding it Iwon’tgetintotrouble,is the best teacherwon’tgetmadat

meandIwillbedoingwork

AgreeingtheapproachtotheproblemwithJessicamayonlybepartofthesolution.TheteacherneedstogetJessicatoshowhim/herhowshewillaskforhelp.Ifsheshoutsoutanddemandsanimmediateresponsetheproblemmaysimplyhaveshiftedratherthanhavebeenresolved.

A problem-solving approach - Example 2

Name:AsifQureshi Age: 11

The problem/difficulty/situation: Makinghurtfulcommentsaboutotherchildren,callingthemnames,makingfunofthem,whentheytalktom

My usual response: “Iwasonlyjoking.”

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Five other ways to respond The likely outcomes

•Saysomethingnicetothem Theywillbegintolikeme

•Chatorworkwiththem Theywillchat/workwithme

•Ignorethem Itmaystillhurtthem

•Justsmileatthem Theymaysmileback•Puthandovermouthwhen Iwillnotsayhurtfulthings. Imightsaysomethinghurtful

Which is the best response? Justsmileatthem

My reasons for deciding it Itisveryeasytosmile.is the best Theywillbehappyand

metooandtheymayevenbecomemyfriends

ThisapproachisunlikelytoworkunlessAsifcanmakeasincereresponse.TheteacherneedstoseewhatAsif’ssmilelookslike.Isitagenuinesmileordoesitlooklikeasneer?Equally,Asifneedstounderstandthattheotherswilltaketimetocometoacceptthisnewbehaviour.

Teachersmayhaveconcernsaboutthelackoftimeforusingtheproblem-solvingapproach.However,thisisanapproachthatcouldeffectchangewithpupilsanditisworthcommittingthenecessarytimetoworkforchangewiththemnow.Timeinvestednowtochangebehaviourislikelytosavetimeinthefutureastherewillbefewerincidentsofpoorbehaviourtodealwith.

4.3 Cost-benefit analysis approach

Thisapproachisbasedonanassumptionofambivalence.Ambivalencecanbedefinedasthecoexistenceinonepersonofoppositefeelings/emotionstowardsthesameobjectorsituation.Ineffect,thismeansthatapupilwillhavebothpositiveandnegativeviewsaboutanybehaviourtheymaydisplay.Ambivalenceis:

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• Anautomaticresponsethatbothconsiderschangeandrejectsit• Themajorobstacletofollowingthroughwithchange.

Sometimesapupilmayhavemanyinnerconflictsaboutaparticularbehaviour.Thiskindofambivalenceshouldbeexplainedtothepupilasbeingnormalandthatthesekindofinnerconflictsdocoexist.Themodelofambivalenceisshowninthediagramthatfollows.

The model of ambivalence: Cost-benefit analysis

Whenworkingwithpupilsofchange,itisnecessarytolookatthepositiveaspects(intheiropinion)fortheirbehaviouraswellasthenegativeside.Itshouldbeacknowledgedthatifapupildidnotgetanypositivebenefitsfromhis/herbehaviourthans/hewouldbeunlikelytocontinuewithit.Thebenefitsmaynotbeimmediatelyapparenttotheteacher,butiftheyarenotrecognised,thenthechancesofsuccessfullyworkingforchangewillbedecreased.

Itisnecessarytoexplorethecostsandbenefitsofchangingbehaviouraswellasthecostsandbenefitsofnotchangingbehaviour.Whendiscussingthisapproachwiththepupila‘decisionalbalancesheet’isbeingbuiltup.Thisshouldbringupanumberofissuesrangingfromhowcommittedapupilmaybetochange,toifthepupilreallyunderstandstheconsequencesofhis/herbehaviour.

Benefits of changing Benefits of not changing

Costs of not changing Costs of change

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Thisapproachisusuallyreceivedinapositivemannerbyindividualsbecauseitinvolvesdiscussionofthepositivereasonsforthepupilsbehaviourandnotjustthenegativeaspectsoftheirbehaviour.Theteacherwillattempttoswingthebalanceinthefavourofchange.

Thefollowingcasestudyshowsaexampleofadecisionalbalancesheet.

Drewis14andregularlyshoutsandwalksaroundinclass.Hedisturbsothersandrarelygetsonwithhisownwork.Twoofhisfriendshavebeenexcludedrecently,oneofthempermanently.

Drew’smumworksfulltimeandtherearethreeyoungerbrothers.Hisdadleftafewyearsagoandhedoesnothavemuchcontactanymore.Drewlovesplayingfootballandenjoysspendingtimewithhisyoungerbrothers.Drewwouldliketobeaplumberandearngoodmoney.

ThefollowingaresomeoftheissuesraisedfromdoingacostbenefitanalysiswithDrew.

Benefits of changing behaviour• Feelingmoreincontrol• Stillgettoplayfootball

fortheschool• Teacherwillstopnaggingme• Willgetbetteratwork• Morechanceofgettingan

apprenticeshipasaplumber

Benefits of continuing behaviour• PeoplethinkIamfunny• Igettoavoidwork

Idon’tlike• Icanhideitwhenthe

workistoohard• Igetlotsofattention,

whichIlike

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Costs of not changing behaviour• Maygetkickedoutofschool• Wastemyopportunities• Won’tgetadecentjob• Badexampletomylittle

brothers• Stressesmymumout

Costs of changing behaviour• Couldlosemyfriends• PeoplewillfindoutIfind

workhard• Iwillhavetomakeareal

effort

4.4 Re-enactment

Itcanbehelpfulforthepupiltophysicallyre-enactanincidentthathasoccurred.Pupilsmaybediscomfortedbysucharequestanditshouldonlybemadewhereapositiverapporthasbeendeveloped.Theirself-portrayalcanbemutedandthereisaneedtoencouragethemtoshowwhatreallyhappened.Whenapupilrespondstosucharequest,itishelpfultocheckthedetailsofhis/herportrayalandtoexplorethespecificsofhis/herperformance.

Astheinteractionunfoldsinastepwisesequence,pupilsoftenseethemomentwherethesituationwentwrong.Othersneedtobepromptedtoconsideratwhatpointtheymighthavebehaveddifferently.Somemayneedtohavethemomentwheretheycouldhavedonethingsdifferentlypointedouttothem.Afewmaycontinuetoinsistthattheproblemwasnottheirsandtheyarenottoblame,which,ofcourse,maybecorrect.

Identifyingthepointatwhichaninteractionhasgonewrongisonlythefirststep.Thereneedstobeanexplorationtoascertain:• Whatcouldbedonedifferently?• Howitmightbedonedifferently?• Whetherthepupilhastheskillsorcompetencetoachievethis?• Ifthepupildoesnothavetheskillsorcompetence,theteacher

needstoprovidethepupilwithanopportunitytoacquire,rehearseandpractisetheseskills.

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Thesefourstepsapplytoproblemsolvingatmanylevels,fromapupilfailingtounderstandhowtoaskaquestionofateacherinclass,throughtohowanangryyoungadultactsouthisangeratthenon-deliveryofhishousingbenefit.Theflowchartbelow,summarisesthisapproach.

Flowchart to show the process of encouraging a pupil to re-enact an incident

Sometimespupilsdonotseethewaysinwhichtheirbehaviourcontributedtoaparticularoutcome.Theymayevenstrugglewhenthisispointedouttothem.Whenthishappens,itisverydifficulttoworkforchangeasthepupilhasyettoseethatthereisanyneedforit.Ifwereturntothepreviousdiagram,wecanseethat

8. If necessary, coach the young person in learning new skills

2. Discuss an example of the behaviour that is causing concern

3. Ask the young person to show you/describe how it happened

4. As it unfolds, check the specifics of what happened - “And you said and did?”“Then they said and did?”5. Ask the young person to say

how s/he could have done things differently

6. Provide help/insight to highlight how his/her changed response could have made a difference

7. Check the young person’s skills and capacity to make a different response

1. Build rapport

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there-enactmentmaystallatpoint5,wherethepupilfailstoseethattheycouldorshouldhavedonethingsdifferently.

Whentheteacherisconfidentthats/hehasestablishedagoodworkingrelationshipwiththepupil,itmaybepossibletotaketheideaofre-enactmenttothenextlevel.Theteachercanoffertotaketheroleofthepupilwhilsts/heplaysthepartoftheindividualwithwhomtheincidentoccurred.Thiscanenablethepupilto’see’theincidentfromtheotherperson’spointofview.Thiscapacitytoseeasituationfromtheothersideisanimportantelementindevelopingself-awareness.Onceapupilcanowntheirpartinaninteraction,itbecomesmorelikelythattheycanbeengagedinaprogrammeofchange.

Storyboarding

Pupilswhofindithardtotalkaboutissuesmayfinditeasiertostoryboard.Theteachershouldgatherafewsheetsofflipchartpapertogetherwithavarietyofcolouredmarkerpens.Theflipchartneedstobedividedintoeithersixoreightequalboxes,usingamarkerpen.Thenthepupilshouldbeaskedtodescribeanevent,aspectsoftheirlifeorakeyissuetoaddressbydrawingastoryboardofvariouscomponentsoftheissuebeinglookedat.Thepupilshouldthendrawineachboxapictureofwhatisactuallyhappeningtothematthevariousstagesanddescribewhatisgoingonineachpicture.Theteachershouldrecordanythoughts,feelings,emotionsetc.Thisisawayofbringingoutissuesinalessthreateningmanner.Itisalsousefulforthosepupilswhofinditdifficulttorecallanevent/behaviourusingjustwords.Enoughissuesshouldbebroughtuptobeabletoanalysethebehaviour/situation.

4.5 Future goal (changed behaviour) visualisation

Thefollowingfive-stepapproachcanbeusedwithpupilswhoarereadytoconsiderachangeintheirbehaviourorarewillingtodiscusspotentialchange.Thebasisoftheapproachistotryandgetthepupiltovisualisepotentialfuturechange.Thevisualisationisenhancedbyusingthesenses.Thetheorybehindthisisthatpeopleusedifferentsensestoassistinlearning,recallorthought.

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Encouragingtheuseofallsensesintheprocessofpresentandfuturevisualisationofgoalsshouldhelpthepupiltoaclearerimageofafuturegoal.

Thefollowingexercisecanbeusedwithpupilsinavarietyofsettings.

1.Initiallyplacefivecardsatspacedoutintervalsonthefloor,asshownbelow.Theserepresentthefivestagesthatapupilwillneedtodescribeastheyprogresstowardstheirgoal.

2.Askthepupiltostandonthegoalcardandaskhim/herthefollowingquestions:• Describeyourgoal• Describewhatitlookslike,whatyoucanhearandwhatcan

youfeel.

3.Nextaskthepupiltostandonthepresentstatecardandanswerthefollowingquestions:• Sowhereareyouatthemoment?• Describehowitsounds,feelsandlooks.

4.Thenaskthepupiltostandonthemidwaypointcardandaskhim/herthefollowingquestions:• Whatdoesitlooklikehalfwaytoyourgoal?• Whatcanyouhearandsee?Whatfeelings/emotionsareyou

goingthrough?

5.Next,askthepupiltostandonthearrowcardbetweenthemidwayandthegoalcardsandtoanswerthefollowingquestions:• Describeyoursituation• Whatwillitsoundlike,feellike,whatcanyousee?

Presentstate

Midwaypoint

Goal

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6.Forthefinalstep,askthepupiltostandonthearrowcardbetweenthepresentstateandthemidwaycardsandgetthemtoanswerthefollowingquestions:• Whatdoesitfeellikenowthatyouareunderwayandmoving

toyournextstep?• Describethesituationviasound,lookandfeelings(Itisalways

importanttofinishonthisstepasitgivesapupilanimmediatesenseofapositivefeelingofhowitmaybeforhim/heronhis/herroutetohis/hergoal).

Ateachstage,trytohelpthepupiltodescribeandanswerthequestions,throughusingthedifferentsenses.Thedescriptionsateachstagearenotedandcanbediscussedatalaterstagetomonitorprogress.

The three chairs exercise

Thisisanadaptationofthefuturegoalvisualisationexercise.Thisexerciserequirestheteachertoanalyseanddiscusswiththepupiltheirpast,presentandfuture.Theteacheristousethreechairssetoutataboutonemetreintervals.Thechairswillindicatethepast,presentandfuturesituationofthepupil.Duringthesession,theteacherwillaskthepupiltositontheappropriatechairrelatedtoyourquestioningperiod.Theteachershouldaskquestionslike:• Whatwerethingslike…?• Howdoyouseethingschanging?• Whatarethedifferencesinthewayyoufeelbetweenthen

andnow?

Thephysicalmovingbetweenandsittingondifferentchairsofthisapproachcanaidthinkingaroundvariousperspectives.

Thefuturegoalvisualisationapproachcanbecombinedwithotherapproachesthathelpexplorewhereapupilisandwheres/hemaybeinthefuture.Theapproachesoutlinedbelowcanbecombinedwiththefuturegoalvisualisationapproach,althoughtheycouldbeusealoneorincombinationwithotherapproaches.

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Worst case scenario analysis

Thiscansometimeshelppupilstoseethatthingsarenotasbadastheymayhaveinitiallythought.Questionsthatcouldbeusedtoevokearesponseinclude:• Whatconcernsyoumost?• Whatareyourworstfearsaboutwhatmighthappenifyoudon’t

makeachange?• Whatdoyousupposeistheworstthatmighthappenifyou

continuewiththewayyou’vebeengoing?

Looking back

Sometimesitisusefultohavethepupilremembertimesbeforeproblemsemerged,andtocomparethesewiththepresentsituation.Herearesomeexamples:• Doyourememberatimewhenthingsweregoingwellforyou?

Whathaschanged?• Howdidyoufeelbeforealltheseproblemshappened?• Whatwasthelastthingyoufeltproudof?

Looking forward

Helpingpupilstoimagineachangedfutureisanapproachtogetpupilstoconsideradifferentviewpoint.Itcanalsogivetheteacheraninsightintohowapupilviewsthefuture.Heretheindividualisaskedquestionssuchas:• Ifyoudodecidetochange,whatareyourhopesforthefuture?

Howwouldyoulikethingstoturnoutforyou?• Icanseethatyou’refeelingreallyfrustratedrightnow.

Howwouldyoulikethingstobedifferent?• Whatdoyouthinkaretheoptionsforyou?• Whatwouldbethebestresultsyoucouldimagineifyoumake

achange?

