pop lack a

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Abstract

mtims ' start a sntnc in panish TERMNO EN ESPAO: tward a typgy f

cd-switching

H

The occurrence of code-switching, or the seemingly random alternation of

two languages both between and within sentences, has been shown(Gumperz, 1976; Pfaf 1975; Wentz, 1977) to be governed not only byextralinguistic but also linguistic factors. For the balanced bilingual, codeswithing appears to be subject to an 'equivalence constraint Pop lack

1978): ie it tends to occur at points in discourse where juxtaposition of and elements does not violate a surface syntactic rule of either language

f correct, the equivalence constraint on codeswitching may be used tomeasure degree of bilingual ability It was hypothesized that equivalencewould either be violated b! nonuent bilinguals, or that switch points whichare risky in erms of syntactic wellformedness (ie. those which occur

within a sentence would tend to be avoided altogether To test this hypothesis I analysed the speech of Puerto Rican residents of a stable bilingual community exhibiting varying degrees of bilingual ability Quantitative

analysis of their switches revealed that both uent and nonuent bilingualswere able to codeswitch frequently and still maintain grammaticality in both and While uent bilinguals tended to switch at various syntacticboundaries within the sentence nonuent bilinguals favoured switchingbetween sentences allowing them to participate in the codeswitching mode,without fear of violating a grammatical rule of either of the languagesinvolved

These results suggest that the codeswitching mode proceeds from thatarea of the bilinguals grammar where the sU/ace structures of and overlap, and that codeswitching, rathr than representing debasement of linguistic sill is actually a sensitive indicator of bilingual ability

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82 S. Poplack

1. Introduction

An oerwhemng maory of Puero Rans resdng n he onnenaUned Saes urreny am Spansh as her moher ongue. hs srue for young as we as oder speakers despe he fa ha ms of hemwere eher born rased or spen a good par of her adu fe n anEngsh-speakng soey

Aong wh sgns of gour and renewa of he anguage, howeer heres aso some ndaon ha use of Spansh s on he wane espeayamong he younger generaons of speakers who were born and rased nNew York Cy Pedraa, ). The presen nesgaon s par of annerdspnary sudy whh ams o examne he pae o f boh Spanshand Engsh n a Puero Ran ommuny n Eas arem hrough parpan obseraon of her dsrbuon n he day fe of he

ommuny, 2) anayss of audes of ommuny members oward eahof he anguages and 3) quanae soongus anayss of seeedngus behaour

Due among oher hngs o a ruaory pae of mgraon hsappears o be a sabe bngua ommuny raher han a ransona onewhere aquson of a seond anguage woud eenuay dspae he rsshman ) Ths paern of dspaemen of he moher ongue hasharaered seera eary weneh enury mmgran groups n heUned Saes and has usuay been brough o ompeon by he hrdgeneraon. n onras he Puero Ran ommuny under nesgaon

nudes hrdgeneraon speakers of boh Spansh and Engsh. 02nd Sree a bok n he hear of E Barro perhaps he odes

onnuous Puero Ran seemen n he ned Saes, prodes aunque seng o nesgae hese ssues. Bok resdens are predomnany 5) Puero Ran o he rua exuson of a oher ehngroups, an arbue whh s no haraers of he Puero Ranommuny n he Uned Saes as a whoe Pedraa, ) f he Spanshanguage and Puero Ran uure are o sure n he Uned Saesher hanes of dong so are presumaby greaes n suh an ehnayhomogeneous enronmen

Ths paper s an aemp o negrae he resus of he ehnograph andaudna <omponens of he broader sudy no a speay soongus anayss

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Code-Swiching

Someties / start a sntenc in Spanih 83

Loge ehogaphi obevaio of d See aied ou bPedo Pedaa (98) idiaed hee ode o f ouiaio aogblo ebe Eglih-peaig Spaihpeaig ad ode-wihigWhile ue of Spaih pedoiae i eai doai (uh a i hehoe o while plaig ube) i eluive ue i a of hee eig wa o obeved Siilal while ue of Eglih pedoiae i ofial

eig i i alo poible o hea Spaih i hee doai. Pedaafuhe obeved ha hee wee peae who odewihed beauehe laed full oad of Spaih ad hoe who ode-wihedbeaue he laed ful l oad of Eglih (p. 33 ). Howeve a we wi lle i i ol b liig ehogaphi obevaio wi h l iguii aali ha ode-wihig behaviou a be o adeuael eplaied

Code-wihig i he aleaio of wo laguage wihi a igledioe eee o oiue. a epo o a ealie ud of abalaed biligual peae (Popla 98a) ode-wihig wa aegoied aodig o he degee of iegaio of ie fo oe laguage

(L) o he phoologial ophologial ad ai pae of heohe laguage (L.

eaue he balaed biligual ha he opio of iegaig hi ueae io he pae of he ohe l aguage o peevig i oigialhape ie uh a hoe i I below whih peeve Eglih phoologial pae wee oideed eple of ode-wihig i ha udwhile ege uh a hoe i () whih ae adaped o Pueo RiaSpaih pae wee oideed o be iae of ooligual Spaihdioue 3

I a Leo u GZN [i ead a agaie

b. Me iba a Y FF [l fhe wee goig o la e o ff'

() a Leo u maai [aai] ead a agaie

b Me iba a da a [leohe wee goig o la e off.

he euig eio w ploe odewihig o a ouiwide

bai fouig o peae of vaig biligual abiliie. luio i heaple of o-ue biligual euie od ifig ou peviou deiioof ode-wihig. I he peeh of oue biligual ege aeai uiegaed io L o oe o oe liguii level due oafeee of pae fo L hi obiaio of feaue lead o

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54 S Pak

wha s ommony known as a foregn aen and s deeabe een nhe monongua L speeh of he speaker as n 3) beow whh wasrendered whoy n Puero Ran Spansh phonoogy

3) Thas wha he sad [da wa se] 500)

n order o onsder an uerane suh as 3) whh ours n anoherwse enrey Spansh onex as a odeswh from Spansh noEngsh we hae rened he rer a for denfyng a ode-swh n erms

of he ype of negraon as n Tabe The exampe of Type mu s phonoogay morphoogayand synaay negraed no he base anguage ahough eymoogay a oan word from Engsh mug s here onsdered an nsane ofmonongua Spansh dsourse n onras Type 4 segmens are oayunnegraed no he paerns of he base anguage Ths sor o f odeswh ours mos ypay n he speeh of baaned bnguas Type 2foows Engsh phonooga and morphooga paerns bu oaesEngsh syna paerns The exampe shown foows he Spanshsyna paern of adee paemen Ths ype of segmen s aso

onsdered a ode-swh no Engsh ahough one whh oaes heequaene onsran' See p 5 beow) Ahough Type 3 noesphonooga negraon no Spansh e foows Puero Ran Spansh

l Idnaon o od-shng aordng o yp o ngraon no h basanguag

2

3

4

l of gioo gg

ho moh

S? xm

No ol q MOGUEEN.h migh mg o .2/

l HEAVY·DUTYi g d m holddo. fogoh l ig hdod 4/485

[d i 58/

No o q o FFYDOLLAR UEDE ONE do hi h fdoll d o5/

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Sometimes start a setee i Spaish 585

phoologcl uls) s mophologclly sycclly d lxcllyEglsh hus h xmpl of yp 3 s cosdd codswch oEgl sh dd wh fog cc Spoous swchs of wodsscs d lg us u boudy o olg y chg locuos w lso cosdd o b cod-swchs f hy xhbdyps 2 3 o 4 of go bl

Theoecal Backgrond

Much of h lu o cod-swchg g Gump 97 97Gump d HdCh 97 VldsFlls 97 978McClu 977) hs focusd o s socl d pgmc fucos Whlh s l l doub h fucol fcos h sogs coss oh occuc of cod-swchg s cl h lgusc fcos lso ply ol hs pp dmoss how h copoo of boh fucold lgusc fcos o sgl modl s cssy o ccou fo codswchg bhou

Alhough som of h l lu g c 975) hoccuc of cod-swchg ws chcd s dom mos sgos ow pp o g h my spcs s ulgoddsp h fc h h s ll gm o h pcs u of huls old oposd gmmcl uls h gll y h fomof cgocl coss bsd o ccpbly udgms of dscs ofcodswchg Ggs 974 mm 975 Gump 97)Whl ccpbly udgms pod mgbl wy o p commuy gmm oms h us s usobl h cs of olysgmd socolgusc m s s h cs of codswchgGump 97 Moo suds of cod-swchg pfomc wo wdly spd blgul commus h dpdly ylddcouxmpls o s cgocl coss fff 975 97oplc 978)

Mo mpoly h poposd coss o of h glu o would wsh o scb o lgusc usls op lc 978) wo sycc coss o cod-swchg w suggsd whchogh w gl ough o ccou fo ll scs of codswchg h uo Rc d o whch h sudy ws bsd s wll

s h Chco d o whch h moy of h codswchg lus bsd d h sm m sc ough o o g scsof o-occug cod-swchs:) Te ee orphee corai Cods my b swchd ycosu dscous podd h cosu s o boud mo