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The miracle question

Theuseofa‘miraclequestion’inhelpingpupilstoidentifysolutionsandawayforwardisaconsideredtechniqueinanumberofapproaches.The‘miraclequestion’isaformofgoaldevelopmentthatexploresapupil’spreferredfutureandmaytakethefollowingformat:

Supposeamiraclehappens…andthemiracleisthatallyourproblemsaresolved…butthe

miraclehappensatnightwhileyouaresleeping,soyoudon’tknowithasactuallyhappened.

Whenyouwakeupinthemorningwhatwillyounoticethatisdifferenttotellyouthat

themiraclehashappened?

Otherpotentialquestionstoaskpupilstofacilitatetheprocesscouldinclude:• Whatwillyouseeyourselfdoingdifferently?• Whatwillbedifferent?• Whatwillyouseeothersdoingdifferently?• Whatmighthappen?• Whatwillbethefirstsign?• Whowillnoticefirst?• Whoelsemightnotice?• Howwillyouknowthattheyhavenoticed?• Whatsmallsignshaveyoualreadyseen?• Whatelse…?• Canyouthinkofonesmallsteptowardsyourmiracle?

Duringtheengagement,teachersshouldslowdowntheconversationasmuchaspossible,slowdownthespeedofthequestionsandalwayskeepthepupil’spreferredfutureinpositiveterms.

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4.6 Self-monitoring

Self-monitoringcanbeausefultoolforestablishingaclearerview:• Withapupilwhomaynotseeanydifficultyatallinhis/her

behaviour

• Withapupilwhomayseehis/herbehaviouraslessproblematicthanotherpeopleperceiveittobe

• Wherethereisdisagreementonthenature,degreeandfrequencyoftheproblem.

Setting up the self-monitoring profile

Thisprocessrequiresthepupiltomonitorandquantifyhis/herownbehaviouroverasetperiodoftime.Thisisalow-keyinterventionthatplacesgreatresponsibilityonthepupil.Itcanbeaveryusefulapproachtoworkingwithapupildemonstratinginitialproblematicbehaviour.Theteacherneedsto:• Discussthebehaviourthats/hewantsthepupiltomonitor• Beasspecificaspossibleaboutthesebehaviours• Bepreparedtodefinethembydemonstrationandmodelling• Ensurethepupilunderstandsthebehaviour• Checks/heisabletousethemonitoringform• Providetheopportunitytoreviewthefirstday’smonitoring

withthepupiltoensures/hehasgraspedthetask.

Anexampleofaself-monitoringprofileisgivenonthefollowingpage.Teachersmightwishtousetheprofile,oranadaptationoftheprofile,toworkwithpupils.Theexamplebelowcoversaweek,butitcanbeadaptedtocovershorterperiodsandtofocusontheworkwithinindividualclassrooms.

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A self-monitoring profile

Pupil:Date:

Behaviours to be monitored:

1.

2.

3.

Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Total incidents of: 1=2=3=

Pupil’s comments:

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Reviewing the self-monitoring profile

Thisapproachcanbeusedwhenworkingwithpupilswithentrencheddifficultiesbuttheteacherneedstobealerttopotentialproblems.Relyingonapupiltomonitorandrecordhis/herownbehavioursubjectsthisapproachtotheriskofunderoroverreportingbythepupil.Theoutcomefromtheself-monitoringprofilestillneedstobesetagainsttheviewsofothers,aswellasteacherobservation,astowhetherthebehaviourshaveactuallybeendisplayedasrecordedbythepupil.

Wherethereremainsawidemarginofdifference,thepupilfirstneedstobehelpedtounderstandtheproblemsordifficultiesthats/heiscausingorexperiencing.Iftheself-monitoringisafairrecordingofthepupil’sbehaviourduringtheperiod,thenthereisabasisfordecidingonanappropriateformofaction.Theteachersetsoutto:• Discusshis/herreporting• Compareitwiththeviewsofothers• Exploresimilaritiesanddifferences• Examinewhatneedstobedoneandbywhom.

Onedistinguishingfeatureofself-monitoringisthepossibilitythatthroughtheveryprocessofself-monitoring,theyoungperson:• Realisestheextentoftheproblem• Takescontrolofhis/herbehaviour• Startstochange.

Reflecting on outcomes from self monitoring

Thefactthatthepupilpresentsanatypicalperiodoftimewhenmonitoringisnotunusual.S/heismorelikelytoself-regulatehis/herbehaviourbecauseself-monitoringbringsitintohis/herday-to-dayconsciousness.

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Whatmayseemtobeunderreportingcouldbetruereportingofareductioninproblembehaviour;suggestingthatthepupilcanactuallytakecontrolandimprovethesituationunderhis/herownimpetus.Anychangesuggeststhat:• S/hecancontrolhisorherbehaviour• S/hehaschoiceintheways/heactsandreacts.

Anylapseintooldwaysofbehavingcanbechallengedonthegroundsthats/heisnowchoosingtobehaveinthiswayandneednotdoso.

4.7 Social skills training

Theterm‘socialskills’usuallyreferstoasetofcomplexinterpersonalbehavioursthatareassociatedwithsocialbehaviourandsocialcompetence.Suchinterpersonalbehaviourisavitaldeterminantofhowapupilwillfareineducation,amongstpeersandinthewidercommunity.

Socialskillsarelearnedskillsthatenableustoco-existeasilywithotherpeople.Thismeansthatincaseswheredeficienciesinsuchskillsexist,thereisatleastthepossibilitythattheycanberemediedbysystematictraining.Socialskillstrainingisfoundedonthispremise.

Somepupilslackthenecessarysocialskillstoformeffectiverelationshipswithothersandthisformsabigpartofthedifficultiesinrelationtobehaviour.Acquiringsocialskillsisdependentonacombinationof:• Maturity• Exposuretocircumstanceswheretheskillsaregained• Thelevelofunderstandingandimportancethepupilplaces

ontheseexperiences.

Wherepupilsshowahistoryofbehaviouraldifficultyoralevelofimpulsivenessintheirresponsetosituations,theymightneedhelptodevelopanewrepertoireofskills.Pupilsmayhavearangeofbehaviouraldifficultiesin:

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• Listening• Takinginstructions• Askingquestionsappropriately• Takingturnsandworkingwithothers• Acceptingfeedback• Understandingtheotherperson’spointofview• Appreciatingotherpeople’smotives• Seeingthelinkbetweentheirbehaviourandtheresponse

ofthosearoundthem• Evaluatingtheirownbehaviour• Knowinghowtheywillbehaveorrespondingivensituations• Seeingbeyondtheimmediatemoment• Developingalternativesolutionsandchoosingtousethem.

Teacherscanengagewithpupilsintryingtochangetheirbehaviourthroughworkingtochangetheconditionsthattriggerandreinforcethisbehaviour.Thismayonlyprovideapartialsolutionasitassumesthatboththetriggersandreinforcersmaybeeasilyaltered.

Awayofstrengtheningthisapproachistoengagewiththepupiltoexploretheirthoughtsandfeelingsaboutthewaytheybehave.Thisapproachseekstohelpthemto:• Understandthereasonsforactingthewaythattheydo• Comprehendthattheyhavethecapacitytochangetheir

behaviour• Appreciatethatinchangingtheirbehaviourtheymayinturn

changethebehaviourofotherstowardsthem.

Thereareavarietyoftechniquesthatcanbeemployedtoteachsocialskillstopupils.Asmallselectionoftechniquesareoutlineinthefollowingsections.

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Modelling

Thiscanbecarriedoutinanumberofwaysandcanincludedesirablesocialbehavioursbeingobservedinanaturalisticsetting.Anotherwayistoviewavideoshowingthedesiredbehaviourbeingcarriedoutandtothendiscusswhatishappening.Resourcesliketheseareavailabletobuyatreasonablecosts.AnotherexamplewouldbetousearecordedTVprogrammelikeasoaporsitcom.Ifyouaredealingwithapupilwhoisveryaggressiveverballyandyouaretryingtosomehowchallengethisbehaviour,thevideocouldbeshownandanotemadeofhowmanyputdownsareseen.Theeffectsoftheseonpeoplecouldbenotedanddiscussedwiththepupil.Inbothcases,amonitoringformcanbeusedtonotedownparticularbehaviourandtheamountoftimesithappens.

Coaching

Thisapproachrelieson:• Theuseofverbalinstructiontoteachsocialskills• Practiceasoneofitscriticalcomponents.

Thereisatraditionalviewofthecoachastheexpert.S/heisallknowingandprovidedthelearnerconformstohis/herexpectationsthenthelearnerwillbesuccessful.Fromtheexpertposition,thecoachoffersaperspectiveonthesituation.S/hetellsthepupilwhattodoandhowtodoit.Thecoachassumesapositionofpower.

Analternativeviewofcoaching,iswherethecoachhelpstoraisetheawarenessofthepupil,toworkwithhimorhertoconsideravailableoptionsandanyissuesorobstaclestoachievingthese.Thefocusisthenplaceduponenablingtheperformancetoensurethepupilachievessuccessfulchange.

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Whenworkingtoengagewithandchangepupils’behaviour,teachersshouldusethealternativeapproachtocoaching,wherethecoachseeksto:• Enablethepupiltochoosetorefinehis/herperformancerather

thandirectpreciselywhatitshouldbe• Buildupontrustandsupportthroughhis/herrelationshipwith

thepupil-Havingdevelopedarapportwiththepupilthroughforminganeffectiverelationshipwiththem,theteachermakesclearhis/herroleinprovidingsupportandworkingforchange

• Highlightthepupil’sstrengthsandcapabilities-Valuingthepupilandenablinghim/hertorecognisehis/herownstrengthsandcapability

• Developingthepupil’sself-awareness-Ensuringthattheyareabletotakeaclearviewoftheirbehaviourorperformanceinaninteraction

Specify the change needed

The role of the traditional coach might be set out as:

An alternative approach to coaching change involves working with pupils to:

Propose how the change is to be made

Rehearse the young person in the changed behaviour

Secure this changed behaviour in practice

Explore what they see as their needs

Enable them to consider how they may change through examining their options

Challenge any misconceptions, assumptions or ambiguities in the changes the young person proposes

Facilitate this change through practice and feedback

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• Focusuponspecificgoalsforchange-Discussingwiththepupilwhats/hethinksmightbechangedandhowsuchchangesmightbeachieved

• Facilitateskillsdevelopment-Examiningtheskillsandbehaviourthatmakeupthechangedperformancethepupilisseeking;Exploringtheseskillswiththepupilbygettinghim/hertodemonstratehis/herconceptoftheseskills;Providingfeedbackonthepupil’sperformancetoshapeandenhancehis/herskills.

Thefollowingisachecklistwhichcanbeoperatedtoensureasuccessful‘coach’/pupilrelationship:

A coaching skills checklist Tick

1. DoIhavethenecessarylevelofrapporttoexplorechangewiththispupil?

2. CanIhighlighttothepupilhis/herstrengthandcapability?

3. HaveIenabledthispupiltobeawareofhis/herdifficulties?

4. HaveIaskedthepupilwhats/hethinkscanbechangedandhowsuchchangemaybeachieved?

5. HaveIdiscussedwiththepupilthechangedperformance(s)/behaviour(s)thatthepupilisseeking?

6. Hasthepupildemonstratedhis/herconceptofthesebehaviours/skills?

7. Aretheproposedchangesachievablebythepupil?

8. Isthenumberofproposedchangeslimitedtotwoorthree?

9. HaveIprovidedopportunityforthepupiltorehearseandpracticethesechangesandgivenhim/hereffectivefeedback?

10.HaveIpreparedtheadultsaroundthepupilforthesechanges?

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Rehearsal and practice

Byaskingthepupiltodemonstratethetargetskillorbehaviour,theteachercanprovidefeedbacktoenhanceit.Effectivefeedbackfocusesupon:• whatwasgoodaboutthedemonstrationorperformance;and• oneortwoaspectsoftheperformancethatmightbeimproved

orenhanced.

Whereteachersfailtonoticewhatthepupildidwell,orworsestillishighlycriticalofthepupil’seffortthens/heriskslosingthepupil’swillingnesstoengageinchange.Sometimesitcanbehelpfulfortheteachertodemonstrateormodelthewayinwhichthepupilmightimprovehis/herperformance.Thisneedstobedonewithcaution.Iftheteachergivesaportrayalthatlookstoopolishedortooremotefromthepupil’sownperformanceitmayshutoffhis/hermotivationtotryagain.

Supporting the pupil’s application of his/her new skills or behaviours

Aswellasenablingthepupiltodecideupon,practiceandrehearsethechangedbehaviour,itmaybeimportantthattheteacherpreparesthosearoundthepupilforsuchchange.

Alltoooftenpupilsindifficultyonlycometotheattentionofadultswhentheirbehaviourprovestobeproblematic.Wherepupilsattempttochange,ifthereisnorecognitiongivenbytheadultsaroundthem,theymayquicklygiveuptrying.Theteachermayneedtonegotiatecarefullywiththeadultsaroundapupiltoensurethattheyrecognisethepupil’sattempttochangeandtheydosoinawaythatispalatableoracceptabletothatpupil.

Celebrating the pupil’s success in achieving change

Itisveryimportantthattheteacherensuresthatthepupilrealisesthatitishis/hersuccess.Wherepupilsachievechange,itiscriticallyimportantthattheteachercelebratesthepupil’ssuccessandthats/hedoessoinawaythatfurtherempowersthepupil.

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4.8 Behaviour agreements and behaviour plans

Behaviour agreements

Abehaviouragreementrepresentsaformalagreementwithapupiltoachieveanewandchangedwayofbehaving.Agreementscantakemanyformsbuttheyusuallyinclude:• Aclearstatementofthechangedbehaviourthatthepupil

isstrivingfor• Thewayinwhichsuchnewbehaviourwillbereinforced

andrewarded• Thewayinwhichsupportwillbeprovidedtothepupilthrough

thischange.

Bysettingouttheagreementtochangeasaformaldocument,theteacherhastheopportunitytoclearlyspecifyexpectationsonallsidesandcanconveytothepupilthatheorsheisaresponsibleandactivepartnerinthischangeprocess.

Anagreementcanbeaverypositiveandpowerfultoolforchange.Unfortunately,theyaresometimespoorlyplanned,preparedandmonitored.Agreementsareapotenttoolforchangeandtheytakeconsiderabletimetodevelopandensuretheyareright.Arushedbehaviouragreementislikelytolackthenecessaryspecificityandmayevendoharm.Therearemanywaysinwhichabehaviouragreementcangowrongandtheyneedtobecarefullymonitoredtosecuresuccess.

Keystepsintheeffectivebehaviouragreementprocessmightinclude:• Developingasharedviewoftheproblemsordifficultieswith

thepupil• Gatheringallrelevantinformationaboutthepupilfromthepupil

him/herselfand,whererelevantparentsandotherteachers• Agreeingupondesirablebehavioursandwhatthesecomprise• Developingshort-termtargetsforachievingthesenewbehaviours• Settingouthowthesenewbehaviourswillbeenactedby

thepupil

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• Establishingwaystomonitorormeasurethisnewbehaviour• Agreeinghowthisnewbehaviourcanbereinforced

andrewarded• Securinganynecessarysupportfromotherstoensurethe

agreementisasuccess• Agreeingwhentheinitialshort-termtargetswillbereviewed• Formallysigningtheagreementwiththepupil(involvingparents

asappropriate).

Akeyelementindesigningasuccessfulbehaviouragreementisusingeffectiverewardsthatmatchtheneeds,interestsandenthusiasmsofpupils.

Indevelopingabehaviouragreementitisimportanttobalancetheneedfordetail(sothepupilisclearoftheobjectives),againsttheneedforbrevity.Theteachershouldalsoensurethatthepupilisfullyinvolvedwiththedesignoftheagreementitself.

Behaviour plans

Abehaviouragreementismorepowerfulwhencombinedwithabehaviourplanwhichsupportsthepupiltoachievethechangeintheirbehaviourthathasbeenagreedon.Thebehaviourplanshouldoutline:• Whatneedstobedone

- Withwhom?- How?- Where?- When?

• Whatsupportisneeded- Fromwhom?- Howwillitbesecured?

Aneffectiveindividualbehaviourplan,shouldinvolveparentsandlinktoanyPastoralSupportProgramme(refertoCircular1/2004).

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Action planning for change

Tomaximisethechancesofabehaviourchangeplanbeingsuccessfulandsustained,itisimportantthatpupilshaveinvestmentinandownershipoftheprocessandtheresultingplan.Teachersneedtoworkwithpupilstoagreeaims,objectivesandtargets(fortheshortandmediumterm).

An action planning sequence

Assess and monitor pupil

Identify and act on any immediate high risk issues

Discuss and agree the aims for change with the pupil

Negotiate the steps towards securing change

Discuss joint short- term targets

Implement the change strategy

Rehearse and model the required change behaviour

Monitor the pupil’s progress and supply support as needed

Review the outcome of the change strategy

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The aims

Changeismostlikelytohappenwhenthepupilhasbeenactivelyengagedindiscussionabouttheirownaimsandaspirations.Arangeofquestionssuchaswhatif…?’canhelpintheexplorationofissuesandallowthepupiltobegintolooktothefutureandwhattheywantfromit-intheshort,mediumandlongerterm.However,manypupilswillfindthisprocessdifficult,especiallywheretheyhaveimmediateproblemstodealwith,andwillneedsubstantialsupport.

The objectives

Pupilsshouldbeencouragedtoexploreanddevelophis/herownobjectives.Teacherswillneedtohelppupilstostrikeabalancebetweenobjectivesthatareeitheroverorunderambitiousandthosethatarerealisticandachievable.Formanypupilsfromtroubledbackgroundsitmaybethefirstopportunitytheyhavehadtolookaheadandplanforapositivefuturewithanadultthattheycantrust.

Setting joint targets for change

Manypupilswillsetthemselvesoverlydemandingtargets,forexample:• “Iwillalwaysconcentrateinscience”• “Iwillnevershoutoutinclassagain”• “Iwillbeontimeforeverylessonfortherestofmytimeinschool”• “Iwillneverlosemytemperagain”• “Iwillbehave perfectlyallthetimeinschool”.

Whilstallofthesearelaudableandpraiseworthytheymaybeunrealisticforpupilswith:• Poorawarenessoftime• Noangermanagementskills• Alonghistoryofaggression.• Attentionproblems• Poorsocialskills.

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Realisticandachievabletargetsmightbeveryshort-term,egtogetthroughtomorrow,ortotheendoftheweek,demonstratingspecifiedbehaviours.

Usingatarget-settingapproachenablesteachersto:• Setoutthetasksclearly• Dealwiththeminanorderlysequence• Ensureeachtargetismetandachieved• Measureprogress• Ensureearlysuccess.

The misuse of target setting

Ifthetarget-settingapproachismisusedthentheoutcomeswillbelessthanpositive.Whentargetsareimposeduponpupilswithoutanyattemptstocoachthemordeveloptheskillsthattheyneedtoprosperinschoolthenthesetargetscansimplybefailedmilestonesthatcanbemisusedtojudgeapupilasafailure.

Teachersshouldavoidsettingtargetsthatare:• Takenfromapre-publishedlist

• Notspecifictotheindividualandhis/hercircumstances

• Tooeasyortoohardtoachieve

• Meaninglesstothepupil.

SMART targets

SMARTisanacronymtodemonstrateeffectivetargets:

S -SpecificM-MeasurableA-AgreedR-RealisticT -Timelimited.

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Whereatargetisnot‘SMART’,teachersshouldtrytore-phraseitsothatitbecomesSMART.Havingsetthesetargets,teachersneedtoconsidertherangeofchangetechniquesthatmayhelpapupilachievethem.

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Chapter 5Incident management

Mostpupilsbehavewellinschool-evenifmanywilloccasionallyhavean‘offday’-andawellmanagedclassroomdramaticallyreducesthechancesofbehaviourproblemsarising.

Evenwhenbehaviourdoesbecomeanissue,positiveresponsesandeffectiveinterventionfromteachersarelikelytomanagethesituationquicklyandminimiseanyimpactontherestoftheclass.

However,somepupilsmightdisplaybehaviourdifficultieswhichareoutsideofthenormoftherestoftheclass.Formany,theirbehaviourmaybelinkedtoexternalpressuressuchaspoororinconsistentparenting;bullying;lossorbereavement;substancemisuseoremotional,physicalandevensexualabuse.Somepupilsshowgreatresilienceandneverdisplaybehaviourproblemsatschool.Othersactouttheirdifficultiesthroughtheirbehaviour.

Aminoritywaywithdrawand‘actin’theirdifficultiesandtheycangetmissedwithinabusyclassroom.

Whateverthecauseofproblematicbehaviour,whenteachersunderstandagivensituation,theyaremuchmorelikelytofeelconfidentaboutitand,therefore,morelikelytomanageiteffectively.Itisimportanttohaveaclearandsharedunderstandingofhowincidentsaretriggered;howtheycanescalateintoacrisisandhowtorespondateveryphaseoftheincident.

Mander(2008)emphasisesthatcrisesare‘created’byourvaluesandresponsestosituationsand“Thespecificsoftheincidentmaynotalwaysbeimportant;itisthereactionsanincidentprovokesfromthosedirectlyandindirectlyinvolvedthatmattermost.”

Thechaptercovers:• Generalprinciplesforeffectiveincidentmanagement• A5-stageincidentprofileandstrategiesforresponse

ateachstage• Safeandeffectiveintervention.

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5.1 General principles for effective incident management

WGrundy&DJones(2002)notethat‘occasionswillinevitablyarisewhenteachersandpupilsconflict.Lowlevel,relativelyminormisdemeanourscanturnintoseriousconfrontations.Frequently,sanctionsaregiven,notfortheoriginalmisdemeanour,butforthepupil’sreactionstothememberofstaff’.Belowarearangeofthingsthatcanhelptoavoidunnecessaryescalation.

• Positive inaction- Decideifimmediateinterventionisneeded,hasarulebeenbrokenthatjustifiesimmediateintervention?

- Wouldaquietwordlatersuffice?

• Saving face- Leaveagraciouswayoutforallinvolved(theolderthepupilthemoreimportantitistomakesurethereisawayout.Anyonewhofeelscorneredwillbecomemoreaggressive)

- Avoidcorneringpupilsintoan‘Iwin,youlosesituation’- Offeracompromisethatwillconveyasenseoffairnessandallowpupilstosaveface

- Avoidaudiencesasthismayputpressureonthepupilnottobackdowninpublic

- Taketimetocheckfactsbeforeissuingasanction.

• Focus on the issue- Makeclearthepupil’spartinresolvetheissue- Keepaskingthemtothinkabouttheissueandtheirbehaviour- De-personalisethebehaviour.

• Avoid threats- Threatsfromtheteacherwillincreasethelikelihoodofthepupilreactingaggressivelyandescalatingtheconflict(Threatsconveyamessagetothepupilthattheteacherseesthemasathreattotheirauthority)

- Threatscanprovokeretaliationorevenifthepupilconforms,cangeneratefeelingsofhostilityandresentment.

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• Compromise- Bepreparedtoseekawayforwardthatisacceptabletoallconcerned

- Tryandmakeallpartiesfeelwinners.

• Return to normal- Areasonabletimeafteraconfrontationfindtimetospeakbrieflytothepupil

- Donotmakethisapostmortembutshowthatthedisputeisoveranddonewithandnormalinteractionsareexpected

- Aimtore-establishacooperativeworkingrelationship.

Try to:• Remaincalmandcontrolled• Reiteratethatitisnotthepupilyoudisapproveofbuttheir

behaviour• Assumethatthepupilisgoingtocalmquickly• Talkfirmly,withcleardirectionsandkeeptalking• Sendforassistanceifnecessary-Tellthepupilyouaresendingfor

assistanceinordertosupportthemandhelpthemgaincontrol• Removeanyaudience• Keepasafedistance;angry,violentpeopletendtoneedmore

bodyspace• Describethebehaviourbutbenon-judgemental,‘Icanseethat

youareangry’ismuchbetterthan,‘Whatdoyouthinkyouaredoing?’

• Askifthepupilneeds‘time-out’• Trytorecordtheaggressiveoutburstassoonaspossibleafter

theincident(themoreaccuratethebetter;trytodecidewhathappenedbeforetheincidentaswell,thismayhelptoidentifypossibletriggerstoavoidinfuture)

• Givethepupilanopportunitytotalkaboutwhathappenedassoonaspossible,exploringanyotherstrategiestheycouldhaveusedinthesituation

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• Planresponses(Staffwhoarepreparedandknowwhattheywilldointheeventofanemergencyfeelmoreconfidentandabletodealwiththesituationcalmly.Knowtheschoolpolicy).

Try not to:• Useconfrontationalbodylanguagee.g.standinanaggressive

mannerwitharmsfoldedorhandsonhips• Engageinprolongedorexaggeratedeyecontact(thiscanbe

perceivedasdirectaggression)• Useconfrontationalorprovocativelanguage,e.g.‘stopbeing

sostupid’• Usephysicalinterventionunlessothernon-physicalmethods

ofcalminghavebeentriedandtherearesignificantriskstopersonalsafety

• Allowthepupiltoseethatyouareangryandfrustrated.

5.2 A 5-stage incident profile and strategies for response at each stage

Someteachersfeelthattheirpracticeismadeupofanendlessseriesoffirefightingofincidents.Intryingtodevelopasharedunderstandingofhowincidentsdevelopandunfold,thefive-stagemodelofthe‘typical’sequenceofanincidentcanhelpteacherstounderstandandanalysethephasesthatmakeupanincident.Throughsuchananalysisteacherscanbegintodevelopasharedunderstandingofwhatmakesupanincidentandhowtheycanrespondeffectivelywithinitsdifferentstages.ThefollowingsectionsareadaptedfromHewitt(1998),withadditionalillustrationandexamples.

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Thefive-stagemodelisshownbelow:

Thediagramonthepreviouspagesetsout5stagesinanincident.Eachofthestagesislikelytolastforadifferentlengthoftimewitheachindividual.Somemaymovefromtriggertocrisisveryquickly.Othersmaytakeagreatdealoftimeintherecoveryphasebeforetheyreachthepostcrisislow.

Thetimespentoneachphasevariesfromindividualtoindividualandalterswiththecircumstancestheyfindthemselvesin.Somepupilsaremorereadilyarousedthanothersandtheyaremoreeasilytriggeredtowardsacrisis.Theexamplesetoutbelowmayhelptoillustratethesequence.

5 stages of an incident - Dave

The trigger:Dave,aged14,isinMissColes’Frenchclass.DavefeelsthatMissColesalwayspicksonhimandsharedthisviewwithSteve.AstheylefttheMathslessonforFrench,DavewasnotamusedwhenStevecommentedthatMissColesmighthaveareasonforpickingonhim.AlthoughhedidnotsayawordtoSteve,heenteredtheFrenchclasswithhismoodwrittenacrosshisface.

Trigger Build up Crisis Recovery Post crisis lowStage

Level ofarousal

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The build up: MissColesfailstonoticeDave’smood.Shethenaskshimthreequestionsinquicksuccessiontocheckthatheunderstandstheworkthatheissupposedtobedoing.“She’strulygotitinforyou!”muttersSteve,“maybeshefanciesyou.”

The crisis: DaveisnowangrywithbothMissColesandSteve.HesaystoSteve,“Pushoffandleavemealone.”MissColesnoticeshimspeakoutfromacrosstheroomandsays,“Davejustgetonwithyourwork.”InoutrageDaverespondswithatorrentofverbalabuse,demandsthatMissColesstopspickingonhimandstormsoutoftheclass.

Recovery: AfterseeingDaveeruptinthisway,MissColes,thoughtakenaback,concludesthatthereislittlepointintryingtodiscusstheissuewithhimnow.ShesendsfortheHeadofYearwhotakesDavetoherroomtoensurethatheissafeandtoprovidehimwiththespacetocalmdown.

Post crisis low: TheHeadofYearinsistsDavesitsinherroom.SherealisesthatthebestresponseistowaituntilDaveislesstenseandlessaroused.Eventually,Daveseemstogolimpandletsthetensiongo.Onlythendoesshereviewtheincidentwithhim.

Details of stage 1: The trigger phase

Aneventorincidentoccursthatraisesthepupil’slevelofarousal.Thismeansthats/hebeginstoexperienceanescalationinhis/herfeelingsandemotions.Thismaybeanincreaseinanger,sadness,anxietyetc.Suchtriggersmaybeduetoeventsathome,onthejourneytoschool,orintheplayground.Teachersmaynotalwaysseethetrigger.

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Inthistriggerphase,theindividual’sarousalmaycontinuetoincrease.Thisincreasemaynotjustbepromptedbyeventsbutbythepupilthinkingaboutevents,callingupmemoriesandrespondingemotionallytothem.Thetablebelowsuggestssomesignsandsignalsthatarousalisincreasing.

Handmovements-clenchedhands;clenchingandunclenchinghands;drummingwithfingers;tapping;tappingwithapenorotherobject

Changeinvolumeofspeech-upwardstoshoutordownwardstowhisper

Tensioninbodyposture Inappropriatelaughter

Rigidstructure Suddenstillness

Agitatedbehaviour Talkingunderone’sbreath

Morerapidmovement Raisedvoice

Clenchingofteeth Useofchallengephrasessuchas“Youcantryit…!”or“Goonthen…!”