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86 S Pop/c,

ph h ontrnt hold tr for ll lngt l bt thphonologl or ron plnd bo Th gnt h y b prodd wh th rt yllbl follow th rbbn Spnhtndny to prt 1 bfor ol ononnt whl th ondyllbl follow nglh phonologl pttrn Th hold b n ng for bt ng n nglh trgt thr thn wth btwntwo bond orph ow t h whr th Spnhbond orph -ien/ ng fd to th ngl h root t h not

bn tttd n th or ny othr tdy of odwthng to y knowldgnl on of th orph h bn ntgrtd phonologlly nto thlngg of th othr

( n bn [hkw] good

( *EAT ndotng

nldd ndr th ontrnt dot pron h rss mf ngers [] and hpe t die nd si Dis quierey /a vgen (God nd thrgn wllng whh ondd to bh lk bond oph ntht thy how trong tndny to b ttrd onolnglly.(b The equialene nstaint. odwth wll tnd to o tpont n dor whr tpoton of L nd L lnt do notolt yntt rl of th lngg t po nt rond wh h thf ttr of th two lngg p onto h othr Aordng toth pl ontrnt wth nhbtd fro orng wthn onttnt gnrtd by rl fo on lngg whh not hrd byth othr 8 Th n b n n Fgr whr th dottd ln ndt

prbl wth pont nd th rrow ndt wy n whh ontttnt fro two lngg p onto h othr Th pk tlttn podd n

A. ng told him ha that he woud bring t fs

(Yo)X ( > geoB. Sp e dJC eo pa' qe

told hm ha 04)

F Permissble code-s"thig pi

An nly bd on th qln ontrnt y b ppld to th bynow ll pl n (6 whh wr ontrtd by Gng (9nd ttd for ptblty on grop of hno bl ngl

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ois I sar a nen in panih 8

6) a E que CE aer WS JH omprar R nuevoThe man who ame esterda wants ohn to bu a nw ar

b Tell Larr QE SE CLLE BC

Tell Larr to shut hs mouth

nrs lams that 6a) n whh odes are swthed aer almost everother word s n some ver bas sense dfferent from 6b), where theswthn ours between maor onsttuents 94 ) Whle t s true

as we wll see below that mao r onsttuents are swthed more requent lthan smaller ones we suest hat onsttuent sze onl partall eplansthe dfferene between the two sentenes and that the mportant dstnton s wth respet to the equvalene onstrant 9 The sentene struturesn 6a) and 6b) are smlar n that both nlude a verb phrase and a verbphrase omplement n eah the verbs belon to a lass whh n Enlshrequres that an nntve omplementer rule appl to the verb phraseomplement whle Spansh makes use of a subuntve omplementzer nths same onstruton

Sentene 6a) volates the equvalene onstrant beause t apples an

Enlsh nntve omplementzer rule whh s not shared b Spansh tothe verb phrase omplement Bease the odeswth dd take plae nths nvented eample an Enlsh rule was lealzed n Spansh eldna onstruton whh ould not have been enerated b a Spansh ruleand whh s therefore unrammatal b Spansh standards On the otherhand the rst porton of 6a) was enerated b rules whh are shared bEnlsh and Spansh e marked for both L and L) Th L and Lversons map onto eah other onsttuent-b-onsttuent and elementbelement A odeswth ma therefore our at an pont wthn the manlause and the utterane remans rammatal b both L and Lstandards Strutures n dsourse to whha rule from L but not fom Lmust ateoral l appl were found to be avoded as swth ponts b thebalaned blnual There were no ases lke 6a) n our data andfurthermoe all 6 of ns Chano nformants found t to beunaeptabl as well Consttuents whose strutures are nonequvalent n and L tend to be utered monolnuall n atual performane Thsourred n C) n Fure as well as n ns eaple 6b) where theverb phrase omplements have underone the Spansh subuntve omplmentzer rule and are also lealzed ompletel n Spansh net

four perent of nrs nfomants also found 6) to be an aeptableutteraneAn addtonal ste o f non -equvalene n 6a) s the obet noun phrase n

the embedded sentene R nuev Enlsh and Spansh have nonequvalent ru les for adetve movement n Enlsh attrbutve adetves

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5 S Popack

typclly pcd th hd ou whs Spsh thy typclly followt A closd st of Spsh djcts my lso pcd th ou Swtchg djct but ot th ou wth th ou phs by followgETE L o L djct plcmt uls fo djcts oth th thos th closd st sults costucto whch s judgd uccptbl bymms Chco fomts 975 479) d fly uccptbl byGgs fomts 974 72) Such costuctos occu y ly ou ow pfomc dt

Smultous opto of th f mophm d th ulccostts pmts oly cod-swtchd uttcs whch wh tsltdto th lgug gmmtcl by both L d L stdds ddct lg dg of comptc both lgugs

O mght s th whth th fomulto of ths costts wsot smply cosuc of hg studd blcd blgul spt s ot supsg l though t ud mpcl poof tht ddulwth xts pto mo th o lgug c mpultthm wthout oltg th gmmtcl uls of th ut wht hpps th cs of o-ut b lguls g clly domt o of th

two lgugs thy focd to swtch to t fom t m to tm bcusof lc of lxcl o sytctc lblty wh spg th oth

Wch 953) chctd th dl blgul s ddul whoswtchs fom o lgug to th oth ccodg to ppoptchgs th spch stuto tlocuto topcs tc) but ot uchgd spch stuto d ETANY NOT TN A SNGE

SENTENE p 73 mphss ddd) H futh spcultd tht th mustb cosdbl ddul dffcs btw thos who h cotolo th swtchg d thos who h dculty mtg oswtchg cods s ud p 73)

h phomo of cod-swtchg hs b pot of cotto ssssg commuty dtty Whl tllctuls h s lgugmxtu to costtut dc of th dstgto of h uto RcSpsh lgug d cultu g o 97 d Gd 9)commuty mmbs thmsls pp to cosd ous blgulbhous to b dg ftus of th dtty Atts 979) hopo tht cod-swtchg psts dto fom som blgulom' s lso wdspd ductol ccls tody LFot975) It s ou coto h tht codswtchg s tslf om

spcc spch stutos whch xst stbl blgul commutsFuthmo s w wll dmostt stsfcto of ths om uscosdbly mo lgustc comptc two lgugs th hshtofo b otd

h pst study ddsss ths ssus by lysg th cod-

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Someimes I' sa a seece i Saish 89

swtchg bhou of twty uto Rc sps o f yg dgsof potd d obsd bgu bty

4 Hypthesis

As documtd opc 978) sg ddu my dmosttmo th o coguto o typ of cod-swtchg O typ os

hgh popoto of t-stt swtchg s 7) bow7) Why m Co STAS ATAS A QU st th bc so)

ybody hs to mo A' QU S SAGA fo h to gt out)4439)

b H ws sttg dow A AA AOOS AO

bd wtchg us ghtg d) y dot mmb S

OS SAO f h sptd us) o wht you ow.434)

W f to ths s mo compx o tmt typ sc cod

swtchd sgmt d thos oud t must cofom to th udygsytctc us of two gugs whch bdg costtuts d thmtogth gmmtcy

Aoth ss tmt typ s chctd by ty mo tgswtchs d sg ou swtchs hs o hy odd thccott d woud b pcd ow o sc of tstbty s 8)

8) Vd o H sod c) ST 779)b S sus cos y sus hy woud go out th cs

d th) SOOS 89)

My stgtos do ot cosd swtchs thos 8) topst tu stcs of cod-swtchg but th to costtut mbmtc pt of th sps moogu sty Gump 97Wt 977) t w so b otd tht th sto dscous hs fwf y mctos fo th md of th stc gs fymob costtuts whch my b std most ywh thstc wthout f of otg y gmmtc u h s wthwhch sg ous my b swtchd s ttstd to by th fct tht of gmmtc ctgos thy h b foud to b th most futy

swtchd g mm 975 Wt 977)t ws foud tht th choc of tmt sus mbmtc codswtchg s hy dpdt o th thc goup mmbshp of thtocuto th cs of th bcd bgu who hs th gustcbty to m such choc -goup mmbshp fous t

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90 S Poplac

sentental odeswthn, whle nonroup membershp favours emblemat swthn In other words that tpe of swth whh all nvestatorsaree to be true nstanes of odeswthn was ma nl reserved foommunaton wth another nroup member n onsdern whetheths pattern holds true more enerall we rst note that the tpe of odeswthn used b nonuent blnuals must be further onstraned bbl nual ab lt The researh desrbed n the fol lown setons eamnesthe etent to whh the b lnual ompetene evned b the sk lled ode

swthn behavour of a balaned blnual s shared b the nonluentbl nals n the same speeh ommunt Th s wll hae ramatons forthe possble use of odeswthn as an ndator of blnual ablt