Lockingofjaw Tauntingothers

Increasedgazeorstare Teasingothers

Lackingeyecontact Erraticspeech

Rockingbehaviour Refusaltorespondtorequests

Swearingunderbreath Swearingatothers

Failuretouseappropriateformsofaddress

Swearingatteachers

Thekeyskillinthisstageisobservation.Itisveryimportantthatteachersnoticeandappreciatethatapupil’slevelofarousalisrising.Thislistmaybehelpfulwhenobservingsignsthatarousalhasbeen

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triggered.However,itislikelythatarousalwillbehighlyindividualinitsexpression.Teachersneedtobe:• Awareofthepupil’susualmood• Alerttoanysignificantchangeinthatmood• Knowledgeableastohowtorespondwhentheyseethepupil’s

arousalheightened.

Strategies to respond in the trigger stage

Sometriggerscanbeinfluencedandshapedbyteacherswhocanreducethepressureonpupils,lowertheirexpectationsofthepupilshort-term,reducetheinteractionaroundthem,enablethemtosucceedatagiventaskbyprovidingthemwithadditionalsupport.Teachersmayactto:• Removethetrigger-ifthecauseiswithintheclassroom• Acknowledgetheproblemandprovidethepupilwithtime

toimprovehis/herself-control• Simplycontinuetomonitorthebehaviour• Informcolleagues-particularlythosewhoteachtheclassnext-

ofthepupil’sdifficulty.Manyincidentscanbepreventedbyearlyinformationsharing.

Duringthisphasetheteachershould:• Bealerttothemoodstateofallofthepupilsintheclass,

particularlythosewhohaveexperienceddifficultiesinthepast.(Somemayalreadybearousedandangryonentrytoschoolduetoeventsathome)

• Attempttointerveneatthelowestlevelpossibletosecureachange

• Makediscreet,non-verbalsignsorsignalstoreducethetensioninthesituation

• Staycalm,andstrivetoensurethatyouappearcalm,relaxedandincontrol

• Determinewhethertheissuesneedtobedealtwithnoworlater-willaninterventiondefusethesituationorescalatethetension?

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• Acknowledgethatthereisaproblemandsuggestitwillbedealtwithattheendofthelesson

• Displaystrategiestode-triggerthesituation,diffusetensionortoredirecttheindividual’sattention

• Trytoavoidescalatingtheproblemunlessyouaresurethatitwillnotdiminishofitsownaccord

• Onlyconfrontifs/heissuretheproblemwillnotgoawaybyusingotherapproaches

• Allowthepupilenoughtimeandspacetorecoverhisorherself-control.

Thechallengeistochoosethestrategythatbestfitsthepupil,theclass/groupand,ofcourse,theteacher.However,therealskillisinremainingcalmenoughtothinkthroughtheoptionsandchoosethebestone.

Details of stage 2: The build up

Thepupil’slevelofarousalhascontinuedtorisetothepointwherehis/herbehaviourisbeingnoticedbyothers,orishavinganimpacton,orinfluencinghis/herperformance.

Theteacher’sneedtorespondtothebehaviourisaslikelytobedrivenbytheneedtomanagethelearningofothersastomeettheneedsofthearousedindividuals.Thegraphshowsasteadybuildupinarousal.Inreality,thismaytaketheformofaseriesofspikysteps.

Thedecisionastohowteachersinterveneneedstobebasedupontheirknowledgeofthepupil,iehisorher:• Speedofarousal• Levelofimpulsiveness• Capacitytocopewithfrustration• Historyofrisktakingbehaviour• Selfimage-asviolentornon-violent• Pasthistoryofaggression.

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Teachersneedtoremaincalmand,moreimportantly,appeartobecalm.Thisisachievedbyself-presentation,stance,posture,gesture,movement,expression,toneandpaceofspeech.

Strategies to respond in the build up stage

Strategiesthatteachersmightadoptinclude:• Distractionoftheindividualbyengaginghim/herinsomething

thatisofkeyinteresttohim/herorisknowntobeanareawheres/heexperiencessuccess.Byadoptingthisapproachteachersmayreducethelevelofbuildup

• Distractingthegroupbyinvertingthegroupintoadifferenttopicfordiscussionoractivity.Teachersmaybeabletodrawtheindividualintomorepositiveengagement

• Redirectingtheindividual.Ifteachersspotthebuildupsoonenoughtheymaybeableto:- Callapersontoorder- Explainwhatishappeningtohim/her- Describewhatyouwanthim/hertodo.Thisneedstobedoneinaconfident,assertive,butnotauthoritarianmanner

• Theapproachneedstosignalwarmthandregardfortheindividual,asthisismuchmorelikelytosecureapositiveresponse

• Defusing-usingapproachesthatreduceratherthanescalatethepressureintheinteraction,forexample:

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Inthebuildupstage,donot:• Movetowardstheindividual

atspeed• Closeinonhim/her• Standabove/overthe

individual• Maketouchcontact• Raisevoice• Makethreateningor

controllinggestures-pointing,wavinghandsetc

• Don’tplacehandsonhipsandlockstance.

Inthebuildupstage,do:• Moveinarelaxed,

calmmanner• Stayatleast3-4pacesaway

fromhim/her• Avoidimplyingthreatby

standingover/above• Avoidtouchcontactasthis

mayactasanadditionaltrigger

• Speakinacalmrelaxedway• Ensurehandsareopen,

relaxedanddown• Adaptarelaxedandcalm

stance.

Onceapupilhasbeenaroused,eventsbeyondtheteacher’sdirectcontrolmaycontinuetofuelthebuilduptowardsacrisis.Withinaclass,akeyfactormaybewhatotherpupilsdoandsay.Equally,whattheteachersaysanddoesmaybemisunderstoodandmisinterpretedduetothelevelofthepupil’sarousal.Theteachershould:• Continuetomodelcalmness• Engagehim/herinaninitialexchange• Trytoexplainwhatwashappeningtohim/her• Reflectonhis/herreactiontoyourconcern• Avoidsayingtoomuchandspeakingtoooften,ieavoidpestering

orprovokingthepupil• Ifs/hersignalsthatcontactiswelcome,movealongsideand

discussthingswithhim/her• Modelcontrolbyself-presentation,movement,posture,gesture,

expressionandtoneofvoice• Distracttheindividualbydrawinghis/herattentionto

adifferentissue

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• Distractthegroupbyintroducinganewidea/issue/topictothegroup.Drawtheindividualintothediscussion

• Redirecttheindividualtoanotherordifferentactivity.Askhim/hertocollectabook,resourceandmaterialsfromtheoffice/similar,ieapre-arrangeddiversionaryapproach.

Thekeychallengefortheclassteacherduringthisphaseistheabilitytohandlethesituationveryskilfullysothatacrisisisavoided.Theteachershouldremainincontrolofhim/herself,theclassandthesituationwhileengagingwiththepupil.

Details of stage 3: The crisis

Notallincidentsdevelopintocrises.Somejustramblealongbelowthecrisislevelbutarenonethelessexhaustingtomanage.Acrisiscomesonlywhenthepupilactsoutinanextremeandunusualmanner.Whenacrisisoccursitislikelytoberelativelybrief:• Anoutburstofverbalabuse• Anattempttorunfromtheroomandevent• Anattempttothreatenverballyorevenphysically.

Itisimportantthatteachersdonotrespondbytriggeringthepupilbacktocrisis,egwhenapupilthrowshis/herbookawayinsistingthats/hegoesandpicksitupimmediately,or,whenapupilhasjustbeenverballyabusive-demandingacompleteapologyatonce.

Inbothoftheseinstances,theindividualmayhaveonlyjustmovedbeyondthepeakofthecrisis.Theinsistenceorimmediateconformitytoteacherauthoritymaybetoosoon,witharousallevelsstillhighandasecond,andperhapsworseissueprecipitated.

Sometimesteachershaveverylittleopportunitytointerveneatthe‘Trigger’and‘Buildup’stagesbecausetheirinvolvementisoftenpromptedbythecrisisitself.Itisimportanttorememberthatsomeincidentsdevelopgraduallywhilstothersseemtoignite,allofasudden.Oncethecrisishasdeveloped,theinitialstrategywoulddependuponthesituationthatteachersencounter.

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Strategies to respond in the crisis stage

Thestrategiestorespondduringthisphasemightinclude:• Invitingthepupiltoleavetheroom• Invitingthepupiltositelsewhereinaseatdesignatedbythe

teacherorHeadofYear• Seekingsupportfromelsewhereifatallpossible• Removingtheaudiencefromthepupil• Removingthepupilfromtheaudience• Resettlingorre-establishingtheclass.

Theseideascanbehelpfulinmanagingdifficultorviolentincidents.Therearealsothingsthatteacherscandoandsaythatmayhelpindealingwiththesituation,including:• Itmaybehelpfultoacknowledgethepupil’semotionalstate-

“Icanseeyou’reveryangry!”ietoempathise,withoutagreeingwithhimorher

• Itmayreducetheescalationoftheincidentifteachersavoidhead-to-head,face-to-faceconfrontationalpositioning

• Itmayimprovematterstolettheindividualventhis/heranger,providingnooneislikelytobehurtandthattheventingquicklyleadstoareductioninactivity

• Theteachershouldtrytocontrolhis/herownemotionsandnotgetangryinreturn.(Provokingtheteachertoangercanbehighlyrewardingandcanescalateanincident)

• Theteachershouldalsoprovidereassurancethatthiscanbemanagedandtheproblem(s)canbedealtwith.

Allofthesearegoodideasbuttheyneedtobediscussedandexploredaheadoftime.Itistoolateifthefirsttimethatteacherstrytothinkaboutthemisinthemiddleofadevelopingincident.Themanagementofthiscrisisphaseremainsakeyconcernforteachers.Teachersoftenwanttobeclearastolimitstotheirroleandresponsibilityinmanagingsuchcrisesastheybalancetheirconcernfortheindividualwiththatofthesafetyofotherpupils,colleaguesorequipment.

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Details of stage 4: The recovery stage

Whenthepeakoftheincidenthasjustpassed,thereisanunderstandablewishto‘sortthingsout’asteachersmayhavebeenunsettledandeventhreatenedbysuchanincident.Thereisaninnerneedtoretaincontrolandtobeseentobeincharge.Sometimesthiscanstemfromteachers’anxietythatiftheyarenotseentobeinchargeofthisparticularindividualthentheymaylosecontrolwithothers.

However,ifthepupilisstillexperiencinghighlevelsofexposure,thenwhilstsoaroused,s/heisunlikelytofinditeasyto:• Listentowhatteachershavetosay• Acknowledgehis/herrole/responsibilityinanincident• Acceptanypunishmentorsanction• Makeanyreparationforwhathashappened.

Strategies to respond in the recovery stage

Whoeverisdealingwiththerecoveryphase(theHeadofYearorteacher)thefollowingguidelinesmaybehelpful:• Observethepupil• Trytoreadandunderstandhows/heisfeeling• Don’tactunnecessarily• Monitorhis/herlevelofarousal• Waituntilthepupilprovidesindicationsthats/heisnowmore

relaxed,eglossofphysicaltension,slumpinpostureetc• Providesomereassurancethats/hecancalmdownandregain

theirself-control• Signalthattheissuewillbedealtwithinfull-butonlywhen

thepupilisreadyandabletoengage-itisimportantforthepupiltoknowthattheissueisnotforgottenbutwillbedealtwithinapropermannerwhentheteacherdeemsittobeappropriate.

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Keytoallofthisisasenseofpaceandtimingandensuringthatthepersonisrecoveringtothepointwheres/hecanacceptand‘hear’theteacher’sresponse.Rushingtheissueorrushingthingsatthisstage,islikelytotriggerresistanceorevenfurtherdifficulties,andtheuseofblamelanguageatthispointisunlikelytoimprovethings,eg:• “Idon’tknowwhatcameoveryou”• “Youreallyletyourselfdown”• “Wewillnottoleratethatsortofbehaviourhere”.

Allofthesethingsmaybesaidbutitismuchbetterthattheyaresaidwhentheywillbeheardandhaveimpact,ratherthanwhenapupilisunabletolisten.

Details of stage 5: The post crisis low

Followingacrisisoranincidentofexplosivebehaviour,thepupilmaycometofeelverydeflated.S/hemayfeelarangeofemotionsfromembarrassment,discomfortorshocktoguiltabouttheincident.Oncethepupilbeginstoexperiencetheseemotionsandhasrelaxeds/heislikelytobemuchmoreaccessibletotheteacherandanyattempttoconfront,challengeandchangehis/herbehaviourwillhaveagreaterlikelihoodofsuccess.

Bywaitingforthepostcrisislow,theteacherdoingthisworkwiththeindividualismuchmorelikelytosecureapositivedialoguewiththeindividualandtoengagehim/herinactivelythinkingaboutchangeandbehavinginadifferentway.Whilstthistakesalittlemoretime,itislikelythattherewillbeamarkedreductioninanyrecurrenceofthisbehaviour.

Strategies to respond in the post crisis low

Inthisphase,theteachertakestheopportunityto:• Getthepupiltoreviewtheincident• Acknowledgehis/herroleinit• Explorewhatcouldhavebeendonetopreventit.

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Inthisphasetheteacherresumescontrolofthesituationinamuchmoredirectway.S/heneedstoconsideranumberofkeyquestions.

• Whatsanctionsneedtofollow?- Howwilltheybedelivered?- Where?- When?- Bywhom?

• Whatreparationneedstobemade-anapology,aletteroranactofreparationorrestoration?

• Whatneedstobedonetopreventsuchanincidenthappeningagain?

• Mostimportantly,anyoneincidentneedstoleadtoanimmediateconsiderationof:- Whatcanbedonetopreventitescalatingasecondtime?- Whatneedstobedonetoensurethepupilmanageshis/herangerinamoreeffectiveway?

Investingtimeinthepositivemanagementofsuchinteractionswouldundoubtedlybringbenefitstotheclassandthewholeschool.

5.3 Safe and effective intervention

Despiteteachers’bestattemptsatpreventingaggressivebehaviourandmanagingincidents,therewillbetimeswhenphysicalinterventionbecomesthemostobviouswaytomanagetheincidentandpreventharmtopupils,teachersandproperty.Localauthoritiesandschoolshavetheirownguidelinesforusingphysicalinterventionwhichallteachersshouldbeveryfamiliarwith.

InNovember2009theWelshAssemblyGovernmentissuedaconsultationdocumentcalledBehaviour in Schools - Safe and Effective Intervention.Thisdocumentrepresentsaconsultationon3aspectsintendedtosupportschools,localauthoritiesandtheirpartnersinprovidingasafeenvironmentforchildrenandyoungpeople.ResponsesclosedinFebruary2010.Itisproposed,subjecttoconsultationthatanynewpowerswouldbecommenced

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inSeptember2010andrevisedguidancewouldbeissuedinSpringof2010.

Theconsultationdocumentcoversthefollowing:• Section 1-Newpowersanddutiesforschooldiscipline,

parentalresponsibilityandexclusion,containedintheEducationandInspectionsAct2006.MuchofthelegislationconsolidatesprovisionsinpreviousActs.

• Section 2-Revisedguidanceontheuseofforcetocontrolorrestrainpupils.ThisismorecomprehensiveguidancereplacingthatcurrentlycontainedinWelshOfficeCircular37/98.Theguidanceissplitintotwomainparts,onerelevantforallschoolsandpupilsandonerelatingtopupilswithseverebehaviouraldifficulties,whichwillbeparticularlyrelevantforspecialschools.

• Section 3-Guidancerelatingtothenewpowerforschoolstobeabletosearchpupilsforweaponswithouttheirconsent,containedintheViolentCrimeReductionAct,2006.Thisisanewpowerratherthanadutyandthereforedoesnotcreateanynewrequirementonschoolsthatchoosenottousethepower.

ThedocumentandfurthersummaryinformationcanbeaccessedfromtheWelshAssemblyGovernmentwebsite:www.wales.gov.uk/inclusionandpupilsupportordirectfromhttp://wales.gov.uk/consultations/childrenandyoungpeople/behaviourinschools/?lang=en

Schoolsmaywishtoconsultwww.bild.org.ukforanaccreditedorganisationfortrainingonphysicalintervention.

ThefollowingsuggestionsmustbeputinthecontextofthelocalpoliciesandWelshguidanceonusingphysicalintervention,butprovidesomebasicpointersforteachers.

Do• Avoidusingphysicalinterventionexceptasaverylastresort• Knowtheprocedureintheschool’sguidelinesfortheuseof

physicalintervention

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• Discusstheprocedureswithaseniormemberofstaffifunsureofanypoint

• Sendforadulthelpearlyifthingsbegintogetoutofhandandphysicalinterventionseemslikely

• Assessthesituationcalmlybeforeacting• Interveneinawaythatmakestheteacher,otherpupils,andthe

troubledpupilsafe• Usetheminimuminterventionfortheminimumtime• Reporttheincidenttotheheadteacherorseniormemberofstaff

assoonaspossible• Completeareportimmediately.

Do not• Placeselfatriskbyattemptingtointervenephysically,

forexample,withapupilwhoisobviouslycarryingaweapon• Attempttorestrainapupilwhentemperislost• Useexcessiveforce• Placeselfatriskoffalseallegation,ieavoidbeingalonewith

apupil,(ifpossible)• ‘Forget’toreporttheincident• Ignoretheneedtorecordtheincidentinwriting.

Whileprofessionalsareoftenallowedtousewhatistermed‘reasonableforce’,thereisnopreciselegaldefinitionof‘reasonableforce’makingthetermalittlevague.Itmaybemoreeasilyexplainedintermsofaspecificeventorincident.Reasonableforcecouldbedefinedasactionneededtomakethesituationsafeandtoreduceanyrisktoothers.

‘Reasonableforce’maybelegitimatewhere:• Apupilattacksateacher• Apupilattacksanotherpupil• Apupiliscausing/likelytocauseinjurytoothers• Adistressedpupil,whoisalreadyatrisk,triestoleavetheschool.

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Tobeabletomanagecriseseffectively,awhole-schoolapproachisneeded.Teachersneedtohavediscussedsuchsituationsaheadoftime.Theyneedtohaveexploredtheirsenseofhowsituationscanbemadesafeandeachindividual’ssenseofhows/hemightrespond.

Teachersmustconstantlymonitortheirowninternal‘earlywarningsigns’ofescalatingangerandcannotaffordtolosecontrol.Aneffectiveoutcomeofanyincidentisoneinwhicheveryonecalmsdown,nobodyishurt,nothingisbroken,nooneistootraumatisedandorderisrestored.Hewitt(1998)callsthis‘doingtheleasttoachievethemost’.

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Chapter 6More specialist approaches to support behaviour change

Sofarthishandbookhasconsideredtechniquesandapproachestomanagingbehaviourwithintheclassroomthatcanbeusedbyallteacherswithouttheneedforspecialisttraining.Thischaptersetsoutanoverviewofaselectionofstrategiesandapproachesthatclassroomteachersmayliketoconsidertosupportbehaviourchange,butwhicharelikelytorequiresomeadditionaltrainingand/orsupporttouseeffectively.

ThischapterDOES NOTprepareteacherstousetheseapproachesinpractice.Itsimplyaimstoprovideanawarenessoftheapproachessothatteacherscanundertakefurtherinvestigationandtrainingiftheythinktheapproachwouldbebeneficialforthemandtheirpupils.

Introductionsareprovidedforthefollowingapproaches:• Restorativejustice• Solution-focusedapproaches• Thetranstheoreticalmodelofchange• Cognitivebehaviouralapproaches.

6.1 An introduction to restorative justice

What is restorative justice (sometimes referred to as restorative practice) in a school context?

AnevaluationbytheScottishexecutive(SE,2007,fromwww.scotland.gsi.gov.uk)definedrestorativejusticepracticesinaneducationalcontextas‘restoringgoodrelationshipswhentherehasbeenconflictorharmanddevelopingschoolethos,policiesandprocedurestoreducethepossibilityofsuchconflictandharmarising’.Theevaluationindicatedthatrestorativepracticescanofferapowerfulandeffectiveapproachtopromotingharmoniousrelationshipsinschoolandtothesuccessfulresolutionofconflictandharm.

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Restorativejusticestressestheimportanceofrelationshipsoverandaboverules.Itseeksatalltimestorestoretherelationshipsbetweenpeoplewhenthesehavebeendamagedbyinappropriateoroffendingbehaviour.

Restorativepracticesdescribearangeofapproachestopreventandrepairconflictinschools.Thepracticesrangefrom:• Developingarestorativeclimateinschoolswithactivitiessuch

ascircletimeandpeersupport• Through‘restorativeconversations’whenteachersorpeer

mediatorsinterveneinasituation• Tothemoreformalrestorativeconferencinginvolvingallthose

affectedbyanincident,includingfamilieswhereappropriate.

Schoolethos,policiesandproceduresneedtobedevelopedtosupportthiswork.Thefocusisonpreventionaswellascure,andtheinvolvementofthewholeschoolcommunityisparamount.Themostwell-documentedapplicationsofrestorativejusticeinschoolstodatearetheprocesseswhichseektorepairundisputedharm(egthroughRestorativeConferencing,FamilyGroupConferencingandVictim/OffenderMediation).Thesearebeingusednotonlyincasesofoffendingbehaviourbutalsowithyoungpeoplewhoareatriskofexclusion(orwhohavebeenexcluded)asawayofaddressingtherelationshipissuesandresidualtensions.

Inschoolswhererestorativepracticesarebeingusedpractitionersarediscoveringthatotherissuescanbedealtwithrestoratively,andthesemayinvolveconflictwherethereisno‘guiltyparty’orwhenbothsidesareblamingtheother.Mediationisoftenanappropriateresponsetosuchsituations,whereneutralfacilitatorsenablethoseinconflicttolistentoeachotherandfindamutuallyacceptablewayforward.

Thekeyprinciplesofrestorativejusticeare:• Fosteringsocialrelationshipsinaschoolcommunityofmutual

engagement• Beingresponsibleandaccountableforone’sownactionsand

theirimpactonothers

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• Respectingotherpeople,theirviewsandfeelings• Empathisingwiththefeelingsofothers• Beingfair• Beingcommittedtoequitableprocesses• Everyoneinschoolbeingactivelyinvolvedindecisionsabouttheir

ownlives• Returningissuesofconflicttotheparticipantsratherthan

pathologisingbehaviour• Beingwillingnesstocreateopportunitiesforreflectivechange

inpupilsandstaff.(Fromhttp://www.betterbehaviourscotland.gov.uk/initiatives/piloting/lowdown.aspx)

Whatmanypupilssaytheywantfromadultswhendealingwithdisciplinaryissuesisfairness.Whethertheyareaperpetratororavictim,theirfocusisnotonwinningorlosing,blameorrevenge,butontrustinginafairprocess.Restorativepracticeshelpteachersensurethatpupils,staffandparentscanbepartofafairprocess,whilehelpingallinvolvedtolearnfromtheharmthathasbeendone,andtounderstandtheimpactoftheirbehaviouronothers.

Restorativepracticescan:• Managethevariedexpectationsofbehaviourstandardswhich

inevitablyexistamongallschoolstaff• Helpdevelopawholeschoolpositiveethos• Encouragemembersoftheschoolcommunitytoeffectively

resolveandlearnfromconflictinawaywhichmaintainsrelationships,orterminatestheminapositiveway

• Supportanynecessarysanctionsbyprocessesoflearningandreconciliation.

RestorativePracticescanbeusedatdifferentlevelsinschool:• Preventative-topromotepositiverelationshipswithinthewhole

schoolcommunity• Responsive-repairingrelationshipswhendifficultiesarise

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• Aspartofsupportandinterventionformorelongtermandpersistentdifficulties.

Theapproachinvolvesincludingthe‘wrongdoer’infindingasolutiontotheproblem.Insteadofasking‘who’stoblameandhowarewegoingtopunishthem?’,focusisputonreasons,causes,responsibilitiesandfeelings.Thoseinvolvedareaskedquestionssuchas‘whohasbeenaffectedandhow?’and‘howcanweputitrightandlearnfromthisexperience?’

DrBelindaHopkins,DirectorofCentreforRestorativeJusticeinEducation,summariseshowrestorativejusticecanimpactonrelationshipsinschools,asopposedtotraditionaldisciplinaryapproaches.

Old model retributive justice in schools

New model restorative justice in schools

Misbehaviourdefinedasbreakingtheschoolrules

Misbehaviourdefinedasadverselyaffectingothers

Focusonestablishingblameorguiltandonthepast(dids/hedoit?)

Focusonproblemsolvingbyexpressingfeelingsandneedsandhowtomeettheminthefuture

Adversarialrelationshipsandprocess Dialogueandnegotiation-everyoneinvolvedincommunicatingandcooperatingwitheachother

Impositionofpainorunpleasantnesstopunishanddeter

Restitutionasameansofrestoringboth/allparties,thegoalbeingreconciliation

Attentiontorights,rulesandadherencetodueprocess

Attentiontorightrelationshipsandachievementofthedesiredoutcome

Conflictrepresentedasimpersonalandabstract:individualversustheschool

Misdemeanoursrecognizedasinterpersonalconflictswithsomevalueforlearning

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Old model retributive justice in schools

New model restorative justice in schools

Onesocialinjuryreplacedbyanother Focusonrepairofsocialinjury/damage

Schoolcommunityasspectators,representedbymemberofstaffdealingwiththesituation

Schoolcommunityinvolvedinfacilitationandrestoration

Peopleaffectedbymisdemeanournotnecessarilyinvolved

Encouragementofallconcernedtobeinvolved-empowerment

Wrongdoer’saccountabilitydefinedintermsofreceivingpunishment

Wrongdoer’saccountabilitydefinedasunderstandingtheimpactoftheaction,seeingitasaconsequenceofchoicesandhelpingtodecidehowtoputthingsright

(Fromhttp://www.transformingconflict.org/Restorative_Justice_in_School.htm)

Some basic restorative justice techniques

Thereisawidespectrumoftechniquesandpracticesthatcanbeusedinarestorativejusticeschool.

Restorative statements, questions and discussion

Forexampleinthecaseofafight/disagreement/name-callingincidentamongpupilsthetraditionalapproachwouldbetoask:• Whoistoblame?• Whydidyoudothat?• Whatistheappropriatepunishment?

Buttherestorativeteacherwillask:• Whathappened?• Whohasbeenaffectedandhow?

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• Howcanweputrighttheharmdone?• Whathavewelearnedfromthissoastomakedifferentchoices

nexttime?

Circle Time

Thislisteningexercisecanbeusedinclassroomstoaddressproblemsthatarisee.g.whereapupilorgroupofpupilspersistentlydisruptsthelearningatmosphere.Theteachercanveryquicklygetthepupilstoarrangetheirchairsinacircle,agreethatonepersonspeaksatatimeandgettheclasstofocusontheproblemthathasarisen.Theprocessisempoweringofthepupilsandthecollectivewillofthegroupisoftenveryeffectiveinresolvingthedifficulties.

Peer Support and Mediation

AnincreasinglywidespreadapplicationinschoolsisthedevelopmentofaPeerMediationService,usuallyrunbypupilsthemselveswhohavebeentrainedtomediateamongsttheirpeersanddealwithconflictsthatariseoutsideoftheclassroom.SuccessfulschemesarerunninginJuniorandSecondaryschoolsaroundtheUKandsecondaryagedpupilshavetheirownYoungMediatorsNetworkandruntheirownconferences.Peermediationislesssuccessfulifmediationisnotanapproachalsousedbytheadultsintheschoolcommunity.

The importance of consistency across the school

Itisimportantthatrestorativejusticeisseennotsimplyasaresponsetoextremebehaviourfrompupilsbutthattheprinciplesareinplaceinstaffrooms,classrooms,playgroundsandcorridorseveryday.

Restorativejusticeispredicatedonthenotionthatdamagehasbeendonetorelationshipsbyinappropriatebehaviourandthatpriortoanincidenttherewererelationshipsthathavesubsequentlybeendamaged.Thismaynothavebeenthecase.Inaschoolcommunityrelationshipsandcommunityneedtobeactivelydevelopedandnottakenforgranted.

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Approachesthathelpdevelopandmaintainrelationshipsacrosstheschoolinclude:• Circletimeforstaff(forstaffdevelopment,teambuildingand

mutualsupport)andforpupils(fordevelopingself-esteem,communicationskillsandaspiritofco-operation)

• Schoolcouncil• Peercounselling,peermentoringandbuddyingschemes• No-blameapproachtobullying• Aself-esteempolicyforstaffandforpupils• Awholeschoolrelationshipmanagementpolicy(asopposedto

a‘behaviourmanagement’policythattendstofocusonpupil’sbehaviour).