Wth the nluson of nonuent blnuls n the sample threealternatve outomes ma be hpotheszed The speaker ma enae nboth ntmate ntrasentental) and emblemat swthn reardless ofher ompetene n the two lanuaes, thereb runnn the rsk orendern utteranes whh wl l be unrammatal for L L o r both andhene provdn a prnpled bass for the lam that odeswthnrepresents a devaton from some norm) On the other hand the speaker

ma avod those ntrasentental swthes whh are sntatall rskThs mht assure rammatal utteranes Suh results would weakn thelams that odeswthn ours de to lak of avalablt n LLoall, there s a thrd possb lt that the speaker wl l not swth at al lThs need not be onsdered al thoh two members o f the sampleswthd onl one eah n twoandahalf hours of speeh, there was noone who dd not swth at all

5 The smpe

1 Blo pton

1 02nd Street s loated n the heart of El Barr o one of the oldest and unt lreentl the larest Puerto Ran ommunt n the Unted StatesAlthouh Puerto Rans have now dspersed to other areas of M anhattanand other borouhs n New York Ct we estmate that the populaton on102nd Street s stll at least 95 Puerto Ran

The blok whh s dented b the ensus to be one of the lowestsooeonom areas of the Ct s larel resdental t onssts of 16three t o vestore teneents hosn some 600 people and s boundedb maor avenues on the East and West There s a small number ofommeral establshments n the blok nludn two bodga, an

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592 S Pop ack

domnn or ngu. Ba mmrs wr for h mos pr unmpoyd durng h prod of osron

Of h wo rmnng nformns, on dos no prcp n nynwork sgncny mor hn n ny ohr, nd h scond s rcnrr o h ock Boh r Spnshdomnn.

5 2 The iormas

Th wny nformns n h smp wr scd prmry on h ssof wo prmrs g of rr n h Und Ss, nd hnogrphcy) osrd ngug prfrnc. Ths choc ws md n ordr osudy h ffcs of ngu y nd communy nunc on codswchng Smp mmrs r fry ny ddd wn hos who

rrd s chdrn or wr orn n h Un d Ss 06 yrs o f g),whn prn nunc on chd ngug us s grs hos whorrd s prdoscns 7 2), whn pr nunc ncrochs onprn nunc; hos who rrd s doscns 3 7), whn prnunc on ngug choc s grs Pyn, 976; Popck, 978); ndhos who rrd s dus, whn prns of ngug us nd o hcryszd

Aou hf of h spkrs wr osrd o Spnsh-domnnou 0% Engsh-domnn nd h rs ngu Wh som cpons hs osrons conrm h spkrs' own sf-rpors

Scon 5 4 ow)n ddon, sr ohr dmogrphc, hnogrphc nd udn

fcors whch coud ffc ngug us wr sudd

5 . 3 emographi haraerisis o he sampe

En of h wny nformns r m, nn fm, nd 75% ofhm r wn 2 n d 40 yrs of g Rgrdss of g of rr, u wo h spn n yrs or mor n h Und Ss, nd hmory 60%) hs n hr for mor hn wny yrs Snc duronof sy s proy orshdowd y ohr nuncs on nguschour fr ou wo yrs Hdrgr Forschungsprok"PdgnDusch 977) h of compnc n Engsh of hs groups no ky o chng much wh ncrsd rsdnc n h Und Ss.

Mos of h smp 65%) h so spn n or mor yrs n PuroRco hr ry n f ony on nformn ws orn n h UndSs), or ncudng ndd soourns tr hng mgrd to h

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Sometmes I' start a setece Spash 3

contnntl Untd Stts. Thr s som corrlton btwn spkr nd tm spnt n Purto Rco th oldr spkrs r nrlly thos whohv spnt mos t tm on th Is lnd H owvr, th morty of th smpl70% vsts th Isl nd nfrquntly l ss thn vry two yrs In sum, t srsonbl to pct tht ths spkrs hv ll lso cqurd somcomptnc n Spnsh, whthr t s put to us t prsnt or not.

Smpl mmbrs rport mor yrs of schooln thn th nrlPurto Rcn populton n w York Cty Svnty prcnt hv hd tlst som hh school ducton; ths ncluds 20% who hv thrrdutd hh school or hd som coll ducton

Slhtly lss thn hlf th smpl ws mployd t th tm of th study,nd ths mnly n th srvc sctors of th work forc bkr cook,mdcl tchncn, countrmn, tc. Of ths, th morty 70% smployd o ff th block

Laguage-orete haatests o the sampe

Th nformnts rspondd to lnu-tttud qustonnr dsndto tp vrous spcts of lnu skl l by slf-rport s wll s communtytttuds towrds Purto Rcn lnu nd thncty

Whn skd f thy consdrd thmslvs mnly Spnsh spkrs,Enlsh spkrs, or blnuls, slhtly mor thn hlf % of thsmpl clmd to b mnly Spnsh spkrs Th othrs consdrd

thmslvs blnul. o on clmd to b mnly n Enlsh spkr,rctn th undrrtn on th prt of spkrs of thr Enl sh lnuskl ls Thr s doubtlss som corrlton btwn ths ndn nd thfct tht ll spkrs rport hvn lrnd Spnsh n rly chldhoodbtwn th s of 2 nd 7 wth th morty 7% hvn lrnd t nPurto Rco On th othr hnd, only two n formnts lrnd Enlsh nrly chldhood Sty prcnt of th smpl lrnd Enlsh btwn ths of 7 nd 21, nd ll spkrs rport hvn lrnd Enlsh n thUntd Stts Whn skd to rt thr comptnc n both Spnsh ndEnlsh on svnpont scl spkrs rtns r consstnt wth thr

vrbl slf-dscrpton Almost ll 9% rt thmslvs s hv morthn mdn procncy n Spnsh whl lss thn hl f % clm thsfor Enlsh If th hypothss tht cod-swtchn s cusd by lck ofvlblty n wr corrct, t would ppr tht mmbrs of thssmpl populton wold fvour swtchn nto Spnsh from n Enlshbs

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9 S Pplck

A dnal harar ol h a

Our lanuaatttud qstonnar also sks to ta sakrs lnstowards lana as t rlats to Purto Ran ltu and thntRsonss to atttud qust ons ar lss radl ntrrtabl than rortso lana us On an thn dntt sal basd on qustons aboutrd n bn Purto Ran lns towards asslaton and sakrsharatrzaton o natonalt Purto Ran Nyran Arant) th aort 6) rald lar ost dntaton as PrtoRans Whn askd to assss how ortant th Sansh lanua s toPurto Rannss 90> lt that Sansh s ortant or r ortant to bn a Purto Ran Ths atttud was suard b Sall

TU ERE UERTRRQUEN you're Puero Rican), your father's a Puero

Rian ou should a leas DE VEZ E CUD (someimes) you know -BREN (spea Spansh). 34/5

rthlss a aort 60) also lt that Purto Ran onolnualEnlsh sakrs dd not rrsnt a ds or n th Purto Ranont n Nw York Ct

Whn askd thr was anthn ou ould sa n Sansh that ouould not sa n Enlsh or rsa 60 o th sakrs lt that thrwas nothn that old b sad n on lanua that ould not btranslatd nto th othr For th ost art ) th sakrs n ths

sal ar also awar that od-swthn s a rqunt and wdsradhnonon n thr ont Whn askd th thoht that wso or an sakrs d lanuas thr-ourths o th salthoht that an ol od-swthd Suh awarnss o ountand nddual bhaoural nors wth rard to od-swthn wasaan od b Sall who rodd th ttl or ths ar

Somemes Il sa a senene in Spanish TERM E EN [sc (and nsh

n Spansh)' 4/489)!(

Ths onon orroborats Pdrazas thnorah obsraton ta aaort o blok rsdnts od-swthd sowhat or rquntl

n su al thouh th Sansh lanua s orwhlnl onsdrd anntral art o bn Purto Ran and n st o th at that onl anort ls that on or th othr o th lanas a b bttr orsan rtan thns thnorah obsraton qant tat sool nust analss and sakrs own slrors all ndat that odswthns an tral art o ount sh nors on 10nd Strt Cod

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Sometimes stat a setee i Spaish 595

swches pooked by ck o by o uzed s n embem o ehnc deny ppe hen o be ony wek cos n spekespecepon o he own behou

6 Mtodoogy

6. 1 ata coectio

The qune nyses whch oow e bsed on ecoded speech dn boh neew nd nu sengs Pedzs membeshp n hePueo Rcn communy nd hs my wh he seng nd pccpns owed hm o ene oc newok suons such s domnogmes o bochiche gossp sessons nd smpy un on hs peecodewhou cusng n ppen bek n he coneson ow I n ddon

he ced ou socongusc neew wh ech nomn mngo ec csu undeced speech nd dmnseed he deed udequesonne menoned boe Ou d hen nge om he encuspeech o nom ngoup communcon o he moe omdscouse used n dscussng conceps such s nguge nd cuue

The mponce o d coecon echnques cnno be oeemphszed pcuy n he sudy o phenomenon such s codeswchng whch cnno be decy eced The cu occuence o swch s consned pobb moe hn by ny ohe co by henoms o he peceed noms o he speech suon. The mos mpono hese noms o he bnced bngu ws ound Popck 1 978) o behe ehncy o he neocuo once ohe ce ppopenessomy o speech suon wee me. The bnced bngu spekeswched ou mes s equeny wh n ngoup neocuo s wh no n-membe nd wh s moe used much ge pecenge o nmeswches wh he n-goup membe Snce he d uzed n hs sudye epesene o n-goup necon ony hey e pesumbychcezed no ony by hghe e o codeswchng bu so by ge popoon o nsenen swches hn woud he been he

cse hey hd been coeced by nonmembe.