Furtherinformationonrestorativejustice• TheRestorativeJusticeConsortium(RJC)haspublished

guidanceonapplyingrestorativejusticeprinciplesinschools-http://www.restorativejustice.org.uk/Resources/pdf/Principles_Schools_2005_2nd_ed.pdf

• TheNationalCentreforRestorativeApproachesinYouthSettings(alsoknownasTransformingConflict)-http://www.transformingconflict.org

• BestPracticeGuidelinesfromtheInternationalInstituteforRestorativePractices-http://www.iirp.org/uk/

• BehaviourScotlandRestorativeJusticePilotsinSchools-http://www.betterbehaviourscotland.gov.uk/initiatives/piloting/lowdown.aspx

• Incorporatingrestorativeapproaches(fromtheEnglishnationalprogrammeforspecialistleadersofbehaviourandattendance)-http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/node/90583

6.2 An introduction to solution-focused approaches

What are solution-focused approaches to change?

Solution-focusedapproachescanbedefinedas:• Theestablishmentofwhata‘preferredfuture’mightbe• Theidentificationofwaysinwhichthisisalreadyhappening.

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Thesolution-focusedapproachtochangeischaracterisedbythefollowingprinciples:• SolutionsNOTproblems• ThefutureNOTthepast• WhattodoNOTwhotoblame.

Thesolution-focusedapproachgivesteachersaproven,positivewayofworkingthathelpspupilsdealwiththeirproblems,reachtheirowndecisionsandgainself-esteemintheprocess.Ratherthandwellingondeficitsorthehistoryoftheproblem,thesolution-focusedteachersearchesfortimeswhentheproblemdoesnotoccur,andusesthese‘exceptions’tobegintoconstructpotentialsolutions.Thismodelisapractical,effectiveapproachtoworkingwithpupilsforchange.Underlyingthesolution-focusedapproachisapositiveandrespectfulattitudetothepupilsandtheirparents.

Usingthisapproach,teacherscollaboratewithpupilsandparentsand:• Assumethattheywanttodowell• Assumethattheyhaveorcandevelopagoalorgoals• Assumethattheyhavethecapacityandpersonalresources

tomovetowardsthegoals-evenifinverysmallsteps• Takeitforgrantedthatpupilsandparentsaretheexpertsintheir

ownlivesandlearning.

Theteacher’sexpertiseisinbeingcurious,askingappropriatequestionsandassistingprogress,whilebeingclearaboutprofessionalboundaries.Solution-focusedplanningandpractice:• Makespositiveassumptionsaboutpupilsandtheirfamilies• Recognisesstrengthsandresources• Elicitspreferredfuturesordesiredoutcomesbyusingrespectful

curiosity• Usespracticalmethodstoencouragestep-by-stepmovement

andactionplanninginthepreferreddirection• Encourageshelpfulandpositivefeedback.

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Some basic solution-focused techniques

Using scales in solution-focused practice

Ascaleisavaluabletooltouseinsolution-focusedpractice.Asimplescalelookslikethis,where0isnormallythelowest/worst/leasteffectiveand10isnormallytheideal/best/thehighestthatthepupilcanaspiretoorhopefor:

Theteacherfocusesonpositives,strengths,resourcesandcompetenciesandlooksathowpupilsmayincreasefromlowtohigh.Teacherscanuseothermetaphorsinsteadofthe0-10scaling,forexamplealadder,atree,oramountain.

Simple steps in using a scale:

1.Where are you now? -So,forexample,ifweareworkingwithapupilwholacksconfidenceincompletingworkatschool,wemightask:“Suppose0standsforyouhavingnoconfidenceatall,and10meansyouarereallyconfidentinyourwork,whereareyoutoday?”Let’ssaytheansweris“4”.Thisgivesbothpartnersanideaofhowconfidentthepersonfeelsnow.

2.How did you get up to there?-Thenextstepistodiscoverwhatthepupilisdoingwellalready,sowecanask:“Howdidyougetfrom0to4?Whatgivesyouthatmuchconfidence?”Wecanaskfordetailsof,forinstance,whatshehaslearnedthatgivesherconfidence,whoissupportivetoher,whatshelikesdoingorknowsshedoeswell,perhapscomplimentsthatothershavegivenher,etc.etc.

3.What will be happening at the next step up?-Or,“Whatwillyoubedoingdifferentlyatnumber5?”Therearenumerouswaysofaskingthisquestion.Wearetryingtogetabehaviouralpictureofhowshewillbewhensheismoreconfident.Wecanask

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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questionslike:“whatwillbethesmallestsignthatwilltellyouthatyou’removingintherightdirection(intermsofbecomingmoreconfident)?”

4.What will 10 look like?-We’relookingforadescriptivepictureofhowthepupilseesherselfwhenshe’satherbest,orinthiscasemostconfident.Thismayjustbeahopeoravisionasyet.Whatwillshebedoingwhensheisatthislevel?Whatwillothersnotice?Wemayaskifsheisatthislevelofconfidenceinanyotherareaofherlife.Howdoesshelook?Bodylanguage?Expressionintheeyes?Speedingup/slowingdown?Toneofvoice?(Fromwww.northwestsolutions.co.uk/scales-18thJuly2006)

Asking solution-focused questions to support planning and practice

Usingsolution-focusedconversations,theteachercanaskeffectivequestionswhichhelpthepupiltoreachtheirowndecisions,ratherthanmakingstatementsorgivingadvice.Thesolutionfocusedteachersusesappreciative,respectfulcuriositytocreateopportunitiesforthepupiltothinkcreativelyabouthowtoprogresstowardstheirgoals.Asthepupilistheexpertonhis/herownlife,theteachershouldavoidleadingquestions(‘Whydon’tyou...?’,or‘Haveyouthoughtof...?’).Leadingquestionsmayembedtheteacher’ssolutionsandlimitsolutiongenerationbythepupil.

Solution-focusedquestionsinclude:• Whatareyourbesthopesforthislesson?• Whatwouldyouliketoachievetoday?• Howwillyouknowlaterthatthislesson/dayhasbeensuccessful?• Supposeinyournextdayatschoolyou’redoingthingsatyour

verybest:- Whatwillyoubedoingdifferently?- Howwillothersknow?- Whatwilltheysee,hear,feelthatwillbedifferent?

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• Inpastsituationsthatyouhavetoldmeabout:- Whatworkedwell?- Whatwillotherpeoplesaytheylikeaboutyou?- Howdidyoucope?- Whatwillyouliketocontinuetodoorcontinuetohappentoyou?

- Whatwouldyounotwanttohappenagain?- Howwouldyouwanttodoitinadifferentwayifthishappenedagain?

- Whathaveyoulearnedfromwhathappened?• Let’ssupposeyougetuptomorrowandthingsarebetter.

What’sthesmallestsignthatwilltellyouthatthingsareimproving?

• If10equalsthebestlesson/dayever-whereareyoutoday?Whathaveyoudonethat’smadeitworkthiswell?Whatneedstobedifferenttomakeitevenbetternexttime?

The ‘miracle’ or ‘magic’ question

Thisparticularquestioncanhelptoclarifygoals,identifyexistingprogress,clarifyoptionsforactionandactasacatalystforchange.Typicallythequestioniswordedas‘Imagineasyousleeptonighta‘miracle’orsome‘magic’happensandtheproblemsgoaway,butbecauseyouareasleepyoudon’tknowit’shappened.Whenyouwakeinthemorning,whatwouldbeafirstsigntoyouthatsomethinghashappened?’Thiscanalsoremindpupilsthatsomeofthechangestheyneedtoseearealreadyhappening.

Problem-free talk

Onceitisrespectfulandsensitivetodoso,pupilscanbeinvitedtotalkaboutaspectsoftheirlivesotherthantheirproblems.Theymightbeaskedabouthowtheycope,orabouttheirhobbies,orotheraspectsoftheirlifewheretheyenjoymoresuccess.Aswellasprovidingimportantinformationaboutexistingresources,thiscanalsoremindpupilsofabilitiestheymayhaveforgotten,raisingmoraleintheprocess.

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A case study on solution-focused approaches

ThefollowingcasestudywasprovidedbyandisusedwiththepermissionofKateEvan-Hughes,SeniorSchoolImprovementAdviser,Newport.

Lliswerry High School, Newport - Working on What Works With a Class

Withinitialguidanceandmodellingfromthelocalauthority’steacheradviser,wedecidedtoadaptanapproachdevelopedbySolutionFocusedBriefTherapypioneersInsooKimBergandLeeShiltsin2002,inwhichsolutionbasedmethodsareappliedtoagroup.

Theinterventionisprimarilyacoachingone:onememberofstaffactingina‘consultativerole’withaformteacherandherclass.Inourcase,itwastheschoolSENCoandaheadofyearthat,tobeginwith,tookonthiscoachingrole.Therolewasthencascadedfromclasstoclass:theformtutorswhohadwitnessed-andbeenpartof-theprocessthemselvescarryingitoutwithafurtherclass.

Webeganbyusingthemodelwith‘rogueclasses’buthavesubsequentlyemployeditwithother,‘lesstroubled’(!),forms.Thebeautyoftheapproachisthatitusestheaspirationsanddeterminationoftheclassesthemselvestomakeprogressinthewaystheywanttomakeprogress.Everyclasswantstochangesomethingforthebetter:fromimprovingattendanceofthoseintheclasstomakingsubjectlessonsasinterestingandrelevantaspossible.

Whilewe-asisoutlinedbelow-gainedinformationfromandfedbacktosubjectteachersaspartofthemodel,the‘classmeeting’partoftheprocess,solely,wehaveseentohaveaneffectiveness.

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Phase 1: Memo to a class’s subject teachers

Weask-Whatdoyoulike/arethegoodthingsaboutthisclass?Whatworkswiththisclass?Whatwouldyouavoidwiththisclass?Thisinformationiscollated.Itisthenshared,eitherviaamemo/emailor,withparticularly‘difficultclasses’,inashortmeetingbetweenallsubjectteachers.

Phase 2: Creating classroom goals and targets with students and form tutor

Thisfirstclassmeetingwilltakethelongesttime-45to60minutes.Theothermeetingswillbeshorter-perhaps20minutes.Thechairsarearrangedinacircleintheclassroom.Expectationsforbehaviourwithintheclassmeetingaredescribedandagreed.Webeginwithanintroductory,‘fun’,exercise.Wethenaskthestudentswhattheylike/whatisgoodabouttheclass.Thisisrecordedonlargesheetsofpaper-forexample,flipchartpaper.Weaddthecommentsoftheformtutor,togetherwiththecommentsthatwehavecollectedfromformteachersduringphase1.Wethenaskeachstudentwhere,ona0to10scale(0isworstpossible;10bestpossible),theybelievetheclassisatpresent:eachpersonintheclassisaskedtodescribehis/herownscore.Theresultsarerecoded(ontheclasswhiteboard)andanaverageworkedout.

Secondly,weasktheclasswhatitwilltaketomoveuponepointonthescale.Thestudentswillcomeupwithgeneralgoals-improveourbehaviour,cometoschoolforexample.Theformtutoralsojoinsintheprocess:theymightsharetheirperceptionsandtheirgoalsforchange.Fromthelonglistofgoals,weaskthestudents:Whichtwoorthreearemostimportant?Whichshallwetryfirst?Wethenbreakthesegoalsdownintosmalltargets:perhapsdetailingthebehaviourstheclasswilltrytoshowinlessonsorthestepsthattheclasswilltakeinordertoimproveattendance.

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Finally,weaskabouthowwewillknowwehavestartedtomovetowardsthesegoals.Studentsmaytalkaboutreceivingmorepraise,merits;theirpositionintheattendanceleagueswillchangeetc.Theoutlineofthewholemeetingisrecordedonlargesheetsofpaper.Sometimesasummaryofwhatwasagreedisemailedtoteachingstaffsothattheycanbeawareofwhattheclass’sexpectationsareintermsofteachers‘noticing’change.

Phase 3: Scaling classroom success and amplifying - rest of meetings

Thegoalsandtargetsaredescribed.Weaskfor‘evidence’ofchange.Weare‘interested’inthisandamplifysuccesses:Howwasthisdone?Howdidyoumanageit?Whatdoesthattellusaboutthisclass?Wethenasktheclassaboutcontinuingwithpresentgoalsorlookingtomakeprogressonnewones.Eitherduringeachsessionor-certainly-atthelastsession(oftenofthree),werepeatthescalingfromthefirstsession.Duringthelastsession,wesummarisewhatwehaveachieved.

Whiletheprocessdoestakeupthoughtandtime,wehaveseenitsbenefits.Itismoreeconomicalthan‘pickingoff’oneindividualatatime.Itbringsoutthebestinthestudentsandencouragesthemtothinkandactforthemselves-collaboratively.

Furtherinformationonsolution-focusedapproaches• UnitedKingdomAssociationforSolutionFocusedPractice-

http://www.ukasfp.co.uk/• Briefoffertrainingandresourcesonsolutionfocusedapproach-

www.brief.org.uk• SolutionfocusededucationfromBehaviourMatters-

http://www.teachingexpertise.com/articles/solution-focused-education-261

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• SolutionFocusedEducation:ForaHappierSchool(2005)byKerstinMåhlbergandMaudSjöblom-ISBN91-631-2943-4-UKdistributors-SolutionsBooks

• TeachingTowardSolutions:ASolutionFocusedGuidetoImprovingStudentBehaviour,Grades,ParentalSupportandStaffMorale(2003)byLindaMetcalf,ISBN-13:978-1904424079-Publisher:CrownHousePublishing.

6.3 An introduction to the transtheoretical model of change

What is the transtheoretical model of change?

Workingwithpupilstoinitiateachangeinbehaviourcanattimesbefrustratingandcomplex.Teachersmaysometimesfeelthattheyaremakingprogresswithapupilwhensuddenlytheyarebackatsquareone.Apupilmayagreetoaplanofactionyetnotcarryitout.Whydosomeapproachesworkwithoneindividualandnotanother?Whydosomepupilsconsistentlygothroughaprocessofprogressfollowedbyfailure?

Aprocessknownasthetranstheoreticalmodelofchange(sometimessimplyreferredtoasthestagesofchange)proposesawayofbeginningtoanswerthesequestionsaroundchangingbehaviour.Thisapproachmaintainsthattherearedistinctstagesthatpeoplegothroughwhendecidingtoinitiateabehaviourchange.Thestagesarethesamenomatterwhatthebehaviour.Thediagramonthefollowingpagerepresentsthekeystagesina‘wheel’format.

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Thesixstagesofchangehavebeensuggestedasawayofapproachingchangeforavarietyofproblembehaviours.Thecrucialfactoristoascertainthestageatwhichapupilcurrentlyoperatesandtouseapproachesandstrategiesappropriatetothatstage.