62 odig poedus

Sy-s hous o pe-ecoed speech n whch ech nomn pcped n ech o he hee speech suons poded 1835 nsances o

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596 S Pol

ode-whn Tanspon odn and analyss of h daa waed o wh he nvalable ollaboaon of Ala Posada Thenfomans appeaed on ape ehe alone o n a op fom a mnmmof woand-a-half hos o a mam o f eleven hos Eah nsane of aswh was oded as o s syna fnon n he eane alon whhe syna aeoes of he semens whh peeded and followed

We also noed he lanae of he swh whehe was peeded ofollowed by edn phenomena hesaons false sas e) whehe ons ed a epe on o f he peedn syna aeoy whehe wasa snle non swh n an ohewse base and f so whehe was anehnally loaded em

n eah nsane he laes omplee onsen ne o he swh nhe syna devaon of he eane was onsdeed o be he synaaeoy of he semen adaen o he swh Ths s pufs n 9a)was oded as a peposonal phase peeded by an ndependen laseand followed by a a Pron n 9b) was oded as a veb peeded by

an al ay and followed by an obe non phase sne all o f hem aedomnaed by he same veb phase node Qu n 9) was oded as asbodnae onnon peeded by an ndependen lase and followedby a sbodnae lase Ths mehod was sed o deemne synaaeoy of he odeswh and semen follown as well

9) a B I waned o h he CN LS US wh my ss) yoknow 43356)

b Sempe es PMISING sas es always poms n hns )04408)

c old ndesand Q ha) yo don know how o speakSpansh ERDD h?) 344)

Ohe semens of vayn syna make-p b whh eesed aonssen fnon n dsose wee oded aodn o ha fnonEamples of hese ae lles e mm) I neeons e ,Do o oh my od) h as e nnd? ndesand) )\ doma epessons e od rd and all ha sh) \; qoaons e p down no less) These ae semens whhae less nmaely lnked wh he emande of he eane nsofa as

hey may o feely a any pon n he senene As wll be seen heyonas wh he na-senenal swhes whh ms obey seneneneal syna onsans

Cean swhed seen we lae han a snle onsen as n 0) below asselmo 90) has alled hs nlm ed swhn Theseases whh wee elavely ae eqed speal odn onven ons heonly ype wh non-nelble feqeny nvolved moveable osens

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So / a a nnc n Sanh 9

ke o ad hon ( Sce these costtuets do ot form atera part of the sytactc structure of the setece, they were reeatedto the cateory of terve matera betwee the swtch ad theadjacet sytactc cateores, ad the swtches were cosdered to haveoccurred betwee the depedet cause ad the adverb ( a adbetwee the verb phrase ad the adverba phrase ( b.

( a o tee tempo (they do' t eve have tme OETEFOR TER OWN KD ND YOU KNOW WO TLKNG

BOUT (4/1b. Se set (he sat dow ONEY WY RO U (4/433

a case ke ( 1 1 utteraces were dvded by setece boudary. Pauho o was coded as a swtched prepostoa phrase Spashpreceded by a depedet cause ad foowed by a setece Wh huand was coded as a swtched prepostoa phrase Esh precededby a depedet cause ad foowed by a pause

( 1 1 Ad from there wet to ve ' CO TO ( a ot o fpacesespus vv e a ceto decsete (the ved o 1 1th WT Y

UBND (42/6

t w be oted that the aayss ( 1 1 voves a chae of baseauae The rst prepostoa phrase s cosdered a swtch toSpash from a Esh base whe the secod s cosdered a swtch toEsh from a Spash base. Whe speakers who are domat oeauae show a stro tedecy to swtch to z from a base, morebaaced buas ofte aterate base auaes wth the same

dscourse. A exampe of ths ca be see ( 1 2 whch represets ase dscourse ad where semets to the eft of the sashes exhbt abase auae dfferet from those to the rht of the sashes

( 1 2 But used to eat the BOE the bra Ad the they stopped set because TENN ETE LE ENCONTRRON QUE TEN (they haduh they foud out that t had worms used to make some BOE! /espus yo haca uo d'esos (the woud make oe of thoseCONCOCTON TE GRLC co ceboa y haca u mojo y yodeja ba que se curara eso (wth oo ad d make a sauce ad 'd

e that st FOR COULE OF OUR / The you be drk adeat that sht. Wooh! ts ke eat achoves whe you'redrk. ecous (4/11

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598 S Pop ack

6 3 o-coeswiches

C bod os bw l d z w udd omhs sudy O yp os swhd ms whh h b d oby Hssmo 190) s soy gd o h gug o hommuy sgms whh pd o ough

gug o b gdd s hbud Ths my o my o bphooogy gd o h bs gug; d shoud o bousd wh h yps o go show Tb 1 :

13) Ay i qu E [ku s 34202)How u h ooks'

b Eso s u EA [ Po o 342)hs m Po o

E s mpo hb muhos NES [k 3440)A h m h w o o uks

Swhs o dsgg ood ms pop ms d pms w so omd om hs sudy p wh h ws pb whh ws o usd g Puero Rico[ pykow � [ pw£

Aso udd w sos spos o quss o omo,s 4) sgms oowd by po s 14b),swhs ompd by mgus omms s 4), dss o y odod swhg Cy 1 92 0) whhh ouo swhd gugs wh h sm dsous d hom oowd su, s 14d)

14) A: o puso u mo s d? u uo?Thy g hm how do you ? uo?)

B UO? 2229)b Bu I usd o h OE h b 04) I m o o hos wh yo u Spsh ENEAS ks)

you kow 041 58)d A I hd dm ysdy s gh

B G E QE NUEO Wh umb?)A E EO SEENA Y NO Zo sy-) 34040)

64 uaiaie aasis o he aa

W od h wh boh gus d gus qusosd w sh mp o opo h sws o sg ymod Th gus qusos o h su oguo o h

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Somims I sa a sc i Spaish 99

swiches Are here some sors o cosiues i iscourse which ca beswiche a ohers which cao? Are here cosiues which e obe swiche io oe auae raher ha he oher? I wha ways oswiche iems combie wih uswiche orios o iscourse?

The exraiuisic quesios cocer he coeswichers Ca hecommuiy as a whoe be characerie by some coeswichi ye, orare here seaers who aour cerai swich yes oer ohers? I heaer case, wha are he emorahic aiuia a socia acors whichcoribue o he occurrece o oe ye oer aoher, a wha is hecomaraie eec o each

To aswer hese quesios he oowi quaiaie aayses wereerorme o he aa The syacic caeory o he swiche iem wascross-abuae rs wih he recei a he he oowi syaciccaeory o ascerai wheher cerai ois (as or exame, he oibewee eermier a ou i iscourse were more aourabe o heoccurrece o a swich ha ohers Aso crossabuae were swicheiem by auae, o see i cerai swich yes were aoure by oeauae oer aoher a swiche iem by seaer, o see i here wasay ierece i swichi behaiour amo seaers

The crossabuaios reeae ha seaers cou be iie io worous oe which aoure exraseeia swiches a aoher whichee owars he iraseeia or more iimae ye The coeswichi aa were subsequey coase io wo caeories iraseeia a exraseeia swiches These caeories were he crossabuae iiiuay wih he emorahic aiuia a auaeoriee characerisics o he iormas o iscoer which i ay, haea iuece o he choice o oe coeswich oer he oher Tess o

associaio were aie o each o hese crossabuaios o eermiehe siicace o he exraiuisic acors or he occurrece o oecoeswichi ye oer he oher

Hai hus bee abe o eerie a eee ariabe (i his casecoeswich ye is reea arias (iraseeia a exraseeia coeswichi, a he oa ouaio o ueraces i whichhe ariaio occurs (ie he oa corus o swiche iems he siicace ess mae i ossibe o sues which exraiuisic acors mihreasoaby be exece o aec he reaie requecy o he wo yes o coeswiches Because he acors may be correae amo hemsees

wihi he same a hae correae ecs o coeswichi ye, iwas he ecessary o use muiariae saisica echiques o eermiewhich acors mae a siica coribuio ieee o he eecso oher acors o he choice o coeswich ye Because o he biomiaaure o he aa a heir uee isribuio amo he iere

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00 S. Pola

possib coratios of factors a maimm ikihood approach wastak for th vaatio of factor ffcts, tothr with oikihood tstsof siicac

7 Resuts

Prhaps th most striki rst of this stdy is that thr wr virtay oistacs of rammatica combiatios of ad i th 835switchs stdid rardss o f th biia abiity of th spakr.

Or hypothss as to th atr of sytactic costraits o codswitchi i th spch of th baacd biia, i.. th fr morphmcostrait ad th qivac costrait, ar ray corroboratd byth prst ivstiatio of both baacd ad ot biias.Thr wr o amps of switchs btw bod morphms of thtyp *ea -ieo mtiod i (5) abov A sma mbr (v, or ss tha of th data) of switchs withi idiomatic prssios did occr,

howvr, as i ( 5a) whr a Spaish prssio is brok p, ad ( 5b)whr a Eish prssio is brok p.

( 5) a Estamos como marido y N (W ar ik ma ad wif.< Sp Estamos como mario uer ( 0 5 / 4 )

b. Mi mai tvo q ir a rmar Y SH pa sacarm KN

(My mom had to o si hi to t m ot yo kow)(0/058)

A sma mbr of switchs which vioatd th qivac costraitaso occrrd ( , or ss tha � of th data) Th majority ( / o f

ths ivovd adjctiv pacmt a r which is ot shard by ad This ca b s i (6a) whr adjctiv pacmt foows Spaishbt ot Eish rs ad (6b) whr th rvrs is tr.

( 6) a Ta patas acas pchos FT (Thy had skiy s atchsts.) (09/432)

b I ot a otta BNQT (whity) frids. (34/24)

A stro tdcy to avoid o-qivac is othss maifstdi th fact that 8 8% (49/56) of h adjctiva forms i th corps ar ithrprdicat adjctivs which hav qivat srfac strctrs i Spaish

ad Eish or mmbr of th sbst of Spaish adjctivs which prcdth o as i Eish.

Th proportio of switchd itms which wh combid wit h th rst ofth ttrac d id ot foow rammatica rs shard b y both ad is iib (Of this sma mbr, NNE of th costctios was

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Sti Ill trt ntn in anih 0 1

osycratc or asd o rus whch wr ot draw from o or thohr of th rammars Ths d s stro vdc that atratotw two auas rqurs a hh v o ua comptc.odswtch vovs ouh kowd of wo (or mor) rammatcastms to aow th pakr to draw from ach systm oy thos rusch th othr shars wh atrat o aua wth aothr.Surpsy ouh ths kowd appars to shard y v tho-ut uas th samp. Th way whch hs attr spakrs

ar a to fu th rurmt of rammatcaty dspt thr mtdcomptc o of th cods w xamd scto . ow

. 1 Diour io of od-ihin

h d that cod-swtch costtuts th kd mapuato ofovrapp sctos of two (o r mor rammars s furthr corrooratdy a xamato of som of th ways whch a cod-swtch fuctos dscours. O of th charactrstcs of skd cod-swtch s a smoothtrasto tw j ad mts umarkd y fas startshstatos or thy pauss Wh w xam th data w d that thtrasto tw th prcd catory ad th swtchd tm s madsmoothy .. wth o dt poma, 9 of th tm wh thtrast o tw swtchd tm ad foow sytactc catory s madsmoothy 98 of th tm Othr charactrstcs of skd codswtchcud a sm uawarss o f th atrato tw auas . .th swtchd tm s ot accompad y mtaustc commtary dos ot costtut a rptto of a or part o fth prcd smt o r

s t rpatd y th foow smt swtchs ar mad up of arrsmts tha ust s ous srtd to a othrws L2 stcad codswtch s usd for purposs othr tha that of covyutrasata tms

O xam th data for th samp as a who w d that thscharactrstcs ar st roy vdc: th swtchd tm oy costtutsa rptto of th prcd smt of th tm wh th foowmt rpats a or part of th swtchd tm oy 8 of th tm. Sou swtchs costtut oy I% of th data of ths s tha ofourth rprst tms whch ar thcay oadd

othr words faturs kow to charactrstc of commucatoth a oroup mmr such as hh prctas of s ouswtchs usd to covy otos whch ar dfcut to trasat ar otd fatus of traroup commucato

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�<�":

62 S Popa

2 iguisic properies o swiche segmes

Hv stbsh tht swtch occurs sooth sho w tur ourttto to th tur o th swtchs thsvs Whch costtuts rswtch wht wys o thy cob wth prc oowsts? o crt cobtos t to occur or rury?

Ft sytctc ctors whos occurrc s pt o stctr costrts wr xtrct ro th t o wth sv xtr

stt or ry strbutb ctors Ths ppr Tb 2Th rtv rqucs wth whch costtuts y b swtch

ct Tb 2 ry cor th s o othr stus(Gupr 96 Wt, 9 Popc 98. As c b s u

Tabl 2. Code-switching by yntactic catery and lanuae ,4

Synaay S

dmn

n nnbj nn habj nn haalayvbvb handndn labdna and

lav aadjvda adjv

advbnha ,

adj, advb nnjnn b

dna dna,av nn

S mEn S

3

3444

62o6

2744

5336

1 42

55

33

S mS En

o1 4 1

2578

o1 31 335

231 237

33o

39

1 6

% Ta S

0.2%

95387.6

001 02 24 3

4 10.82.3

2 60 1

5 . 1

2.7

N

3

1 75

69

1 40o

1 94079

761 543

472

94

49

nn ll<

2019

26

1 7 11 189

203

1 . 1

6.3

37220

1 1 50<0eK!

njndma

nqana

Tal

820

9

659

231 4

403

1 1 76

1 . 7

1 .9

22.5

3 134

4 1 2

1 8 3 5

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


Someimes sa a seece i Spaish 603

seeces ae he os equey swched cosue, a up 0% o he daa Exaseea codeswch ypes whch eque ess owede o wo aas sce hey ae eey dsbuabe wh dscouse,oehe cosue abou ha he daa

Ao he aseea swches, we d se ous o be he osequey swched caeoy, aa co he ds o ohesudes Tabe 2 aso eveas a edecy o swch ao cosues,whch accou o abou 60% o he aseea daa, oe euey

ha sae oes Ths povdes addoa suppo o he equvaececosa, whch pedcs ha whoe cosues w be swched aheha eees wh he he syacc ue o eea hecosue s o shaed by boh ad z

7.3 Laguage o he swich

Tabe 2 aso shows he equeces wh whch he syacc caeoesude vesao ae poduced each auae As ca be see, wh aew excepos, sees ae abou as ey o be swched o Esh aso Spash, povd uhe evdece o he sueso ha he codeswch ode poceeds o a se aa

Exa he daa Tabe oe cosey, we ay es whehe heae o occuece o a ve syacc caeoy o a swch s scaydee o oe auae o he ohe Fo hs we copaed a oehoo o a ae esae o he wo auaes sepaaey copaed oha o he cobed daa Scay oe swches o Spash oEsh wee oud o ou caeoes as, eecos, se ous,

d pedcae adecves The ae s pobaby a aac o spase daa,bu he esus o as, eecos, ad se ous have poaepeaos

I s o sups ha buas esd a Eshspeasocey shoud avou Esh ou swches ove Spash Ieecosad as, as w be show seco 5 ae pecsey he swch ypeswhch ae avoued by Spashdoa speaes These speaes ooy swch aos uquey o Esh o a Spash base, bu ae asodsushabe o he buas by he ype o cosues hey swch

The sasca aayss shows ha asde o he ou swch ypes

whch ae avoued o Spash o Esh, os o he es ed o beswched scay oe o Esh o Spash Ths esu s aaac o he ohe, howeve, ad whe he a, eeco, ad ouswches ae eoved o he daa, aos a o he ea swchesshow o sca ae deeces bewee he wo auaes

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


604 S. P/

4 Cbnbl d nt

I ordr to ascrtai poits withi th stc at which smts may bswitchd itra-sttially switchd itms wr cross-tabuad withsmts prcdi ad foll owi thm a 22 -c tab ratd byth 1 possibiitis of sytactic catory prcdi th codswitch vrsus1 sytactic catoris for th cod-switch itsf, about 40� wr ld i. 88 diffrt combiatios of som costitut ad aothr switchd ooccurrd. Of th o-occurrt combiatios 40 wr sytacticalyimpossib ( auiiary + prpositio th rmaidr of th cs wrmpty du most probaby to th distributio of th data clscorrspodi to rlativly rar switch typs ador rlativly rarprcdi catoris would ot b pctd to occur with this samp si.

Th two most fruty rcurri switch poits amo 68 1 toks ofitra-sttia l cod-switch + prci catory wr btw dtrmir ad ou ( 9;» ad btw vrb phras ad objct ou phras( l 2 This is ot surpr isi sic w arady hav vidc that ous

ad ou phrass ar frquty switchd Othr combiatios whichrcur fruty icud idpdt caus ad subordiat c laus 4)vrb ad prdicat adjctiv 4°) ad subjct ou phras ad vrbphras (3 Th rmaii combiatios ach rprst 2 or ss of thdata Simiarly 63 (28% of th possibl combiatios occurrd amoth 29 toks of cod-switch + foowi catory th ovrwhlmimajority of which also idividually rprstd vry smal proportios ofth data

Bcaus of th si of th data st it is satisticaly uliky that carrpattrs could mr from such a ar-cld tab. With mor data w

miht b ab to prdict frqucis with which cod-switch itmsprcd ad follow spcic costituts W hypothsi that such frucis woud simpy rct th frqucy of ay iv combiatio ofcostituts ( advrb + adjctiv prpositio + ou phras i mooiual spch This hypthsis could oly b cormd by valuati thfrucis of a th possibl costi tut combiatios i a lar sampof mooliual spch a task byod th scop of th prst sarch.