Pre-contemplationisthestagewhereapersonhasnointentionofchanginghis/herbehaviourintheforeseeablefuture.Manyindividualsinthisstageareunawareoftheirproblemsorarenotreadytochange.

Contemplationisthestagewhereanindividualisawarethataproblemexistsbuthasnotyetmadeacommitmenttotakeactiontochange.Thepupiliswillingtoconsidertheproblemandthatachangemaybebeneficialtohis/herfuture.

Therearevariouslevelsofambivalencebyapersoninthisstage.Thisbasicallymeansthatapupilcanfeeltwowaysaboutsomethingorsomeone.S/hecangobackandforthbetweenreasonsforconcernandunconcernormotivationstochangeorstaythesame.

RELAPSE Contemplation

The DecisionActive Change

Maintenance

Pre-awareness

EXIT

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Contemplationisnotacommitmenttochange.Intheeducationsettingifapupilagreestobehaveintheclassroombutdayslaterhasreturnedtohis/herpreviousbehaviourthenitmaybethattheindividualwasnotreadyorcommittedenoughtomakingthatchange.Iftheteacherattemptstousestrategiesthatmayonlybeappropriatefortheactionstage,thens/heislikelytoencounterresistance.

Determinationisthestageatwhichapersondecidestotakeactiontoceaseengaginginproblembehaviourand/ortosubstituteapositivebehaviourinitsplace.Thepupilappearsmotivatedtotakeaction.Iftheteachercanfindanacceptable,accessible,appropriateandeffectiveplanthenthepupilwillentertheactionstage.Ifnotthenthepupilwillslipbackintothecontemplationstage.

Actionisthestageinwhichindividualsmodifytheirbehaviour,experiencesorenvironmentinordertoovercometheirproblems.Actioninvolvesthemostovertbehaviouralchangesandrequiresconsiderablecommitmentoftimeandenergy.Heretheindividualgetsinvolvedintheagreedstrategiesintendedforchange.

Maintenanceisthestagewherepeopleworktopreventrelapseandconsolidatethechangesmadeduringtheactionphase.Thelengthoftimeapersonisinvolvedintheactionstageisvariabledependingupontheindividualandthebehaviour.Inthisstage,variousstrategiesandactivesupportfromhelpersisgraduallywithdrawnordecreased.Maintainingchangemayrequireadifferentapproachandskillstothoseneededtoaccomplishthechangeinthefirstplace.Maintenanceisthetestforwhethertheinterventionhasbeensuccessful.

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Therelapsestage,althoughsituatedafterthemaintenancephaseinthe‘wheelofchange’model,canactuallyhappenduringanyofthestages.Theinclusionofarelapsestagegivesrecognitiontothefactthatchanging‘problem’behaviourinmanycasesisdifficulttodoandmaynotalwaysbeovercomeatthefirstattempt.Slipsandrelapsesareexpectedtohappenespeciallyiflongstandingbehaviourisbeingchanged.Thepupil’smotivationmustbeencouraged.Thereisaneedtoreviewthewholeprocessusuallystartingfromthecontemplationstageandtryingtoavoiddiscouragementorthepupilbecomingdemoralised.Itiskeytogothroughanypositivesthatoccurredbeforerelapseandfocusonthese.

Overall,thisapproachallowsforindividualsinanychangeprocesstogoroundthewheelanumberoftimesifnecessarybeforeachievingastablechange.Itisessentialtoidentifythestageapupilisinandadoptanapproachappropriatetothestage.Inmanycaseschangewillnotoccurifstrategiesarediscussedwithapupil,whichareinappropriatetothestagetheyarein.

Whatthechangeisestablishesandbeingmaintained,exitfromthecyclecanbefacilitated.

Asaneasierwayofhelpingtounderstandtheprocess,thefollowingmayaidinterpretation.

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Precontemplation - ‘I’m okay’

• Thepupildoesnotintendtomakeanychangeass/hedoesnotseeaproblem.Thereisadenialthataproblemexists.However,othersdoseethatthereisaproblem.

Contemplation - ‘I don’t know’

• Thepupilmaythinkthats/hehasaproblem• Thereisanincreaseintheconflictofwantingtochangeandstayingthesame.Individualsareopentohelp

• Therearedifferentlevelsofcontemplation• Somepupilsmaygetstuckinchroniccontemplation(substitutethinkingforaction)

• Itisimportanttodiscusstheprosandconsofchange.

Determination - ‘I’ve decided’

• Hereapersonwilldecidetocarryonasbeforeortochange

• Begintomakechangesorsettargetdates• Haveapotentialstrategy/wayforwardinmind.

Action - ‘My first step’ • Decisionisputintopractice• Averyactiveperiodininitiatingachangeinbehaviour• Thepupilcanalsobeatgreatriskofrelapse.

Maintenance - ‘Getting there’

• Changehasbeenachievedanditisimportantthatitismaintained.

Furtherinformationonthetranstheoreticalmodelofchange• Pro-changebehavioursystems-http://www.prochange.com/ttm• Inwikipedia-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transtheoretical_model

6.4 An introduction to cognitive behavioural approaches

What are cognitive behavioural approaches to behaviour change?

Cognitivebehaviouralapproachesaimtosolveproblemsrelatingtodysfunctionalemotions,behavioursandthoughtprocesses(cognitions)throughusingtechniquesthataresystematic,direct,

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timelimitedandfocusedonspecificgoals.Thereisresearchevidencetosupporttheuseofcognitivebehaviouralapproachestoachievingchangeforavarietyofproblems,includingsubstancemisuse,offendingbehaviour,anxiety,posttraumaticstress,depression,eatingdisordersandphobias.

Cognitivebehaviouralapproachesweredevelopedthroughamergingofbehaviouralandcognitiveapproaches.Whilerootedindifferenttheories,thesetwotraditionsfoundcommongroundinfocusingonthe‘hereandnow’,andonalleviatingsymptoms.

Behavioural theory and approaches

Behaviouraltheoryisbasedontheprinciplethatbehaviourislearnt,andcanthereforebeunlearnt,orreconditioned(themostfamousexamplesofconditioningarethoseofIvanPavlovandB.FSkinner).Behaviouralapproachesareconcernedwiththepresent,withoutfocusingonthepasttofindareasonforthebehaviour.Behaviouralapproachesareoftenusedwiththosewhorequiresomesortofbehaviourchange,suchasaddictions,phobiasandanxietydisorders.

Cognitive theory and approaches

Cognitivetheoryisbasedontheprinciplethatthewayweperceivesituationsinfluenceshowwefeelaboutthem.Cognitiveapproachesusuallyfocusonthepresentandareproblem-solvingorientated.Cognitiveapproachesinvolvelearninghowtoidentifyandreplacedistortedthoughtsandbeliefs,ultimatelychangingtheassociatedhabitualbehaviourtowardsthem.

Whenindividualsaredistressedtheyoftencan’trecognisethattheirthoughtsaredistorted,socognitiveapproacheshelpthemtoidentifythesethoughtsandreassessthem.Forexample,ifanindividualmakesasmallmistaketheymaythink“I’museless,Ican’tdoanythingright”.Stronglybelievingthismaycausethemtoavoidtheactivitywheretheymadeamistakeandconfirmthisbeliefdeeper.Addressingthesethoughts,andreassessingthemcanleadtomoreflexiblewaysofthinking,allowingtheindividualtofeelmorepositive,belesslikelytoavoidsituationsandbeabletochallengetheirnegativebelief.

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Cognitive behavioural theory and approaches

Cognitivebehaviouraltheorycombinescognitiveandbehaviouraltheory.Itisbasedontheprinciplethatindividualslearnunhelpfulwaysofthinkingandbehavingoveralongperiodoftime.However,identifyingthesethoughtsandhowtheycanbeproblematictofeelingsandbehaviourscanenableindividualstochallengenegativewaysofthinking,leadingtopositivefeelingsandbehaviouralchanges.

Cognitivebehaviouralapproachesinvolvechangingthewayindividualsthink(cognitive)andhowtheyrespondtothesethoughts(behaviour).Thefocusisonthe‘hereandnow’insteadoffocusingonthecauseoftheissue,andlargeproblemsarebrokenintosmallerpartstomakethemeasiertodealwith.Thesesmallerpartscanbedescribedasthoughts,emotions,physicalfeelingsandactions.Eachofthesehastheabilitytoaffecttheother,e.g.thewayanindividualthinksaboutthingscanaffecthowtheyfeelemotionallyandphysically,andultimatelyhowtheybehave.

Theemphasisoncognitiveorbehaviouraspectsoftheapproachcanvarydependingontheissue.However,cognitivebehaviouralapproachesarelikelytoworkbestwhenusedtohelpchangespecificissuesasfocuscanbeplacedonparticularproblemsandhowtoovercomethem.

Changing pupils thinking and behaviour

Peoplerespondtoeventsonthebasisoftheirthinkingandbeliefs.Thesebeliefsdeterminehowtheyfeelandbehaveinanysituation.Thishelpsexplainwhy,giventhesamesituationandstimulus,differentpupilswillreactindifferentwaysbecausetheirthinkingisdifferentfromeachother.

Forexample,duringanEnglishlessonagroupmadeupofthreepupils,Julie,JamesandDebs,presenttheirpieceofworktotherestoftheclass.MrsAdamstheirteacherrespondswith“Thatwasexcellent;welldone”.

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• Julieglowswithpride,smilesandsays‘ThankyouMiss’.• Jameslooksawaywhilestickingtwofingersdownhisopen

mouthasiftobesick.Hemutterstohimself‘Howembarrassing’.• DebssniggersandshoutsbackatMissJones,‘Youalwayssay

thatbutnevergiveusan‘A’sowhat’sthepoint?’

Theresponsesofeachoftheabovepupilstothesameeventaregovernedbytheirthinkingandbeliefaboutwhatistakingplace.WhenMrsAdamssays,‘Thatwasexcellent;welldone’thesemaybethebeliefsbehindeachoftheresponses:

Julie• Sheisimpressed• Shethinkswehavedonewell

• ShebelievesIamsmart• Sheappreciatesmy/oureffortsandabilities

• Sheisagoodteacher

James• Onlygirlslikebeingpraisedinpublic

• Idon’t’believeheranyway

• MyfriendswillnowthinkthatIamaswotandateacher’spet

Debs• MrsAdamshatesmeanywaybutpretendsthatshedoesn’t

• Shesaysnicethingsaboutyourworktomakeyoutryharder

• ShewontgiveyouanAifsheknowsyouwantit

InordertoeffectanychangeinJames’andDebs’behaviourtheteacherneedstohelpthemchangethethinkingthatgovernstheirbehaviour.Changeinbehaviourwillonlybesustainedifthethinkingbehindthatbehaviouralters.

MrsAdamscouldchallengeJamesandsay:‘Thatisnothowtobehave.Ihavejusttoldyouhowgoodyourprojectis.Youshouldbepleased’.IfJameswastolookherintheeyes,clasphishandsinfrontofhim,smileandsay‘ThankyouMiss’,achangeinbehaviourseemstohavebeenachieved.However,itisextremelydoubtfulthatJameswillsustainthischangeinbehaviourbecausehisbeliefsaboutMrsJoneshavenotaltered.Toeffectchangeinpupils’thinkingandbehaviouroftenrequiressignificanttimeandattention.Thestepstochangingthinkingandbehaviourareoutlinedbelow.

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Thecasestudybelowillustrateshowthestepstochangingthinkingandbehaviourmightbeusedinaspecificsituation.

Case study - Declan

DeclantransferredintoWestHighSchoolinthemiddleofYear9.NowinYear10,Declanalwaysgetsintofightswithpupilsinhisclass.Heisnodifferentontheplaygroundwhenheiswithpupilsyoungerorolderthanhim.Heissmallforhisagebutwhateverhelacksinsize,hemakesupforwithhisfists.Hehardlytalkstoanybodyandhasfewfriends.

1. Challenge dysfunctional thinking behind the behaviour

2. Explore new and different ways of thinking

3. Test out these alternative ways of thinking and behaving in a new context

4. Develop a repertoire of alternative responses

5. Evaluate the effectiveness of these responses

6. Learn what forms the most effective responses in given situations

7. Apply this approach to other difficulties

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Athome,Declanisthemiddleofsevensiblings.Hehadbeenbulliedforaslongashecanremember,bytwoofhisolderbrothers.Hisfather’sresponsewastoencourageDeclantofightback‘towinrespect’.Once,Declanhithisbrothersohardwithacricketbatthathisbrotherendedupspendingtwoweeksinhospital.ThebullyingathomestoppedafterthatincidentandDeclanandhisbrotherslearnedtoavoideachother.

Declanbelievesthatthebestwaytowinrespectandnotbeconsideredawimpbyothersistobeaggressiveandviolenttowardspeople.Thisthinkingandbeliefhasgovernedhisbehavioursinceenteringsecondaryschool.SofarmostofDeclan’sexperienceshaveconfirmedthisview.

Steps for changing Declan’s thinking and behaviour

1.Challengedysfunctionalthinkingbehindthebehaviour

Declanthinks‘Ifanyoneupsetsme,IhitthembecausethatisthewaytoprovethatIamnotawimp’.ExplaintoDeclanthathittingpeoplehasnothingtodowithbeinga‘wimp’ornot.ExplorewithDeclantheconsequencesofhittingpeople.

2.Explorenewanddifferentwaysofthinking

HelpDeclantoappreciatethat‘Astrongpersonsayshowtheyfeelwhentheyareupsetsothatotherscanunderstandhowtheyfeelandstopupsettingthem’.

3.Testoutthesealternativewaysofthinkingandbehavinginanewcontext

Whenaclassmatejumpsthequeueatlunchtime,insteadofhittingthem,whatwouldhappenifDeclanpolitelyaskshimtogototheendofthequeue?

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4.Developarepertoireofalternativeresponses

HelpDeclantoexploreotherwaysofbehaving,egwhensomeoneupsetsDeclanhecould:• Walkawaytillhecalmsdown• Telltheteacheroranadult• Refusetobeupset.Seethefunnysideofthesituation.

5.Evaluatetheeffectivenessoftheseresponses

DoanyoftheseresponsescauseachangeinDeclan’sbehaviour,iedoeshestophittingothers?

6.Learnwhatformsthemosteffectiveresponsesingivensituations

Declanrealisesthatthemosteffectiveresponseistellingpeoplehowhefeels-thisresponseimproveshisbehaviourandstopshimfromgettingintotrouble.Hebecomesahappierperson.

7.Applythisapproachtootherdifficulties

Declanlearnstoexpresshisfeelingsratherthangettingintofightstoresolvehisdifficulties.

.