What iformatio w do hav howvr idicats that thr is a rathrlar umbr of poits withi th stc at which it is prmssib toswitch cods This is additioal vidc that cod-switchi ruirs

kowd of two systms. Not that thr is about as much itrasttial as trasttial switchi (Tabl 2 i th corpus. Whi l trasttia switchi coud prsumably b accompishd by altratydrawi o rus from two sparat rmmars itrastial codswitchi would appar to dpd o th jutaposi tio of costituts too

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


Sos sa a snn n Sans 65

itimatey coected to be eerated separatey by rues from two distictrammars. This toether with the di that oy a very sma umberof switches are accompaied by breaks i the speech ow eds strosupport to the hypothesis that codeswitchi is i fact a verba modedistic from Eishspeaki ad Spaishspeaki yet which cosistsof the overappi eemets from both

.5 Dnal baou of nfoans: lanua of s

et us ow examie the idividua codeswitchi behaviour of theiformats i the sampe.

Tabe 3 shows the frequecy with which speakers switch ito Eish Itis striki that the Spaishdomiat speakers switch amost uiqueyito Eish from a uambiuousy Spaish base Biiua speakers othe other had custer aroud the hafway mark with some switchisomewhat more ito Spaish from a Eish base others the reverse It is

cear that these biiuas caot be said to have a sie base or domiatauae of discourse but rather twoote that three bi iua ad two Spaishdomiat speakers (accord

i to sefreports) show patters which cotrast with the other membersof thei r respective roups. As wi be see aai i sectio (5 1 beowfour of these are speakers whose sefreport of auae domiacecoicted with our ethoraphic ad iuistic observatios i thisreard The fth Edo is i fact biiua but has stro feeis towardsspeaki Spaish ad has bee observed to do so amost uiquey wheiteracti o the bock

5 1 Dna baou of nfoans sw y et us owexamie aother way i which biias differ from Spaishdomiatspeakers.

The switches i Tabe 2 were isted accordi to the presumed deree ofbiiua prociecy required to produce them i decreasi order.owest o the scae are taike switches Thes icude iterjectiosers tas ad idiomatic expressios a of which ca be produced i wi th oy mi ima kowede of the rammar of th at auae ext othe scae are fu seteces or arer semets which require much more

kowede of to produce athouh hypotheticay ot as much as isrequired by the third cateory itrasetetia switches As suestedabove i order to produce thi s atter sort of switch the speaker must asokow eouh about the rammar of each auae ad the way theyiteract to avoid urammatica utteraces.

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606 S Poak

Tabl 3. Perentage of ode-wthe nto Englh o Spanshdomnant and blngalpeaker

Sanh-donan

noan % o S o S o En

El 00% G 00 35

Ta 00 00 45oa 00 la 97 6

hal 4 33Sa 3 93

ho 92 8

Shoy 7 40lda 63 2

Ava 2 542

lnal

n oan % o S o S o En

al 00% 35

Edo 99 2 2Aah 63

al 5 35Gaa 53 S

andy 52 8 ola 43 30lo 39 89

Sally 37 354

Ava 63% 23 = 835

Fgu 2 gph h pcg o ch o h wch p o hom ou mpl

Fgu 2 how h pod lgug bl whch ll c buou copod o obd bl) xcll dco o codwchg p Fgu 2 how h mo o ho who po hh ow l mo combl d u mo Sph h Eglhd o wch o L2 b m o g-l couco omm oh pccl xcluo o l o l wch howho clm o b blgul o h oh hd how l Fgu 2b).h ou lg mou o h wch hpohd o u moowldg o boh lgug l d -l wch. hmo oud wch p o blgul cll -l whl

h l oud g-l wchgh w xcpo o h p pd b h dod lo h gph. wo p who clmd o b Sph-dom chow ml cod-wchg coguo o h blgul whl wowho clm o b blgul how p ml o h Sphdom

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


F g u r e 2

P e r c e n t a g e s o j s w i t c h y p e s S a s h - d o m a t a n d b l g u a l s

e a k e s

N = 2

7 8

1 0 0

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8 0

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,

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4

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3 0

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d o m i n a t s e a k e s

0 0

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8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


68 S Pa

Srikiny enouh hese are precisey he cases where ehnoraphicobservation and inuisic anaysis were previousy found to conic wi hsefrepor because he speakers underrated or overrated their abiiy inEnish Two addi tiona speakers are actuay Spanishdomi nan bu asoshow a codeswitchin patern simiar to tha of he biinuas They dohowever have a reater deree of compeence in Enish han those who

foow the Spanishdominant pattern Their swiches tend to disributeamon he three switch types rather han show a marked preference forany one and they may be considered to exhibi codeswichin behaviouintermediae o he biinuas and the more ceary Spanishdominantspeakers.

Contrbuton of xtrangustc factors to th occurrnc of codswtchty

Havin ascertained tha reported and observed biinua abiity is animporan facor in predicin he type of codeswitch that wi be uttered(a chisquare es shows th is facor o be sinicant at he 1 eve wenext atemped o deermine which other extrainuistic facors mihthave an effec on the occurrence of inrasentenia codeswitchin.ndividua tess were performed on each facor roup as we as each pairof factors wihin each roup to deermine their sinicance.

8 . 1 Sx

The sex of he speaker is a sinicant factor in predicin codeswich ypea he 1 eve Women favour inrasenenia swichin over haf(6 of heir swiches are inrasenentia whie ony onethird of hemens swiches are of his ype.

8 2 A z aqustn an a atn t t nt tt

These wo facors were oriinay examined separaey for each peake.A informants earned Spanish in eary chidhood houh here was somevariaion in he ae a which Enish was earned Since here is a oneoone coespondence between he ae a which the speaker arrived in henited Sates and he ae a which she earned Enish (not a surprisinfact since a speakers repor havin earned Eni sh in he nied Stateshese wo facors were subsequenty considered as one. On ethnoraphic

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


Sos Il s snn n Snis 609

ud we had ally diuihed fu ae f aival acqu eay chldhd (27) eadlece (83) adlece ( 418 ) ad adul (ve 1 8 . Te f aca eveal ha he diffeece beweelea Elihaivi he Uied Sae a a adlece a aadul i ica a he 0.05 level. equely hee w aeu wee cdeed ehe All he he ae dici wee

iica a eihe 0.00] he 0 .0 ] level.The eake wh leaed bh lih ad Saih i ealy

chldhd he ue biliual hw he hhe eceae f iaeeal wichi (346582 59). The wh leaed lhbewee he ae f 8 ad 3 hw ly a lhly lwe eceae f hi ye f wich (30593, 52", a mall dffeece bu e which ehele ca a he 0 .0 1 vel. Seake wh leaed lihafe he ae f 3 hweve hw a much lwe eceae f iaeeal wche (96660, 30>) a d which i ica a he0 00 1 level

83 Rod blnul blt

hac alady cc i ue , eed (ad beved biliualabi liy i a excelle edic f cdewichi ye Bi liual ducea fa eae eceae f aeeial wche (682 1293 53)ha he wh ae Saihdmia ( 1 69542 3 ). Th diffeecei iica a he 0.001 level

8 .4 d t O

Samle membe wee divided i hee caeie accd heieducaial aame he wh had me ha imay chleducai ( huh ehh ade he wh had me hh chlbu dd aduae (h huh eleveh ade ad he whaduaed hih chl ad aeded me cllee. A iial eefmed hi fac u evealed ha ha a effec cde

wich whch i ica a he 0.00 level . Seake wh had maychl educai le eded wich iaeeially lihly me(45) ha he wh had me hih chl educa (4 . Thi diffeece iica Hih chl aduae hweve wichedaeeally me (60J ha ehe f he he w u aiica di ffeece a he 000 level cle examiai hweve became aae ha alhuh he caey caied x eake all

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


6 0 S Pop ack

but ve o f the tokes (40 /406 had bee uttered by two biiua womewho had eared ish as chidre Sex, biiua abiity ad ae of L acquisitio are the three factors we have aready see to be hihycorreated with choice of switch type

8 5

Sampe members were divided ito two roups youer speakers, thosebetwee 20 ad 40, ad oder speakers, those over 4. Speaker ae wafoud ot to be siicat i predicti codeswitch type

86 Socia wok mmbship

A but two iformats beo to two ethoraphic etworks we caed the

aias ad the Baca roups, both of which icude both Spaishdomiat ad biiua speakers etwork membership is ot a siicat factor i predicti codeswitch type

8 Ehic iiy

Peope were divided ito those who scored ow o a composite idexmeasuri positive feeis towards Puerto Rica idetity ad those whoobtaied hih scores Those with positive feeis towards Puerto Rica

ethic idetity switched codes itrasetetiay somewhat more (446/88 or 5 tha those who had eative feeis (405/954 This differece issiicat at the 0.00I eve.

8 8 oiu coac wh Puro Rico

Sampe members were aso divided accordi to reative frequecy ofretur visits to Puerto Rico Those who retur to the sad where theymust speak more Spaish tha i ew York, more frequety tha oce

every two years ted to switch itrasetetiay far ess ( /304 or 23tha those who visit Puerto Rico ess frequety tha oce every two years(80/ 56 , or 49 This differece is siicat at the 0. 00 eve urtherperusa of these cateories however, idicates that a speakers whomirated to the Ui ted States i eary chidhood (ad hece ted towardsbiiuaism retur to Puerto Rico ess frequety tha oce every two

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


Somtim ll ar a nn Sanih 6 1

years and that all those who return more frequently are Spanishdominant, a disti nction we have already seen to be signicantly correlatedwith a low incidence of intra-sentential switching

8.9 Wor la

A distinction was made between those informants who are employed offthe block where they must presumably interact in English and those whoare either unemployed or employed on the block where they maycommunicate in English, Spanish or codeswitching Those who work offthe block switch intrasententially only about a third of the time 6/460) while those who remain on the block engage i n this switch typehalf of the time 684 / 35 a di fference which is signicant at the 00 0

level t is conceivable that those who spend the better part of the day in aspeech situat ion where code-switching is not appropriate get less practicein switching and are therefore less ski lled at i t Mo re likely , however, sinceonly Spanish-dominant speakers are employed off the block, it is thischaracteristic which undoubtedly accounts for the low percentage of intrasentential switching by these speakers.

uivariae anaysis o codeswich ype

Situations in which the data is poorly distributed as is the case for thefactors of educat ion continued contact with Puerto Rico and work placecan be as misleading. As we have seen, the apparently signicant efect ofon e factor may really b e mainly due to a nother l anguage dominance afac which is not brought out by looking at one factor at a imeMultivariate analysis can, within limits separate out these overlappingefects and extract the independen contributions proper to each ofseveral related factors Rousseau an d Sankoff 98 Sankof an d Labov 99 . It can also provide in formation on the statistical signicance of thedistinctions dening each factor group

Let us now examine the comparative contribution of each extralin guistic factor found by he factor-by-factor analysi s to be signicant inthe prediction of code-switch type sex language dominance of speakerage of arrival in the U nited Staes and age of L acquisit ion educationalattainment the speaker's feelings towards his own ethnicity amount ofconiued contac ith Puero Rico and location o f wor k place.

To what extent are these extralinguistic factors signicant whenconsidered simultaneously? To carry out this multivariate analysis we

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1 Pola

usd VA RB RU L (Sankoff, 9 ) to calcula facor ffcts ansgncanc lvls of factor groups. Th factor ffcts combn o gv thprobablty that a swtch wl l b n trasntntal, accordng o th odl

�p- = . X �P_- X . x �-, whr P s a corrcd manI-

PI-

PI

PI-

Pnparamtr and P ' Pn ar th paramtrs rprsntng th ffcs offactors I . . n charactrng a gvn spakr. Factor probablts varybtwn and I, wth gurs hghr han 0. favourng ntra-sntntalcod-swchng and gurs lowr than 0 favourng rasntntal codswtchng. Th hghr th gur h gratr th contrbuton to rulapplcaton so comparsons can asly b mad btwn varous factorsand facor groups Th progra also calculats th log-lklhood of hmodl undr a gvn conguraton o f factor groups Dffrnt analyss canthn b compard to s whhr th varous factor groups contrbut

sgncantly to planng th dffrntal us of cod-swchng typsamong spakrsn th prcdng scton w found svn factors that whn amnd

on by on smd to sgn cantly a ffct cod-swtch typ Som of thsfactors howvr ar clarly corrlatd among thmslvs To s whchons could b consdrd to hav an ndpndnt contrbut on to choc ofcodswtch yp, w carrd out 128 spara analyss ach on corrspondng to a dffrn combnaton of planatory factors By anngth loglklhoods rs of th svn onfactor analyss thn th 1 twofactor analyss and so on w could dtct whch factors contrbutd a

sgncant ndpndnt ffct to th planaton of th varaton n hdata [ 6 Th rsult of ths was th fourfactor analyss dpctd n Tabl 4ach of th four factors hr has a strongly sgncant ndpndnt ffcon choc of swtch yp but th addton of any of h othrs hncdntty ducaon or contnud conac wth urto Rco dos nosgncantly ncras th planaory powr of th modl.

Th coparat v ffct of h factors s of parcular nrst. As can bsn rportd and obsrvd languag domnanc s th sng l factor whchmos affcts h occurrnc of ths swtch yp Blnguals favour h

Tble 4 CO1tiut1 (xtanuit ft the ouene intentnti od·ithin. tcd 1/'n: 3

x

Fma 0.59

Ma OAI

Ag of riv

, cquist n

Chd 0 55

P 0 A

Lngug Work pla

Dinn

Bi ig 0.6X OIl 07

Spi 032 O- 0

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


Somtim l tat a t Sa 6 1 3

most, at 0 68 while those who are Spanishominant isfavour it, at 03 An a lmost equal e ffect is shown by the factor of wo rk place. Those whowork off the block where they must use Englsh show a greater tenencyto switch intra-sententially, at 06, than those who are unemploye or

work on the block where any of the three moes may be use. Table 4shows that those speakers who acquire both languages in early chilhooor pre-aolescence a ening feature of the balance bilingual, switchintra-sententially more 05 5 than those who learne z at a later age.

Table 4 also inicates that women, who ar ofen in the vanguar oflinguistic change faour intrasentential switching more than men

10 Discussion

We have shown how to incorporate both linguistic an extralinguisticfactors into a single analytical moel to account for coeswitchingperformance The lnguistic constraints on this phenomenon, the freemorpheme an equivalence constraints, represent the basis on which theforegoing analysis was carrie out

The extralinguist ic factors contribute variably to the occurrence of oneswitch type over another Choice of these factors arises from longtermfamili arity wit the members of the speech community, an on the basis o fattituinal an ethnographic stuies carrie out i n th e community

An elementary but crucial ning of this stuy is that there are

virtually no ungrammatical combinations of 1 an in the 1 ,835switches stuie, regarless of the bilingual ability of the speaker Thiscorroborates the hypothesis as to the nature o f syntactic constraints oncoeswitching avance i n Poplack 1 98a , for both balance an nonuent bilinguals

By showing that non-uent bilinguals are able to coe-switch frequently, yet maintain grammaticality in both l an z by favouringemblematic or tag-switching we have also emonstrate empiricaJly thatcoe-switching is not monolithic behaviour Three types ofcoe-switching

emerge in the speech performance stuie, each characterie by switchesof ifferent levels of constituents an each reecting ifferent egrees ofbilingual ability. Multivariate analysis of extra-linguistic factors conrmsthat those speakers with the greatest egree of bilingual ability truebilinguals) most favour intra-sentential coeswitching the type we hahypothesize to require most skill The two Chicano coeswitchingstuies of Gings 1 94 an Pfaff 1 95 1 96) also i nirectly supportthese nings Gingrs teste a group of Chicano an nonChicanobli gual s on the acceptability of a series of constructe intrasententially

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


6 4 S Po

codewitched utterance he Chicano bilingual howed much higherrate of acceptance of hi grammatical codewitche than the nonChicano hi led him to poit that there were probably codewitchngnorm peculiar to the Chicano community While peech communitiemay be characterized by different code-witching norm it wa alo thecae that the Chicano group had learned both language in earlychildhood, while the nonChicano informant al learned Englih aadult ilingual of the rt type are preciely thoe we have hown toengage mot in i ntrantential codewitching, a fact which concord withtheir high rate o f acceptance of uch witche Simi larly, of three ampleof Chicano peaker tudied Pfaff found that thoe who engaged mot indeep- intraentential witching were thoe whoe peech wa characterized by ue of both Spanih and Englih.