Teachersmaywishtousethisapproachforotherdifficulties.Changingthinkingisnotaneasythingtodoandwillinvolvesubstantialinvestmentoftimeandeffort,butforsomepupilsthismaybetheonlywaytoachievesustainedbehaviourchange.

Some basic cognitive behavioural techniques

Exploring thinking through ‘Like me/Unlike’ me or ‘True/False’ scales

Somepupilsmightfinditrelativelyeasytodiscusstheirbeliefsandthoughts,butmanyareless‘open’and/orfinditdifficulttotalkaboutthemselves,theirideasandhowtheyfeelandthink-possiblybecauseofdysfunctionalcognitiveoperations.Therearepublishedsourcesthatcanbeusedtoelicitsuchbeliefs,orteacherscandeveloptheirownwaysofenablingpupilstorespondandtoexpresstheirownviewsandopinions.

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OneexampleistheLikeme/UnlikemeORTrue/Falsescales.Thesescalescanhelpteacherstoexplorethoughtsandbeliefswithpupils.Thequestionscanrelateonlytoonespecificissueorcoverarangeofissues.Somequestionsshouldbepositiveandsomenegative.Likemescalesmayfeelmorepersonalthattruefalsescales,butmayillicitdeeperinsights.Teachersshouldcarefullyconsiderwhichtouseandwhatquestionstouse.

ExamplesofLikeme/Notlikeme:

1) Ionlymisbehaveforalaugh Likeme/Unlikeme

2) IthinkpeoplefindmefunnywhenIjokeinclass

Likeme/Unlikeme

3) Idothinkmybehaviourisaproblem Likeme/Unlikeme

4) Otherpeoplegetmetomisbehave Likeme/Unlikeme

5) Ichooseandcontrolmyownbehaviour Likeme/Unlikeme

6) Myteachercanhelpmetobehavebetter Likeme/Unlikeme

ExamplesofTrue/False:

1) Fightingisabadwaytosolveproblemswithothers

True/False

2) Hittingpeoplemakesmefeelbad True/False

3) Somepeopledeservetobehit True/False

4) Peoplewhodon’tfightareweak True/False

5) NobodyreallygetshurtwhenIhitthem True/False

6) Peopledon’tlikekidswhofightothers True/False

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Cognitive restructuring

Acognitiverestructuringapproachinvolvesdrawingoutthepupilsviewofevents(throughdiscussionandtheuseofelementssuchas‘Likeme/Unlikeme’or‘True/False’scales)andtheunderstandinginferencesandevaluationsandworkingtogethertochangethem.Aninferenceisaninterpretationofaneventthathashappenedorwillhappen.Itcanbeseenasthepupil’shypothesisabouteventsand,therefore,canbetestedoutwithevidence.Theevidencemayormaynotsupportthehypothesis.Wherethepupil’sinferencesarehabituallynegative,itisquitelikelythattheevidencewillnotsupportthem,andasaresult,newandmorerealisticinferencescanbedeveloped.Aninferenceisdrawnfromtheinformationavailabletothepupil.However,itistheevaluationoftheinferenceasnegativeorpositive,intermsofitsmeaningforthepupil,whichhasanemotionalconsequence.

Anegativeevaluationwillleadtoanegativeemotion.Astheevaluationsbecomemoreextremeandmoreunrealistic,theyleadtomoresignificantemotionalandbehaviouralconsequences.Thefirstevaluationmaybereasonablyaccurate.Thesecondoneisattachingextremelynegativeweighttothisevent.Thethirdmayleadtounwantedbehaviour.

Forexample:

Event:

StevenhaschosentositwithPeterintheclass,ratherthanAdrian.

Adrian’s negative inferences, evaluations and actions:

“StevenhasdecidedtotakesideswithPeteroverme.”(Inference)

“Stevendoesn’tlikeme”(firstvaluation)

“NobodylikesmesoitdoesnotmatterwhatIdo.”(secondevaluation)

“EveryonehatesmesoImayaswellactlikeanidiotandmakeeveryoneelsesuffer”(thirdevaluation)

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Inferencescanbechallengedbyturningthemintohypothesesandthenaskingthepupiltoconsidertheevidencethatsupportsorrejectsthosehypotheses.Achallengecanbemadebyencouragingthepupiltoconsiderwhatalternativeconclusionsheorshemightdrawfromtheevidence.

Forexample:

Event:

StevenhaschosentositwithPeterintheclass,ratherthanAdrian.

Possible neutral or positive inferences, evaluations and actions:

AdriandevelopshypothesesaboutwhyStevenmighthavesatwithPeter.ItcouldbePeterisgoodatMaths.

StevenfindsiteasiertobehavewhensatwithPeter.

Theteacherhasaskedhimtomove.

TocheckoutthesehypothesesAdriantalkstoStevenafterthelesson.Stevenhadbeenaskedtomovebytheteacher.AdrianandStevenarestillfriendsandAdrianmanagedhisownbehaviourthroughoutthelesson.

Teacherneedtoworkwiththepupilto:• Clarifyemotionsandidentifytheunderlyingassumptions/beliefs

thatshapethinking• Challengetheutilityandhelpfulnessofthesebeliefsandweigh

uptheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofcontinuingtoholdthesebeliefsandassumptions

• Generatealternative,moreeffectiveandadaptivebeliefs.

Problem solving

Manypupilswhoexperiencedifficultywiththeirbeliefs,thinking,emotionsandbehaviourmakearestrictedorstereotypedresponsetosocialsituationsinparticular.Thisresponsemaybecomeahabit,mayormaynotbereinforcedbyoutcomes,andmaybereinforcedbythepupilsunhelpfulthinking.Pupilswhomakeerroneous

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andhabitualresponsestogivensituationsmaybesaidtohavearestrictedrangeofresponses.Mostteacherswillhaveencounteredpupilswho:• Reactandfightwhenconfrontedwithsomethingtheycannotdo,

don’tknow,orevensomethingaboutwhichtheyfeeluncertain• Takeflightandtrytoescapeoravoidsituationsthatthey

experienceasthreatening,intimidatingandinsomecases,situationsthataresimplynewandunknowntothem

• Withdrawinwardsinresponsetoasituationthattheydonotlike,donotenjoy,orinwhichtheyrisksomeexposure,lossoffaceordamagetotheirself-esteem

• Allowotherstomakedecisionsforthem.

Suchpupilsfunctionwitharestrictedsetofpossibilities.Theirresponsescanbecomehabitualanddysfunctionalandmayleadtotheirrejectionorexclusionfromaclasssetting.

Thechangetaskbecomesoneofenablingthepupiltouse‘alternative-solutionthinking’,ie:• Tounderstandtheproblematicsituationsthatheorshe

encounters• Toappreciatethefactthatitispossibletomakeanumber

ofdifferentresponsestoanygivensituation• Todeveloparangeofalternativeresponsestoagivensituation• Toexplorethelikelyoutcomesofapplyingeachresponse• Toevaluatewhichofthesepossibleresponsesistheonemost

likelytoachievesuccess.

Wherepupilsfinditdifficultorthreateningtoexplorealternativestotheirownhabitualresponse,itcanbehelpfultobeginbyexploringconflicts/difficultiesexperiencedbyathirdparty.Theteacherneedstohavepreparedscenariosandexamplesthatthepupilisabletorelateto,ieinvolvingothersofroughlythesameageandstatus,and,mosthelpfully,thesamegender.Thisenablesthepupiltodevelopaproblem-solvingapproachtomeetingtheneedsofothers.S/hecanthenbesupportedintransferringthisapproachtoaddressinghis/herownresponsetoproblematicsituations.

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Havingsupportedthepupilingeneratingarangeofresponsestoagivensituation,theteacherneedstohelpthepupillookobjectivelyateachpossibleresponse,consideringtheprosandconsofeachonecarefully.Theteacherthenhelpsthepupiltotestout’thepreferredresponsebeforetryingtheminarealsetting.Theuseofrole-playcanbehelpful.

Havingevaluatedthelikelihoodofaparticularresponseworkinginagivensituation,thepupiliscoachedinhis/herperformancesothats/heisreasonablyaccomplishedinrespondinginthisnewway.Thepupilisthenencouragedtoapplythisnewapproachincontextandtoevaluateitsimpactperhapsusingtheself-monitoringtechniquesalreadydescribed.

Theteachermayencourageothersaroundthepupiltobealertto,andreadyfor,thisnewresponse.Thisisimportant,asthereisariskthattheytoomaycontinuetorespondtothepupilinanhabitualwayevenwhenthepupil’sresponsehaschanged!

Theformatprovidedbelowmayofferausefulframeworkforengaginginthisapproachwithapupil.

A Problem-Solving Approach

Name:

Theproblem/difficulty/situation:

Myusualresponse:

Five other ways to respond The likely outcome from each response

1.

2.

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Five other ways to respond The likely outcome from each response

3.

4.

5.

Whichisthebestresponse?Explainyourchoice

Furtherinformationoncognitivebehaviouralapproaches• NACRO(2000)Usingcognitivebehaviouralapproacheswith

childrenandyoungpeoplewhooffend.London,NACRO• NeenanM.andPalmerS(2001)CognitiveBehaviouralCoaching,

FirstpublishedinStressNews,July2001,Vol.13No3.• RoyalCollegeofPsychiatrists-Informationandlinkson

cognitivebehaviouraltherapy-http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinformation/therapies/cognitivebehaviouraltherapy.aspx

• StallardP(2002)ThinkGood-FeelGood:ACognitiveBehaviourTherapyWorkbookforChildrenandYoungPeople.JohnWileyandSonsLtd,England

• TheYoungMind(Co-editedbySueBaileyandMikeShooter)-Informationfromhttp://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/pdf/The%20Young%20Mind%20Leaf-Col.pdf

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References and further reading

• Albano,M.,&KearneyC.(2000).When children refuse school: a cognitive behavioural therapy approach: Therapist guide. PsychologicalCorporation

• Churches,R&Terry,R(2007) NLP for Teachers: How to be a Highly Effective TeacherCrownHousePublishing

• Churches,R&Terry,R(2010) Effective Classroom Communication Pocketbook (Teachers Pocketbook) ManagementPocketbooks,ISBN-10:1906610118

• ColeT,(2007) A Review of ‘Attendance and Behaviour’ Reports and Guidance Issued by Government and Government Agencies in the British Isles,SEBDA-www.seba/org.uk-CommissionedbyWAG

• Corpus,J.H.,Lepper,M.R.(2007)Praising the person or what they do - do different types of praise have different effects on pupils’ motivation? Educationalpsychology,Vol.27,No.4,August2007,pp.487-508

• Counselling directory-http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/behavioural.html

• DuckworthK,AkermanR,MacGregorA,SalterEandVorhausJ(2009)Self-Regulated Learning: A Literature Review.InCentreforResearchontheWiderBenefitsofLearningInstituteofEducation

• Frameworkforintervention(2001)Behaviour in Schools: Framework for Intervention Getting Started BirminghamCityCouncil

• French,Abe.(2007)Thinking Matters Facilitator Manual

• HewittD(ed)(1998)Challenging behaviour principles and practice,DavidFultonPublishers,London

• HigginsS,HallE,WallK,WoolnerP&McCaugheyC(2005)The Impact of School Environments: A literature review,DesignCouncil

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• Kelly,S(2007)How does classroom discussion affect pupils’ learning?InSocialPsychologyofEducation(2007)Vol.10,00331-352

• GrundyW&JonesD(2002)TheManagementofPupils’ChallengingBehaviour:Confrontationmanagement-StrategiesforPromotingPositiveBehaviourandAttendance-PartofthematerialsforTheNationalProgrammeforSpecialistLeadersofBehaviourandAttendance,DfES2004,CrownPublishing

• ManderM(2008)Critical incidents: effective responses and the factors behind them,NCSL-Fromhttp://www.nationalcollege.org.uk/docinfo?id=17138&filename=critical-incidents-full-report.pdf

• McGuire,J(2000) Cognitive - Behavioural Approaches: An introduction to theory and research,DepartmentofJustice-accessedfromhttp://www.justice.gov.uk/inspectorates/hmi-probation/docs/cogbeh1-rps.pdf

• Mooney,P;Ryan,J.B;Uhing,B,M;Reid,R&Epstein,M.H.(2005)A review of self-management interventions targeting academic outcomes for pupils with emotional and behaviour disorders.InJournalofBehavioralEducation(2005)Vol.14(3),pp.203-221

• Morris-MacleanS.(2000)Working with Difficult Pupils: A case study of teacher effectiveness.PresentedattheInternationalSpecialEducationCongress2000byPeterPumfrey

• OECD(2009)Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results from TALIS(TeachingandLearningInternationalSurvey)ISBN978-92-64-05605-3

• O’Brien,T(1998)Promoting positive behaviourLondon:DavidFulton

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• Porter,L(2001)Behaviour in Schools - Theory and Practice for Teachers,OpenUniversityPress,Buckingham

• RobertsonJ(1996)Effective Classroom control: Understanding teacher - pupil relationships,HodderandStoughton,London.

• RogersB.(2006a)Classroom Behaviour - A Practical guide to effective teaching, behaviour management and colleague support (2ndedition),SagePublicationsLtd,London

• RogersB.(2006b)Cracking the hard class (2nd edition),SagePublicationsLtd,London

• RogersB.(2006c)How to Manage Children’s Challenging Behaviour (2nd edition),SagePublicationsLtd,London

• RogersB.(2004)Behaviour recovery (2nd edition),SagePublicationsLtd,London

• Smith,CJandLaslett,R(1993)Effective Classroom Management: A teacher’s guide,Routledge,London

• Steer,A(2009)Review of Pupil Behaviour, Interim Report 4,InstituteofEducation

• Squires,G.(2001)Using cognitive behavioural psychology with groups of pupils to improve self-control of behaviour.EducationalPsychologyinPractice,Vol.17,No.4,pp.317-335

• Wannarka,R.;Ruhl,K.2008)Seating arrangements that promote positive academic and behavioural outcomes: a review of empirical research;inSupportforLearning,Vol23;Number2,BlackwellPublishingLtd

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2010)Thinking Positively: Emotional Health and Well-being in Schools and Early Years Settings

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• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2001)The Learning Country

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2006)The Learning Country: Vision into Action

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2006) Inclusion and Pupil Support, Circular 47/06

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2002)Narrowing the gap in the performance of schools,DfTEinformationdocument029-02,Oct2002.

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2008)The School Effectiveness Framework

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2008)National Behaviour and Attendance Review

• WelshAssemblyGovernment(2009) Behaving and Attending: Action Plan Responding to the National Behaviour and Attendance Review

• YoungMinds(1996)Mental Health in Your School

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