Previou work Gumperz 97, 976 Vald Falli 978 Poplack

978a ha hown that code-witching may be ued a a dicoure trategyto achieve certain interactional eect at pecic point during a converation he nding in the preent paper, together with the thnographic obervation that code-witching i a l inguitic norm in the PuertoRican community ugget that thi ue i characteritic only of certaintype of code-witching, which we call emblematic, including tag,interecton, diomatic expreion and even individual noun witche.On the other hand, a generalized ue of intra-entential code-witchingmay repreent intead an overall dicoure MDE he very fact that apeaker make alternate ue of both code, itelf ha interactional

motivation and implication, beyond any particular effect of pecicwitche. ndeed, peaker attitude toward ue of Spanih, nglih andcode-witching reported in ection 54 above do not offer any readyexplanaton for why a partcular egment in dicoure hould be witched.McClure and Wentz n.d . have pointed out that there i apparently noreal ocial motivation for, or ignicance attached to, the practice of codewitching [for eample] ubect pronoun alone p 26 We agree thatthere i no good reaon Wentz 977; eg pp 43, 28 for witchingubect pronoun or lone determiner etc Nonethele, uch egmentR witched by bil ingual peaker t may well be poible in ome cae

for the analyt to impute ituational motivation or conequence topecic inraentential witche, but the evidence preented here uggetthat thi ha little if any pertinence for the peaker themelve Moreimpotant, there i no need to require any ocal motivation for th typeof code-witching, given tat, a a dicoure mode it my itel f form partof the repertoire of a peeh community t i then the choice or not ofthi mode which i of gnicance to participant rather than te choice o witch point. When thee condition are met any egment in dicoue

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Somtms 'll stat a sntnc n Sansh 5

may be swthed dependng on the b ln gual ab lty o f the speake andovded t obeys the equvalene onstant hus we annot agee thatswthes of say objet ponouns ae non-sentenes of any languagebeause they vo late the soal mo tvaton fo ode-altenaton n the stplae Mlue n d : 5) hey smply volate the equvalene onstant!

he suggeston tha t ode-swthng s tself a dsete ode o f speakngpossbly emanatng fom a sngle ode-swthng gamma omposed ofthe ovelappng setos ofhe gammas of and z s suppoted by

seveal ndngs n the pesent study. We have shown that thee s a lagenumbe of pemssble swth ponts n the data athe than a fewfavoued ones Swthng any gven onsttuent n dsouse does notneessaly ental ontnuaton n the language of the swth unless thesufae stutues ae not equvalent n an d Hene lage onsttuents ae swthed moe fequently than smalle ones. t was addtonally shown that all onsttuents ae about as lkely to be swthednto j as nto z wth the few eeptons ontngent upon the blngualabl ty of the speake

n lght of these ndngs ode-swthng behavou may be used to

measue blngual ablty. lngual speakes mght have epandnggammas of the type depted n gue 3 epesent ng geate degees o fbln gual aqus ton . uthe empal studes of odeswthng pefomane n othe b lngua l ommuntes woul d povde ompaatve data totest these hypotheses

hese ndngs taken togethe and ntepeted n tems of the equvalene onstant povde stong evdene that ode-swthng s a vebalskll equng a lage degee of lngust ompetene n moe than onelanguage athe than a defet asng fom nsufent k nowledge of one

o the othe . he ule-govened natue of ode-swthng s upheld by eventhe non-uent blnguals n the sample he behavou suggests at leastenough passve ompetene n z o swth odes by means of the fewules they know to be shaed by both languages. t s also stkng thatpesely those swth types whh have tadtona lly been onsdeed mostdevant by nvestgatos and eduatos those whh ou wthn a snglesentene ae the ones whh eque the most skll hey tend to bepodued by the tue bl nguals n the sample speakes who leaned both

a Inerenena ing b ag'-ing ra-enena iing

Figre 3. Representation bilingual code-switching grammars

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6 1 6 S P/a/

lnguges in ely childhood nd who hve most ongoing contct withthe monolingul nglishspeing wold.

ode-switching then the thn epesenting devint behviou Sctully suggestive indico of degee of bilingul competence

Rvd 8 A/ 190

Note

Cn f Pu Ran SudCy Unv j N YNH Y

USA

his analys is is part of a researh projet on Inter-Generational Perspetives onBilingualism spported by the ational nstitte of Eduation under IE-G78-,and b y the ord ondation he wor reported here has beneted from many frit fldisssions with the anguage oliy as ore as well as other researhers at theenter for erto Rian Stdies I a m partilarly indebted to liia o sada for herontribtion to all phases of this stdy ran Bonilla Don indle and David Sanoff

generosly ontr ibted their time and insight for whih I am very grateful hans alsoto Migdalia Rodrigue for her patiene and expertise i n the prep aration o f the text portion of this paper was presented at the inguisti Soiety of meria annalmeeting Deember 78

Burea of the enss 733 he reverse pattern, the insertion into an English base of Spanish items with Engli sh

phonologial or morphologial patterns is nonexistent in this ommunity4 mbers in parentheses identi fy speaer and odeswith5 We follow asselmo 7 in designat ing as the base language tha t language to whih

a majority o f phono logial and morphologial featres of disorse an be attributed6 or example why sho uld i t be possible to swith odes between a subet and a verb

but not if that ubet is pronominal a sggested by Gmper 76 and imm75

7 his onstraint is onrmed by data from independent studies faff 75, 76;Mlre, nd Wentz, 77

8 on diti on sim ilar to the euivalene onstraint has been independently suggested byipsi 77

Gingrs also la ims that it is not obvious whether 6a shold even be onsidered anexample of odeswithing mainly beause in th e formation of th e omplement it is notlear whether English transformations have applied in a n otherwise Spanish struturep 68 Whether or not an invented example shold be onsidered a odeswith isqestionable in any event, it is one whih is hardly liely t o or in atal speeh asoperation of the equivalene onstraint demonstrates

his lapss provides ground for interesting speulat ion, whih we leave to the reader his qestionnaire was developed for the hiladelphia speeh ommnity by theProjet on inguisti hange and Variat ion under the diretion of Wil liam abov, andsbseqently adapted for se in the erto ian ommunity by he author

Note that the sentene itself ontans a swith he swithed segment was only odedfor the following syntati ategory if the ategory was proded in the la nguage other

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


St ll tart a ntn n San 6 1

hn h o he ch So n emple lke Pa ' much s sitios no coded oollong yncc cegoy

1 A conu uch lnguge o he enence hch ccodng o Wenz ( 1 977 1 8) e one n hch he deermner nd mn eb ere poduced doe no ppe o beopere o hee d, hey conn good number o code-ched erb (0 o o he d ) n lnguge ohe hn h o he deemner

1 Noun nd eb ere couned noun phre or erb phe repecely heyunconed uch hn he uence.

1 5 hree Spnh- domnn nd one blngul peker ee omed om hee clculon hey ech produced 15 oken o le.

1 I ould lke o hn k d Snko o mkng l ble eron o he rble uleprogrm hch cle h epe mlple egeon procedure

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Gngr ( 1 97) Problem n he decpon o Spnh-ngl h nr-enenl codechng. In G A ll (ed) Southw Arel Linuisis Sn ego Inue oCulurl Plulm

Gumpez ( 1 97 1 ) l ngulm bdleclm nd clroom necon n Lnguge

in Soil Goups Snord Snod Uney Pe( 9 7). he ocolnguc gncnce o coneronl code-chng Wokng Pper

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muncon n HenndezChez e l (d), EI Leguae de los Chianos Alngon:

Cene or Appled nguc.Gnd G. de (198). Tnsculurain e Jnt/erencia Lingstica en el Puerto io

Cempe ( 1898-1968 ogo nuo Cro y CueoHelmo, N ( 1 970) Codechg nd mode o pekng In G G lbe (d), Texs

Studie in Bilingulim. eln: Wler de Guye nd Co( 1 97 ) Code-chng odeed elecon n Fnch o l (d) Studiesr Einar

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ynx by oegn mgn orker In Snko (ed) Linguisti Vriion: Models and

Methods Ne York Acdemc Pre.LFonne H (1975) lngul educon or Pueo cn a no Pper peened

he Nonl Coneence on he duconl Need o he Puero cn n he UnedSe Cleelnd, ho.nce, (1975) Spnh-nglh codechng In HenndezChez e l (ed), EI

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(d), Th Fourh Lus Forum Columb S Honbem Pe

8/2/2019 Pop Lack A


1 8 S P/a

McC E nd h acon o concav copnc n a ca nE Gan E-G---7 na po

977 pc o cod-wchn n h dco o na Mcan-canchdn Wahnon DC Goown nv Ronda o Lana andLnc

McC E nd Wn J 97 Fncon o cod-wcn aon Mcan-canchdn n Pas Ih Paassi O FU ialism Chcao: Chcao LncSoc

Pan 976 h acon o h phonooca o a cod dac np hd hD daon: n v o nnvana

daa 97 Ehnoaphc ovaon o ana n E Bao nphd.

� C 97 Snacc conan on cod-wchn: a an av d oSpanhEn h a p pnd a h Lnc Soc o ca anna n

976 Fncona and ca conan on nacc vaaon n cod-wchnPas m h Passsi (I Diahi SYax Chcao: Chcao Lnc Soc

opac S 97 Dac acon aon o Rcan na La;ua i Si"

Vo. 7 o . 97a Snacc c and oca ncon o cod-wchn Cn o o Rcan

Sd Won ap * o appa n R Dn (d L{i Laua a

mmiai Bhavi w J hn Cop.

Roa and Sano D 97. dvanc n vaa hodoo n D San d Liguisi Vaiain Mls a Mh\ w Yo: cadc Sano D 975. VRBRL nphd poa and docnaonSano D and Laov W 979 n h o vaa Languag in Si vo

o L 97 Spanh-nh codwchn po ow-o-o Rma

Phillgy Vo o 4nd Sa Dpan o Lao 975 A SiEnmi Pl Pu Rian N

ks w Yo: Ba o ao SacVad-a G (976 Soca nacon and codwchn pan a ca d o

SpanhEnh anaon n G. K a d Bilinalism in Binnial an

Bn w Yo: B na

97 Codwchn a a da va a: a c oana o dc andndc aon na Chcano pa o appa n R Dn d Lai

Lana a Cuniai Bhai w J: hn CopVao C. 97 . Cnsiai!s njl)ia Pliia To a la Enaa l

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